4100 AWL/Thomas_ch01p001-072 8/19/04 10:50 AM Page 19

1.3 Functions and Their Graphs 19

1.3 Functions and Their Graphs

Functions are the major objects we deal with in calculus because they are key to describ-
ing the real world in mathematical terms. This section reviews the ideas of functions, their
graphs, and ways of representing them.

Functions; Domain and Range

The temperature at which water boils depends on the elevation above sea level (the boiling
point drops as you ascend). The interest paid on a cash investment depends on the length of
time the investment is held. The area of a circle depends on the radius of the circle. The dis-
tance an object travels from an initial location along a straight line path depends on its speed.
In each case, the value of one variable quantity, which we might call y, depends on the
value of another variable quantity, which we might call x. Since the value of y is com-
pletely determined by the value of x, we say that y is a function of x. Often the value of y is
given by a rule or formula that says how to calculate it from the variable x. For instance,
the equation A = pr 2 is a rule that calculates the area A of a circle from its radius r.
In calculus we may want to refer to an unspecified function without having any partic-
ular formula in mind. A symbolic way to say “y is a function of x” is by writing
y = ƒsxd s“y equals ƒ of x”d
In this notation, the symbol ƒ represents the function. The letter x, called the independent
variable, represents the input value of ƒ, and y, the dependent variable, represents the
corresponding output value of ƒ at x.

DEFINITION Function
A function from a set D to a set Y is a rule that assigns a unique (single) element
ƒsxd H Y to each element x H D.

The set D of all possible input values is called the domain of the function. The set of
all values of ƒ(x) as x varies throughout D is called the range of the function. The range
x f f (x) may not include every element in the set Y.
Input Output
(domain) (range) The domain and range of a function can be any sets of objects, but often in calculus
they are sets of real numbers. (In Chapters 13–16 many variables may be involved.)
FIGURE 1.22 A diagram showing a Think of a function ƒ as a kind of machine that produces an output value ƒ(x) in its
function as a kind of machine. range whenever we feed it an input value x from its domain (Figure 1.22). The function

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

4100 AWL/Thomas_ch01p001-072 8/19/04 10:50 AM Page 20

20 Chapter 1: Preliminaries

keys on a calculator give an example of a function as a machine. For instance, the 2x key
on a calculator gives an output value (the square root) whenever you enter a nonnegative
number x and press the 2x key. The output value appearing in the display is usually a deci-
mal approximation to the square root of x. If you input a number x 6 0, then the calculator
will indicate an error because x 6 0 is not in the domain of the function and cannot be ac-
cepted as an input. The 2x key on a calculator is not the same as the exact mathematical
function ƒ defined by ƒsxd = 2x because it is limited to decimal outputs and has only fi-
nitely many inputs.
A function can also be pictured as an arrow diagram (Figure 1.23). Each arrow
associates an element of the domain D to a unique or single element in the set Y. In Figure
x
1.23, the arrows indicate that ƒ(a) is associated with a, ƒ(x) is associated with x, and so on.
f (a) f (x)
The domain of a function may be restricted by context. For example, the domain of
a
the area function given by A = pr 2 only allows the radius r to be positive. When we de-
D  domain set Y  set containing fine a function y = ƒsxd with a formula and the domain is not stated explicitly or re-
the range stricted by context, the domain is assumed to be the largest set of real x-values for which
the formula gives real y-values, the so-called natural domain. If we want to restrict the
FIGURE 1.23 A function from a set D to
domain in some way, we must say so. The domain of y = x 2 is the entire set of real num-
a set Y assigns a unique element of Y to
bers. To restrict the function to, say, positive values of x, we would write “y = x 2, x 7 0.”
each element in D.
Changing the domain to which we apply a formula usually changes the range as well.
The range of y = x 2 is [0, q d. The range of y = x 2, x Ú 2, is the set of all numbers ob-
tained by squaring numbers greater than or equal to 2. In set notation, the range is
5x 2 ƒ x Ú 26 or 5y ƒ y Ú 46 or [4, q d.
When the range of a function is a set of real numbers, the function is said to be real-
valued. The domains and ranges of many real-valued functions of a real variable are inter-
vals or combinations of intervals. The intervals may be open, closed, or half open, and may
be finite or infinite.

EXAMPLE 1 Identifying Domain and Range

Verify the domains and ranges of these functions.

Function Domain (x) Range (y)

y = x2 s - q, q d [0, q d
y = 1/x s - q , 0d ´ s0, q d s - q , 0d ´ s0, q d
y = 2x [0, q d [0, q d
y = 24 - x s - q , 4] [0, q d
y = 21 - x 2 [-1, 1] [0, 1]

Solution The formula y = x 2 gives a real y-value for any real number x, so the domain
is s - q , q d. The range of y = x 2 is [0, q d because the square of any real number is
nonnegative and every nonnegative number y is the square of its own square root,
y = A 2y B 2 for y Ú 0.
The formula y = 1>x gives a real y-value for every x except x = 0. We cannot divide
any number by zero. The range of y = 1>x, the set of reciprocals of all nonzero real num-
bers, is the set of all nonzero real numbers, since y = 1>(1>y).
The formula y = 2x gives a real y-value only if x Ú 0. The range of y = 2x is
[0, q d because every nonnegative number is some number’s square root (namely, it is the
square root of its own square).

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

4100 AWL/Thomas_ch01p001-072 8/19/04 10:50 AM Page 21

1.3 Functions and Their Graphs 21

In y = 24 - x, the quantity 4 - x cannot be negative. That is, 4 - x Ú 0, or

x … 4. The formula gives real y-values for all x … 4. The range of 24 - x is [0, q d,
the set of all nonnegative numbers.
The formula y = 21 - x 2 gives a real y-value for every x in the closed interval
from -1 to 1. Outside this domain, 1 - x 2 is negative and its square root is not a real
number. The values of 1 - x 2 vary from 0 to 1 on the given domain, and the square roots
of these values do the same. The range of 21 - x 2 is [0, 1].

Graphs of Functions
Another way to visualize a function is its graph. If ƒ is a function with domain D, its graph
consists of the points in the Cartesian plane whose coordinates are the input-output pairs
for ƒ. In set notation, the graph is
5sx, ƒsxdd ƒ x H D6.
The graph of the function ƒsxd = x + 2 is the set of points with coordinates (x, y) for
which y = x + 2. Its graph is sketched in Figure 1.24.
The graph of a function ƒ is a useful picture of its behavior. If (x, y) is a point on the
graph, then y = ƒsxd is the height of the graph above the point x. The height may be posi-
tive or negative, depending on the sign of ƒsxd (Figure 1.25).

y f (1)
f (2)

x
yx2 x
0 1 2
2 f(x)
(x, y)
x
–2 0

FIGURE 1.24 The graph of FIGURE 1.25 If (x, y) lies on the graph of
ƒsxd = x + 2 is the set of points (x, y) for f, then the value y = ƒsxd is the height of
x y
x2 which y has the value x + 2 . the graph above the point x (or below x if
ƒ(x) is negative).
-2 4
-1 1
0 0
1 1 EXAMPLE 2 Sketching a Graph
3 9 Graph the function y = x 2 over the interval [-2, 2].
2 4
2 4 Solution
1. Make a table of xy-pairs that satisfy the function rule, in this case the equation y = x 2 .

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

4100 AWL/Thomas_ch01p001-072 8/19/04 10:50 AM Page 22

22 Chapter 1: Preliminaries

2. Plot the points (x, y) whose 3. Draw a smooth curve through the
coordinates appear in the table. Use plotted points. Label the curve with
fractions when they are convenient its equation.
computationally.

y y

(–2, 4) (2, 4)
4 4
y  x2
3 3
3 , 9
2 2 4 2

(–1, 1) 1 (1, 1) 1

x x
–2 –1 0 1 2 –2 –1 0 1 2

Computers and graphing calculators How do we know that the graph of y = x 2 doesn’t look like one of these curves?
graph functions in much this way—by
stringing together plotted points—and y y
the same question arises.

y  x 2? y  x 2?

x x

To find out, we could plot more points. But how would we then connect them? The
basic question still remains: How do we know for sure what the graph looks like
between the points we plot? The answer lies in calculus, as we will see in Chapter 4.
There we will use the derivative to find a curve’s shape between plotted points. Mean-
while we will have to settle for plotting points and connecting them as best we can.

EXAMPLE 3 Evaluating a Function from Its Graph

p The graph of a fruit fly population p is shown in Figure 1.26.
350 (a) Find the populations after 20 and 45 days.
300
250
(b) What is the (approximate) range of the population function over the time interval
200 0 … t … 50?
150
100 Solution
50
0 t (a) We see from Figure 1.26 that the point (20, 100) lies on the graph, so the value of the
10 20 30 40 50
population p at 20 is ps20d = 100. Likewise, p(45) is about 340.
Time (days)
(b) The range of the population function over 0 … t … 50 is approximately [0, 345]. We
FIGURE 1.26 Graph of a fruit fly also observe that the population appears to get closer and closer to the value p = 350
population versus time (Example 3). as time advances.

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

4100 AWL/Thomas_ch01p001-072 8/19/04 10:50 AM Page 23

1.3 Functions and Their Graphs 23

Representing a Function Numerically

We have seen how a function may be represented algebraically by a formula (the area
function) and visually by a graph (Examples 2 and 3). Another way to represent a function
is numerically, through a table of values. Numerical representations are often used by en-
gineers and applied scientists. From an appropriate table of values, a graph of the function
can be obtained using the method illustrated in Example 2, possibly with the aid of a com-
puter. The graph of only the tabled points is called a scatterplot.

EXAMPLE 4 A Function Defined by a Table of Values

Musical notes are pressure waves in the air that can be recorded. The data in Table 1.2 give
recorded pressure displacement versus time in seconds of a musical note produced by a
tuning fork. The table provides a representation of the pressure function over time. If we
first make a scatterplot and then connect the data points (t, p) from the table, we obtain the
graph shown in Figure 1.27.

p (pressure)
TABLE 1.2 Tuning fork data
1.0
Time Pressure Time Pressure Data
0.8
0.6
0.00091 -0.080 0.00362 0.217 0.4
0.00108 0.200 0.00379 0.480 0.2
t (sec)
0.00125 0.480 0.00398 0.681 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007
–0.2
–0.4
0.00144 0.693 0.00416 0.810 –0.6
0.00162 0.816 0.00435 0.827
0.00180 0.844 0.00453 0.749 FIGURE 1.27 A smooth curve through the plotted points
0.00198 0.771 0.00471 0.581 gives a graph of the pressure function represented by
0.00216 0.603 0.00489 0.346 Table 1.2.
0.00234 0.368 0.00507 0.077
0.00253 0.099 0.00525 -0.164
0.00271 -0.141 0.00543 -0.320
0.00289 -0.309 0.00562 -0.354
0.00307 -0.348 0.00579 -0.248
0.00325 -0.248 0.00598 -0.035
0.00344 -0.041

The Vertical Line Test

Not every curve you draw is the graph of a function. A function ƒ can have only one value
ƒ(x) for each x in its domain, so no vertical line can intersect the graph of a function more
than once. Thus, a circle cannot be the graph of a function since some vertical lines inter-
sect the circle twice (Figure 1.28a). If a is in the domain of a function ƒ, then the vertical
line x = a will intersect the graph of ƒ in the single point (a, ƒ(a)).
The circle in Figure 1.28a, however, does contain the graphs of two functions of x; the
upper semicircle defined by the function ƒsxd = 21 - x 2 and the lower semicircle de-
fined by the function gsxd = - 21 - x 2 (Figures 1.28b and 1.28c).

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

4100 AWL/Thomas_ch01p001-072 8/19/04 10:50 AM Page 24

24 Chapter 1: Preliminaries

y y y

–1 1
x x x
–1 0 1 –1 0 1 0

(a) x 2  y 2  1 (b) y  兹1  x 2 (c) y  –兹1  x 2

FIGURE 1.28 (a) The circle is not the graph of a function; it fails the vertical line test. (b) The upper semicircle is the graph of a function
ƒsxd = 21 - x 2 . (c) The lower semicircle is the graph of a function gsxd = - 21 - x 2 .

y Piecewise-Defined Functions
y 
x

y  –x 3 Sometimes a function is described by using different formulas on different parts of its do-
yx main. One example is the absolute value function
2

ƒxƒ = e
1
x, x Ú 0
-x, x 6 0,
x
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
whose graph is given in Figure 1.29. Here are some other examples.
FIGURE 1.29 The absolute value
function has domain s - q , q d EXAMPLE 5 Graphing Piecewise-Defined Functions
and range [0, q d . The function
-x, x 6 0
ƒsxd = • x 2, 0 … x … 1
1, x 7 1
y
is defined on the entire real line but has values given by different formulas depending on
y  –x y  f (x)
the position of x. The values of ƒ are given by: y = -x when x 6 0, y = x 2 when
2
0 … x … 1, and y = 1 when x 7 1. The function, however, is just one function whose
y1
1 domain is the entire set of real numbers (Figure 1.30).
y  x2
x EXAMPLE 6 The Greatest Integer Function
–2 –1 0 1 2
The function whose value at any number x is the greatest integer less than or equal to x is
FIGURE 1.30 To graph the called the greatest integer function or the integer floor function. It is denoted :x; , or,
function y = ƒsxd shown here, in some books, [x] or [[x]] or int x. Figure 1.31 shows the graph. Observe that
:2.4; = 2, :1.9; = 1, :0; = 0, : -1.2; = -2,
we apply different formulas to
different parts of its domain
(Example 5). :2; = 2, :0.2; = 0, : -0.3; = -1 : -2; = -2.

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

4100 AWL/Thomas_ch01p001-072 8/19/04 10:50 AM Page 25

1.3 Functions and Their Graphs 25

y FIGURE 1.31 The graph of the

yx greatest integer function y = :x;
3 lies on or below the line y = x , so
2 it provides an integer floor for x
y  x (Example 6).
1
x
–2 –1 1 2 3

–2

y EXAMPLE 7 The Least Integer Function

y
x The function whose value at any number x is the smallest integer greater than or equal to
x is called the least integer function or the integer ceiling function. It is denoted < x = .
3

2 Figure 1.32 shows the graph. For positive values of x, this function might represent, for ex-
y
x
1 ample, the cost of parking x hours in a parking lot which charges $1 for each hour or part
x
of an hour.
–2 –1 1 2 3
–1 EXAMPLE 8 Writing Formulas for Piecewise-Defined Functions
–2
Write a formula for the function y = ƒsxd whose graph consists of the two line segments
in Figure 1.33.
FIGURE 1.32 The graph of the
least integer function y = < x = lies Solution We find formulas for the segments from (0, 0) to (1, 1), and from (1, 0) to
on or above the line y = x , so it (2, 1) and piece them together in the manner of Example 5.
provides an integer ceiling for x
Segment from (0, 0) to (1, 1) The line through (0, 0) and (1, 1) has slope
(Example 7).
m = s1 - 0d>s1 - 0d = 1 and y-intercept b = 0. Its slope-intercept equation is y = x.
The segment from (0, 0) to (1, 1) that includes the point (0, 0) but not the point (1, 1) is the
graph of the function y = x restricted to the half-open interval 0 … x 6 1, namely,
y = x, 0 … x 6 1.
y Segment from (1, 0) to (2, 1) The line through (1, 0) and (2, 1) has slope
y  f (x) m = s1 - 0d>s2 - 1d = 1 and passes through the point (1, 0). The corresponding point-
(1, 1) (2, 1)
slope equation for the line is
1
y = 0 + 1(x - 1), or y = x - 1.
The segment from (1, 0) to (2, 1) that includes both endpoints is the graph of y = x - 1
x restricted to the closed interval 1 … x … 2, namely,
0 1 2
y = x - 1, 1 … x … 2.
FIGURE 1.33 The segment on the Piecewise formula Combining the formulas for the two pieces of the graph, we obtain
left contains (0, 0) but not (1, 1).
ƒsxd = e
The segment on the right contains x, 0 … x 6 1
both of its endpoints (Example 8). x - 1, 1 … x … 2.

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

4100 AWL/Thomas_ch01p001-072 8/19/04 10:50 AM Page 26

26 Chapter 1: Preliminaries

EXERCISES 1.3

Functions 12. Express the side length of a square as a function of the length d of
the square’s diagonal. Then express the area as a function of the
In Exercises 1–6, find the domain and range of each function.
diagonal length.
1. ƒsxd = 1 + x 2 2. ƒsxd = 1 - 2x 13. Express the edge length of a cube as a function of the cube’s diag-
1 1 onal length d. Then express the surface area and volume of the
3. F std = 4. F std = cube as a function of the diagonal length.
2t 1 + 2t
1 14. A point P in the first quadrant lies on the graph of the function
5. g szd = 24 - z 2
6. g szd = ƒsxd = 2x . Express the coordinates of P as functions of the
24 - z 2 slope of the line joining P to the origin.
In Exercises 7 and 8, which of the graphs are graphs of functions of x,
and which are not? Give reasons for your answers.
7. a. y b. y Functions and Graphs
Find the domain and graph the functions in Exercises 15–20.

15. ƒsxd = 5 - 2x 16. ƒsxd = 1 - 2x - x 2

17. g sxd = 2ƒ x ƒ 18. g sxd = 2-x
19. F std = t> ƒ t ƒ 20. G std = 1> ƒ t ƒ
21. Graph the following equations and explain why they are not
x x graphs of functions of x.
0 0
a. ƒ y ƒ = x b. y 2 = x 2
22. Graph the following equations and explain why they are not
8. a. y b. y
graphs of functions of x.
a. ƒ x ƒ + ƒ y ƒ = 1 b. ƒ x + y ƒ = 1

Piecewise-Defined Functions
Graph the functions in Exercises 23–26.

23. ƒsxd = e
x x x, 0 … x … 1
0 0
2 - x, 1 6 x … 2

24. g sxd = e
1 - x, 0 … x … 1
9. Consider the function y = 2s1>xd - 1 .
2 - x, 1 6 x … 2
a. Can x be negative?
25. F sxd = e
3 - x, x … 1
b. Can x = 0 ?
2x , x 7 1
c. Can x be greater than 1?
26. G sxd = e
1>x , x 6 0
d. What is the domain of the function? x, 0 … x
10. Consider the function y = 22 - 1x . 27. Find a formula for each function graphed.
a. Can x be negative? a. b.
y y
b. Can 2x be greater than 2?
c. What is the domain of the function? (1, 1)
1 2

Finding Formulas for Functions x t

0 2 0 1 2 3 4
11. Express the area and perimeter of an equilateral triangle as a
function of the triangle’s side length x.

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

4100 AWL/Thomas_ch01p001-072 8/19/04 10:50 AM Page 27

1.3 Functions and Their Graphs 27

28. a. y b. y Theory and Examples

37. A box with an open top is to be constructed from a rectangular piece
2 3
(2, 1) of cardboard with dimensions 14 in. by 22 in. by cutting out equal
2 squares of side x at each corner and then folding up the sides as in
x
2 5 1 the figure. Express the volume V of the box as a function of x.
x
–1 1 2 22
–1
(2, –1) x x
–2 x x
–3 14
x x
x x

29. a. y b. y
38. The figure shown here shows a rectangle inscribed in an isosceles
(–1, 1) (1, 1) 2 right triangle whose hypotenuse is 2 units long.
1
a. Express the y-coordinate of P in terms of x. (You might start
x
3 x by writing an equation for the line AB.)
1
(–2, –1) (1, –1) (3, –1) b. Express the area of the rectangle in terms of x.
y
30. a. y b. y
(T, 1) B
1
A

t P(x, ?)
0 T T 3T 2T
2 2
x –A
0 T T A x
2 –1 0 x 1

T 31. a. Graph the functions ƒsxd = x>2 and g sxd = 1 + s4>xd to-
gether to identify the values of x for which 39. A cone problem Begin with a circular piece of paper with a 4
x 4 in. radius as shown in part (a). Cut out a sector with an arc length
7 1 + x.
2 of x. Join the two edges of the remaining portion to form a cone
b. Confirm your findings in part (a) algebraically. with radius r and height h, as shown in part (b).
T 32. a. Graph the functions ƒsxd = 3>sx - 1d and g sxd = 2>sx + 1d
together to identify the values of x for which
3 2
6 .
x - 1 x + 1
b. Confirm your findings in part (a) algebraically.
4 in.
The Greatest and Least Integer Functions 4 in.
h
33. For what values of x is
a. :x; = 0 ? b. < x = = 0 ? x r

34. What real numbers x satisfy the equation :x; = < x = ? (a) (b)
35. Does < -x = = - :x; for all real x? Give reasons for your answer.
a. Explain why the circumference of the base of the cone is
36. Graph the function
8p - x .
:x;,
ƒsxd = e
x Ú 0 b. Express the radius r as a function of x .
<x=, x 6 0 c. Express the height h as a function of x .
Why is ƒ(x) called the integer part of x? d. Express the volume V of the cone as a function of x.

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

4100 AWL/Thomas_ch01p001-072 8/19/04 10:50 AM Page 28

28 Chapter 1: Preliminaries

40. Industrial costs Dayton Power and Light, Inc., has a power plant. Write a function C (x) that gives the cost of laying the
plant on the Miami River where the river is 800 ft wide. To lay a cable in terms of the distance x.
new cable from the plant to a location in the city 2 mi downstream b. Generate a table of values to determine if the least expensive
on the opposite side costs $180 per foot across the river and $100 location for point Q is less than 2000 ft or greater than 2000 ft
per foot along the land. from point P.
41. For a curve to be symmetric about the x-axis, the point (x, y) must
2 mi
P x Q Dayton lie on the curve if and only if the point sx, -yd lies on the curve.
Explain why a curve that is symmetric about the x-axis is not the
graph of a function, unless the function is y = 0 .
800 ft 42. A magic trick You may have heard of a magic trick that goes
like this: Take any number. Add 5. Double the result. Subtract 6.
Divide by 2. Subtract 2. Now tell me your answer, and I’ll tell you
Power plant
what you started with. Pick a number and try it.
(Not to scale)
You can see what is going on if you let x be your original
number and follow the steps to make a formula ƒ(x) for the num-
a. Suppose that the cable goes from the plant to a point Q on the ber you end up with.
opposite side that is x ft from the point P directly opposite the

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley