2023 Jacaranda Units 3 4

“c01FunctionsAndGraphs_PrintPDF” — 2022/6/30 — 15:13 — page 1 — #1
1 Functions and graphs

LEARNING SEQUENCE
1.1 Overview ....................................................................................................................................................................2
1.2 Linear functions ...................................................................................................................................................... 3
1.3 Solving systems of equations ......................................................................................................................... 11
1.4 Quadratic functions ............................................................................................................................................ 18
1.5 Cubic functions .................................................................................................................................................... 28
1.6 Higher degree polynomials .............................................................................................................................. 40
1.7 Other algebraic functions ................................................................................................................................. 50
1.8 Combinations of functions ............................................................................................................................... 66
1.9 Modelling and applications ..............................................................................................................................77
1.10 Review ..................................................................................................................................................................... 82
Fully worked solutions for this topic are available online.

1.1 Overview
Hey students! Bring these pages to life online
Watch Engage with Answer questions
videos interactivities and check results
Find all this and MORE in jacPLUS
1.1.1 Introduction
Solving algebraic problems is one of the oldest processes in
mathematics; however, it wasn’t until the fifteenth century
that the practical notation we use today was created. Before
this, all equations were written out in words. As far back as
ancient Egypt and Babylon, people were solving linear and
quadratic equations, and the current solving processes are
similar to the original methods. It took until the sixteenth
century for a group of Italian mathematicians to solve the
general cubic equation.
The word ‘polynomial’, coming from the Greek poly and
the Latin nomen (name), was first used in the seventeenth
century. Polynomials have many applications in a range of industries: in engineering, a polynomial might be
used to model the curves of rollercoasters or bridges; in economics, a combination of polynomial functions
might be used to do cost analyses; and in physics, polynomials are used to describe energy, inertia and voltage
difference, as well as the trajectories of moving objects.
KEY CONCEPTS
This topic covers the following key concepts from the VCE Mathematics Study Design:
• graphs of the following functions: power functions, y = xn , n ∈ Q; exponential functions, y = ax , a ∈ R+ ,

• graphs of polynomial functions and their key features
in particular y = ex ; logarithmic functions, y = loge (x) and y = log10 (x); and circular functions,
y = sin (x) , y = cos (x) and y = tan (x) and their key features
• modelling of practical situations using polynomial, power, exponential and logarithmic functions,
simple transformation and combinations of these functions, including simple piecewise (hybrid)
functions
• solution of polynomial equations with real coefficients of degree n having up to n real solutions,
• solution of equations of the form f (x) = g (x) over a specified interval, where f and g are functions of
including numerical solutions
the type specified in the ‘Functions, relations and graphs’ area of study, by graphical, numerical and
algebraic methods, as applicable
• solution of simple systems of simultaneous linear equations, including consideration of cases where no
solution or an infinite number of possible solutions exist (geometric interpretation only required for two
equations in two variables).
Note: Concepts shown in grey are covered in other topics.
Source: VCE Mathematics Study Design (2023–2027) extracts © VCAA; reproduced by permission.
2 Jacaranda Maths Quest 12 Mathematical Methods VCE Units 3 & 4 Third Edition
1.2 Linear functions

LEARNING INTENTION
At the end of this subtopic you should be able to:
• define a function
• sketch and determine a linear function
• determine the midpoint and distance between two points.
1.2.1 Functions
A function is a set of ordered pairs in which each x-value is paired to a unique y-value. A vertical line will
intersect the graph of a function at most once. This is known as the vertical line test for a function.
A horizontal line may intersect the graph of a function once, in which case the function has a one-to-one
correspondence, or the horizontal line may intersect the graph more than once, in which case the function has
a many-to-one correspondence.
The domain of a function is the set of x-values in the ordered pairs, and the range is the set of the y-values of
the ordered pairs.
As a mapping, a function is written f ∶ D → R, f (x) = . . . , where the ordered pairs of the function f are formed
set R according to the function rule f (x) = . . . Not all of the available y-values may be required for a particular
using each of the x-values in the domain D and pairing them with a unique y-value drawn from the co-domain
mapping; this is dependent on the function rule.
notation for the straight line y = 2x is f ∶ R → R, f (x) = 2x.

For any polynomial function, the implied or maximal domain is R. For example, the mapping or function
Under this mapping, the image of 3, or the value of f at 3, is f (3) = 2 × 3 = 6, and the ordered pair (3, 6) lies on
the line of the function.
If only that part of the line y = 2x where the x-values are positive was required, then this straight line function
g ∶ R+ → R, g (x) = 2x.
would be defined on a restricted domain, a subset of the maximal domain, and this would be written as
WORKED EXAMPLE 1 Recognising functions
Part of the graph of the parabola y = x2 is shown in the diagram. y

a. Explain why the graph is a function and state the type of
correspondence. (3, 9)
b. State the domain and range.
d. Calculate the value of y when x = − 2.

c. Express the given parabola using function notation.
√
(–2, 4)
y = x2
(0, 0) x
TOPIC 1 Functions and graphs 3

THINK WRITE
a. 1. Use the vertical line test to explain why the a. This is a function because any vertical line that
graph is of a function. intersects the graph does so in exactly one place.
2. State the type of correspondence. A horizontal line could cut the graph in up to two
places. The correspondence is many-to-one.
b. 1. State the domain. b. Reading from left to right horizontally in the x-axis
direction, the domain is (−2, 3].
2. State the range. Reading from bottom to top vertically in the y-axis
direction, the range is [0, 9].
f : (−2, 3] → R, f (x) = x2 .
c. Use the domain and the function rule to form the c. Let the function be f. As a mapping, it is
mapping.
= x2
Let x = − 2.
d. Calculate the required value. d. f (x)√
f − 2 = − 2
( √ ) ( √ )2
=2
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Vertical and horizontal line tests (int-2570)
1.2.2 The linear polynomial function

Two points are needed in order to determine the equation of a line. When sketching an oblique line by hand,
usually the two points used are the x- and y-intercepts. If the line passes through the origin, then one other point
needs to be determined from its equation.
y2 − y1
Gradient
The gradient, or slope, of a line may be calculated from m =
x2 − x1
.
This remains constant between any pair of points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) on the line.
y
A
The linear function either increases or decreases steadily. (x1, y1)
perpendicular lines is equal to −1. That is:

Parallel lines have the same gradient, and the product of the gradients of
B (x2, y2)
0 x
Gradient
m = x22 −x11
y −y
m1 = m2 for parallel lines

and m1 m2 = −1 for perpendicular lines.
gradient by the relationship m = tan (𝜃). The angle 𝜃 is acute if the gradient is positive and obtuse if the gradient
The angle of inclination of an oblique line with the positive direction of the x-axis can be calculated from the
is negative.
Equation of a line
The equation of a straight line can be expressed in the form y = mx + c, where m is the gradient of the line and
c is the y-value of the intercept the line makes with the y-axis.
If a point (x1 , y1 ) and the gradient m are known, the equation of a line can be calculated from the point–gradient
form, y − y1 = m (x − x1 ).
Oblique lines are one-to-one functions.
Horizontal lines run parallel to the x-axis and have the equation y = c. These are many-to-one functions.
Vertical lines rise parallel to the y-axis and have the equation x = k. These lines are not functions.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2 Sketching a linear graph
Consider the line L where L = {(x, y) ∶ 2x + 3y = 12}.

a. Sketch the line.
b. Calculate the gradient of the line.
a. 2x + 3y = 12
THINK WRITE
y-intercept: let x = 0.
a. 1. Calculate the x- and y-intercepts.
3y = 12
y=4
x-intercept: Let y = 0.
The y-intercept is (0, 4).
2x = 12
x=6
The x-intercept is (6, 0).
2. Sketch the graph. y
(0, 4) 2x + 3y = 12
(6, 0)
0 x
b. Rearrange the equation in the form y = mx + c b. 2x + 3y = 12

3y = −2x + 12
−2x
y= +4
and state the gradient.
m=
Note: The gradient could also be calculated using
The gradient is m = − .
rise 3
from the diagram. 2
run
3
WORKED EXAMPLE 3 Determining linear equations
Determine the equation, in the form ax + by + c = 0, for the line:

a. passing through the point (2, 3) and parallel to the line with equation y − 3x + 5 = 0
b. passing through the point (−1, 6) and perpendicular to the line with equation 2y + 4x = −10.
a. 1. Convert the equation into the form y = mx + c a. y − 3x + 5 = 0

THINK WRITE
y = 3x − 5
∴ m=3
and state the gradient of the parallel line. This
is also the gradient of the desired line.

2. State the gradient–point form of a straight y − y1 = m (x − x1 )
y − 3 = 3 (x − 2)
line equation.
y − 3 = 3x − 6
3. Substitute the given point (2, 3) and the
y = 3x − 3
gradient, and simplify.
y = 3x − 3
ax + by + c = 0. y − 3x + 3 = 0
4. Rearrange the formula into the required form,
b. 1. Convert the equation into the form y = mx + c b. 2y + 4x = −10

2y = −4x − 10
y = −2x − 5
and state the gradient of the perpendicular
∴ m = −2
line.
m1 × m2 = −1
−2 × m2 = −1
2. Calculate the gradient of the desired line.
∴ m2 =
1
2

line equation.
y−6 = (x + 1)
1
4. Substitute the given point (−1, 6) and the
y−6 = x+
gradient, and simplify. 2
1 1
y = x+
2 2
1 13
2 2
y = x+
1 13
ax + by + c = 0.
5. Rearrange the formula into the required form,
2y = x + 13
2 2
2y − x − 13 = 0
WORKED EXAMPLE 4 Gradients and linear equations
line that passes through the points (−3, −2) and (4, 1).
a. Calculate, correct to 1 decimal place, the angle made with the positive direction of the x-axis by the
b. Determine the equation of the line that passes through the point (5, 2) at an angle of 45°.
y2 − y1
THINK WRITE
a. m =
x2 − x1
a. 1. Determine the gradient of the line passing
1+2
=
between the given points.
4+3
=
3
7
tan (𝜃) = m
tan (𝜃) =
2. State the relationship between the angle and
the gradient. 3
7
3. Calculate 𝜃, correct to 1 decimal place. 𝜃 = tan−1

( )
3
= 23.2°
7
b. tan (𝜃) = m
m = tan (45°)
b. 1. Determine the gradient from the given angle.
=1
y − 2 = 1 (x − 5)
line equation.
y−2 = x−5
3. Substitute the given point (5, 2) and the
y = x−3
gradient, and simplify.
1.2.3 Midpoint and distance between two points

Midpoint between two points
The midpoint, M, of a line cuts the line exactly in half, so M is equidistant y
from points A and B. (x2, y2) B
The coordinates of M are found by averaging the x- and y-coordinates of
points A and B. M
Midpoint between two points A
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
(x1, y1)
M= ,
( ) x
0
2 2
Distance between two points

The distance between two points is the length of that line segment. y
y2 − y1 and horizontal length x2 − x1 . Applying Pythagoras’ theorem, the

Essentially, a right-angled triangle can be constructed with vertical height B (x2, y2)
formula for the distance between two points is as follows. y2 – y1
A x2 – x1
Distance between two points (x1, y1)
d = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2
√
0 x

WORKED EXAMPLE 5 Calculating the midpoint and distance between two points
Given the points (−3, 5) and (4, − 6), calculate:

a. the midpoint, M, between the two points
b. the distance between the two points.
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
THINK WRITE
a. M = ,
( )
a. 1. Write the formula for finding the midpoint between
−3 + 4 5 − 6
2 2
M= ,
two points. ( )
Substitute the x- and y-coordinates and simplify.
( 2 ) 2
= ,−
Note: It doesn’t matter which is point 1 and which is
point 2. 1 1
2 2
b. d = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2
√
b. 1. Write the distance formula.
d= (4 + 3)2 + (−6 − 5)2

√
2. Substitute the two points into the equation and simplify.
= 72 + (−11)2
√
Note: It doesn’t matter which is point 1 and which is
= 49 + 121
point 2. √
= 170
√
√
3. State the final answer. The distance is 170 units.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities Equations from point–gradient and gradient–y-intercept form (int-2551)
Midpoint of a line segment and the perpendicular bisector (int-2553)
Roots, zeros and factors (int-2557)
1.2 Exercise
Students, these questions are even better in jacPLUS

Receive immediate Access Track your
feedback and access additional results and
sample responses questions progress
1. WE1 Part of the graph of the parabola y = x2 is shown in the diagram.

Technology free y
(–4, 16)
a. Explain why the graph shows a function and state the type of
correspondence.
b. State the domain and range. y = x2
d. Calculate the value of y when x = −2

c. Express the given parabola using function notation.
√
3. (2, 4)
0 x
2. For each of the following, state:

i. the type of correspondence
ii. the domain and the range
iii. whether or not the relation is a function.
a. b. y
(– –32 , 7( y
(–3, 5) (0, 4)
(1, 0)
0 x
(0, 0) x
(6, –6)
(–92 , –9(
c. y d. y
(0, 2)
(0, 2)
(3, 0)
(–2, 0) 0 (2, 0) x
0 x
(0, –2)
e. y f. y
(2, 8)
(0, 2)
0 x
0 x
(–2, –8)
3. WE2 Consider the line L where L = {(x, y) ∶ 3x − 4y = 12} .

a. Sketch the line.
b. Calculate the gradient of the line.
4. Sketch the following linear functions and state the range of each.
a. f ∶ R → R, f (x) = 9 − 4x b. g ∶ (−3, 5] → R, g(x) =

3x
c. 2x + y = 4, x ∈ [−2, 4) d. y = + 5, x ∈ [−1, 5]
5
2x
3
a. with a gradient of −3 and passing through the point (2, 6)

5. Determine the equation of the line:
b. passing through the points (−2, −4) and (1, 5).

Determine the equation, in the form ax + by + c = 0, for the line:

a. passing through the point (−1, 4) and parallel to the line with equation y + 2x − 3 = 0
6. WE3
b. passing through the point (2, 3) and perpendicular to the line with equation 3y − 6x = 4.
Technology active
7. WE4 Determine:
a. the angle made with the positive direction fo the x-axis by the line that passes through the points (2,1) and
(8,−4) correct to 1 decimal place
b. the equation of the line that passes through the point (−2, 4) at an angle of 45°.
8. a. WE5 Given the points (2, 0) and (6, −4) calculate:

i. the midpoint, M, between the two points
b. Given the points (−3, −2) and (4, 3), calculate:

ii. the distance between the two points.
i. the midpoint, M, between the two points

ii. the distance between the two points.
9. Determine the value of a when:
a. the midpoint of (a, 4) and (10, −2) is (8, 1) b. the midpoint of (6, a) and (−3, −2) is ,
( )
3 5
d. the distance between (a, 4) and (−2, −2) is 45.

2 2
√ √
c. the distance between (1, a) and (4, 6) is 73
10. Consider the three points A (5, −3), B (7, 8) and C (−2, p). The line through A and C is parallel to
9x + 7y = 24.
a. Calculate the value of p.
b. Determine the equation of the line through B that is perpendicular to AC.
c. Calculate the shortest distance from B to AC, expressing the value to 1 decimal place.
1.2 Exam questions
Question 1 (1 mark) TECH-ACTIVE
( (1, −5) to
Source: VCE 2013, Mathematical Methods (CAS) Exam 2, Section 1, Q2; © VCAA.
d+1 3 1−d 7 d−4

The
( midpoint of
) the line segment that joins ) (d, 2) is
,− ,− ,0
MC
( )
A. B. C.
1−d 5+d
2 2 2 2 2
,2
( ) ( )
D. 0, E.
3 2
The linear function f ∶ D → R, f (x) = 4 − x has range [−2, 6).

MC
The domain D of the function is

A. [−2, 6) B. [−2, 2) C. R D. (−2, 6] E. [−6, 2)
The gradient of a line perpendicular to the line that passes through (3, 1) and (0, −5) is
C. − D. −6 E. −2
MC
1 1
A. B. 2
2 2
More exam questions are available online.
1.3 Solving systems of equations

LEARNING INTENTION
• solve simultaneous equations with two and three variables.
1.3.1 Solving simultaneous equations with two variables

Three possible scenarios exist when we are dealing with two linear simultaneous equations. There may be one
solution only, there may be no solutions, or there may be infinitely many solutions.
One solution If the two straight lines intersect each other at only one y
place, we have one solution. This indicates that the
gradients of the two equations are different.
0 x
No solution If the two straight lines have the same gradient, they are y
parallel lines, so they never meet. Therefore, there are
no solutions to the simultaneous equations. Although the
gradients of the lines are the same, the y-intercepts are
different.
0 x
Infinitely If the two straight lines have the same equation, one y
many line lies on top of the other and there are infinitely many
solutions solutions. Both the gradients and the y-intercepts are
identical.
0 x
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities Solving systems of equations (int-2549)
Intersecting, parallel and identical lines (int-2552)

WORKED EXAMPLE 6 Determining unique solutions
Determine the value of k for which the following simultaneous equations have a unique solution.
kx + 3y = 1
4x + 3ky = 0
kx + 3y = 1
THINK WRITE
4x + 3ky = 0
1. Label the equations. [1]
[2]
[1] ⇒ kx + 3y = 1
3y = 1 − kx
2. There will be a unique solution for all values
1 − kx
y=
of k, except when the gradients of the two lines
equations in the general form, y = mx + c.

are the same. To find the gradient, write the
∴ m=−
3
k
[2] ⇒ 4x + 3ky = 0
3
3ky = −4x
−4x
y=
∴ m=−
3k
4
3k
− =−
k 4
3. Equate the gradients and solve for k.
3k2 = 12
3 3k
k2 = 4
k = ±2
k ∈ R \ {−2, 2}
This solution tells us that if k = ± 2, the
4. Write the solution.
equations will have the same gradient, so for

any other value of k, there will be a unique
solution.
1.3.2 Simultaneous equations with three variables

An equation with two variables defines a line. An equation with three variables defines a plane. If an equation
has three variables, there needs to be three different equations for us to be able to solve for the point at which the
three planes intersect (if in fact they do intersect at a single point).
There are a number of different possible outcomes when planes intersect.
No solution One unique solution Infinitely many solutions
The planes are identical.
Planes are parallel to one another.
There is a single point at which all

three planes intersect. The planes intersect along a line.
There is no common point of
intersection.
When solving three simultaneous equations without technology, the strategy is to eliminate one of the variables
and reduce the three equations with three unknowns to two equations with two unknowns.
Solving simultaneous equations with technology becomes a straightforward problem in CAS by using the inbuilt
functions.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7 Solving simultaneous equations with three unknowns
Solve the following system of simultaneous equations.
2x − 3y + 2z = −5
x − 5y + z = 1
2x + 3y + z = −2
2x − 3y + 2z = −5
THINK WRITE
x − 5y + z = 1
1. Label the equations and determine which [1]
2x + 3y + z = −2
of the three pronumerals you are going to [2]
eliminate. [3]
Either x or z would be appropriate choices, as
the coefficients in all three equations are either
the same or a multiple of the other.
[3] − [2] ⇒ x + 8y = −3 [4]

Let us eliminate z.
2. Subtract equation [2] from [3] to eliminate z
[3] × 2 ⇒ 4x + 6y + 2z = −4 [5]
and label this equation [4].
3. We need another equation without z. In order
to subtract equation [1] from [3], multiply
[5] − [1] ⇒ 2x + 9y = 1
equation [3] by 2. Label this equation [5].
4. Subtract equation [1] from the newly formed [6]
[5] to eliminate z and label this equation [6].

x + 8y = −3 [4]
2x + 9y = 1
5. We now have two equations with only x and y.
[4] × 2 ⇒ 2x + 16y = −6 [7]

[6]
6. The standard elimination method will be
used to solve this pair of simultaneous
equations. Multiply equation [4] by 2 so that
the coefficients of x are the same. Label this
[7] − [6] ⇒ 7y = −7
equation [7].
y = −1
7. Subtract equation [6] from [7] and solve for y.
8. Substitute y = −1 back into the system of Substitute y = −1 into [4]:

equations in order to find x. Choose one of the x − 8 = −3
x=5
9. Substitute the values for x and y into one of the Substitute y = −1 and x = 5 into [2]:
equations containing only x and y.
5+5+z = 1
10 + z = 1
original equations and solve for z.
z = −9
10. Write the final solution. Alternatively, CAS x = 5, y = −1, z = −9
can be used to solve the three simultaneous
equations if the question is technology active.
TI | THINK DISPLAY/WRITE CASIO | THINK DISPLAY/WRITE

1. On a Calculator screen, press 1. On the Main screen,
MENU, then select: complete the entry
Solve ({2x − 3y + 2z = −5,

3: Algebra line as:
x − 5y + z = 1,
7: Solve System of Equations
2x + 3y + z = −2},
1: Solve System of Equations . . .
⎛ 2x − 3y + 2z = −5 {x, y, z}
Complete the entry line as:
solve ⎜{x − 5y + z = 1 , {x, y, z}⎟

⎞
⎝ 2x + 3y + z = −2
⎜ ⎟ then press EXE.
⎠
then press ENTER.
2. The answer appears on the screen. x = 5, y = −1, z = −9 2. The answer appears on x = 5, y = −1, z = −9
the screen.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Equations in 3 variables (int-2550)
1.3.3 Simultaneous equations involving parameters
can describe the set of solutions through the use of a parameter. Conventionally, the parameter chosen is 𝜆.
When there are infinitely many solutions to a system of equations, such as when planes intersect along a line, we
WORKED EXAMPLE 8 Solving simultaneous equations using a parameter
The simultaneous equations shown have infinitely many solutions.
2x + y − 4z = 2
x + y + 3z = −1
b. Let z = 𝜆 and solve the equations in terms of 𝜆.

a. Eliminate y by subtracting the second equation from the first equation.
c. Explain what this solution represents.
a. 2x + y − 4z = 2
THINK WRITE
x + y + 3z = −1
a. 1. Label the equations. [1]
[1] − [2] ⇒ x − 7z = 3
[2]
2. Subtract equation [2] from equation [1].
b. 1. Substitute z = 𝜆 and solve for x. z=𝜆

x − 7𝜆 = 3
b.
x = 3 + 7𝜆
2. Substitute z = 𝜆 and x = 3 + 7𝜆 into equation Substitute z = 𝜆 and x = 3 + 7𝜆 into [2]:

3 + 7𝜆 + y + 3𝜆 = −1
y + 10𝜆 + 3 = −1
[2] and solve for y.
y = −4 − 10𝜆
Note: Equation [1] could have also been
x = 3 + 7𝜆, y = −4 − 10𝜆, z = 𝜆
chosen.
3. Write the solution.
c. Interpret the solution. c. This solution describes the line along which
the two planes intersect.

b. 1. On aCalculator screen, press b. 1. Onthe Main screen,
MENU, then select: complete the entry line
solve ({2x + y − 4z = 2,
3: Algebra as:
x + y + 3z = −11,
7: Solve System of Equations
z = 𝜆}, {x, y, z}
1: Solve System of Equations . . .
⎛ 2x + y − 4z = 2
solve ⎜ {x + y + 3z = −1, {x, y, z} ⎟ Note: The 𝜆 symbol can

⎞ then press EXE.
⎝ z=𝜆
⎜ ⎟
⎠ be found in the Keyboard
Note: The 𝜆 symbol can be found then selecting 𝛼𝛽𝛾.

then press ENTER. menu by selecting abc
by pressing ctrl+
on the screen. x = 7𝜆 + 3, x = 7𝜆 + 3,
y = −2 (5𝜆 + 2) , y = −10𝜆 − 4,
2. The answer appears 2. The answer appears on
z=𝜆 z=𝜆
the screen.

1.3 Exercise

Technology free
2x + ky = 4
1. WE6 Determine the value of k for which the following simultaneous equations have a unique solution.
(k − 3) x + 2y = 0
mx − 2y = 4
2. Determine the value of m for which the following simultaneous equations have infinitely many solutions.
x + (m − 3) y = m
x + my = 3
3. Determine the value of m for which the following simultaneous equations have no solution.
4mx + y = 0
4. Determine the value of k for which the following simultaneous equations have a unique solution.
x + 3ky = 2
(k − 1) x − 1 = −6y
5. Calculate the value of m for which the following simultaneous equations have:
a. a unique solution
b. no solution
c. an infinite number of solutions.
−2x + my = 1
(m + 3) x − 2y = −2m
Technology active
2m − 4n − p = 1
6. WE7 Solve the following system of simultaneous equations.
4m + n + p = 5
3m + 3n − 2p = 22
2d − e − f = −2
7. Solve the following system of simultaneous equations.
3d + 2e − f = 5
d + 3e + 2f = 11
2x + y − z = 12 m+n−p = 6
8. Solve the following systems of simultaneous equations.
−x − 3y + z = −13 3m + 5n − 2p = 13
a. b.
−4x + 3y − z = −2 5m + 4n − 7p = 34
c. u + 2v − 4w = 23 a+b+c = 4
3u + 4v − 2w = 37 2a − b + 2c = 17
d.
3u + v − 2w = 19 −a − 3b + c = 3
9. The measure of the largest angle of a triangle is 20° more than the smallest angle, and the sum of the
largest and smallest angles is 60° more than the third angle. Calculate the angle sizes of the triangle using
simultaneous equations.
w − 2x + 3y − z = 10
2w + x + y + z = 4
−w + x + 2y − z = −3
3w − 2x + y = 11
11. Solve the following system of simultaneous equations in terms of a.
2x − y + az = 4
(a + 2) x + y − z = 2
6x + (a + 1) y − 2z = 4
12. The simultaneous equations shown have infinitely many solutions.
x + 2y + 2z = 1
WE8
2x − 2y + z = 2
b. Let z = 𝜆 and solve the equations in terms of 𝜆.

a. Eliminate y by adding the second equation to the first equation.
c. Explain what this solution represents.
13. Solve the following pair of simultaneous equations through the use of the parameter 𝜆.
x + 2y + 4z = 2
x − y − 3z = 4
x + y − 2z = 5
x − 2y + 4z = 1
−2x + y + z = −2
x − 3z = 0
16. Determine the values of m and n for which the equations below have:
a. a unique solution
b. an infinite number of solutions
3x + 2y = −1
c. no solution.
mx + 4y = n

1.3 Exam questions
The simultaneous linear equations ax − 3y = 5 and 3x − ay = 8 − a have no solution for

a=3
MC
a = −3
A.
both a = 3 and a = −3
B.
a ∈ R \ {3}
C.
a ∈ R \ [−3, 3]
D.
E.

MC The simultaneous linear equations
−2x − my = −4 and
(m − 1) x + 6y = 2 (m − 1) ,
A. m = 4 or m = −3
where m is a real constant, have a unique solution for
B. m = 4 only
C. m ∈ R\ (4, −3)
D. m ≠ 4
E. m = −3 only

MC A unique solution for solving a system of three simultaneous equations in three variables represents
A. three planes intersecting along a line.
B. three planes intersecting along a plane.
C. three planes intersecting at a point.
D. three planes having no common intersection.
E. three planes intersecting at a point, a line or a plane.
1.4 Quadratic functions

LEARNING INTENTION
• factorise and solve quadratic functions
• sketch quadratic functions in different forms.
1.4.1 Factorisation
Review of quadratic expressions
• Perfect squares: a2 ± 2ab + b2 = (a ± b)2

The following techniques are used to factorise quadratic expressions.
• Difference of perfect squares: a2 − b2 = (a − b) (a + b)

• Product and sum (trinomials): To factorise ax2 + bx + c, we look for two numbers that multiply to give ac
For example, in the trinomial x2 − x − 6, ac = −6 and b = −1. The two numbers are −3 and 2.
and add to form the middle term, b.
x2 − 3x + 2x − 6
x2 − 3x + 2x − 6
Therefore, we split the middle term:
x(x − 3) + 2(x − 3)
Then pair and factorise:
(x − 3)(x + 2)
• Completing the square: The method of completing the square will work for any quadratic that can be
factorised.
WORKED EXAMPLE 9 Factorising quadratic expressions
a. 9a2 − 24ab + 16b2 b. 6x2 − 17x + 7 c. 2t2 + 8t − 14

Use an appropriate technique to factorise each of the following quadratic expressions.
a. 9a2 − 24ab + 16b2 = (3a) − 2 (3a) (4b) + (4b)

THINK WRITE
2 2
= (3a − 4b)2
a. The first and last terms are perfect squares, so
check if the expression fits the perfect square
b. 1. Factorise by product and sum before applying b. 6x2 − 17x + 7

formula.
ac = 42, b = −17
The two numbers are −14 and −3.
the method of completing the square.
2. Find two numbers that have a product of ac
6x2 − 3x − 14x + 7
and a sum of b.
3. Split the middle term.
6x2 − 3x − 14x + 7
3x(2x − 1) − 7(2x − 1)
4. Pair and factorise.
(3x − 7)(2x − 1)
6x2 − 17x + 7 = (3x − 7) (2x − 1)

c. 2t2 + 8t − 14 = 2 t2 + 4t − 7
5. Write the answer.
( )
c. 1. Take out the common factor of 2.
= 2 t2 + 4t + (2)2 − (2)2 − 7
( )
= 2 (t + 2)2 − 4 − 7
2. Product and sum is not an appropriate method
( )
here, as the only factors of 7 are 1 and 7,
= 2 (t + 2)2 − 11
and these cannot be combined to give a ( )
= 2 t + 2 − 11 t + 2 + 11
middle coefficient of 4 Thus, the method of ( √ )( √ )
completing the square is required.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities Perfect square form of a quadratic (int-2558)
Completing the square (int-2559)
1.4.2 Solving quadratic equations

Polynomial equations, whether they be quadratics, cubic polynomials, quartic polynomials or polynomials of
a higher degree, can be solved using the Null Factor Law (that is, if the product of two numbers is zero, one of
them must equal zero).

For example,
0 = x2 − 5x + 6
Factorising gives
0 = (x − 3) (x − 2)
Applying the Null Factor Law,
x = 3 or x = 2
The quadratic formula

Quadratic equations of the form 0 = ax2 + bx + c can also be solved by using the quadratic formula.
Solving quadratic equations

−b ± b2 − 4ac
√
x=
2a
The discriminant = Δ
= b2 − 4ac
If Δ > 0, there are two real solutions to the equation.
If Δ = 0, there is one real solution to the equation.
If Δ < 0, there are no real solutions to the equation.
Generally, we check if the discriminant is a perfect square; if it is not, the quadratic formula is required.
WORKED EXAMPLE 10 Solving quadratic equations
a. 6x2 − 7x − 3 = 0 b. x2 + 8x + 1 = 0
Solve the following equations for x.
a. 6x2 − 7x − 3 = 0
THINK WRITE
(3x + 1) (2x − 3) = 0
a. 1. First try to factorise by two brackets.
x=− ,
2. Apply the Null Factor Law to solve for x.
1 3
b. Δ = b2 − 4ac
3 2
= 82 − 4 × 1 × 1
b. 1. First try to factorise by two brackets. If this
= 60
doesn’t work, check the discriminant.
Δ > 0, ∴ 2 solutions
As the discriminant is not a perfect square,
the quadratic formula must be used to solve
the equation.
−b ±
b2 − 4ac
x=
√
2. Apply the quadratic formula.
−8 ± 60
√2a
=
±
−8 2 15
2 √
=
2
x = −4 ± 15
√

b. 1. On a Calculator screen, b. 1. On the Main screen,
solve x2 + 8x + 1 = 0, x
press MENU, then select: complete
( the entry line as:
)
3: Algebra
1: Solve then press EXE.
Complete the entry
solve x2 + 8x + 1 = 0, x
line as:
( )
then press ENTER.
x = − 15 − 4, x = 15 − 4 The answer appears on the x = − 15 − 4, x = 15 − 4

√ √ √ √
2. The answer appears on 2.
the screen. screen.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities The discriminant (int-2560)
The quadratic formula (int-2561)
1.4.3 Graphing quadratic functions

The function f ∶ R → R, f (x) = ax2 + bx + c, where a, b, c ∈ R and a ≠ 0, is the quadratic polynomial function. If
a > 0, the graph of the function is a concave-up parabola with a minimum turning point; if a < 0, the graph of the
General form, y = ax2 + bx + c

function is a concave-down parabola with a maximum turning point.
As the x-intercepts of the graph of y = ax2 + bx + c are the roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, there
may be zero, one or two x-intercepts as determined by the discriminant Δ = b2 − 4ac.
Δ<0 Δ=0 Δ>0
a>0 y y y
0 x 0 x 0 x
(continued)

Δ<0 Δ=0 Δ>0

(continued)
a<0 y y y
0 x 0 x 0 x
The discriminant
The quadratic function is either positive or negative, depending whether a > 0 or a < 0 respectively.
If Δ < 0, there are no x-intercepts.
If Δ = 0, there is one x-intercept, a turning point where the graph touches the x-axis.
If Δ > 0, there are two distinct x-intercepts and the graph crosses the x-axis at these places.
Axis of symmetry
−b ± b2 − 4ac
√
As the roots of the quadratic equation are given by x =
−b
, the axis of symmetry of the
parabola has the equation x =

2a
.
2a
This is also the x-coordinate of the turning point, so by substituting this value into the parabola’s equation, the
y-coordinate of the turning point can be calculated.
Turning point form, y = a(x − h)2 + k

The simplest parabola has the equation y = x2 . Its turning point is the origin, (0, 0), which is unaltered by
a dilation from the x-axis in the y-direction. However, if the graph of this parabola undergoes a horizontal
translation of h units and a vertical translation of k units, the turning point moves to the point (h, k).
Thus, y = a(x − h)2 + k is the equation of a parabola with turning point (h, k) and axis of symmetry x = h.
If y = a(x − h)2 + k is expanded, then the general form y = ax2 + bx + c is obtained. Conversely, when the
technique of completing the square is applied to the equation y = ax2 + bx + c, the turning point form is obtained.
x-intercept form, y = a (x − x1 ) (x − x2 )
x = x1 and x = x2 can be obtained by inspection. The axis of symmetry lies midway between the intercepts, so the
When the equation of a quadratic function is expressed as the product of its two linear factors, the x-intercepts at
x + x2
equation for this axis must be x = 1 , and this gives the x-coordinate of the turning point. The y-coordinate
2
of the turning point can be calculated from the equation once the x-coordinate is known.
Expanding the equation y = a (x − x1 ) (x − x2 ) will return it to general form, and factorising the general equation
y = ax2 + bx + c will convert it to x-intercept form.
Key features of the graph of a quadratic function

When sketching the graph of a parabola by hand, identify:
• the y-intercept
• any x-intercepts
• the turning point
• the axis of symmetry, if it is helpful to the sketch
• any end-point coordinates if the function is given on a restricted domain.
The methods used to identify the key features of a graph will depend on the form in which the equation of the
graph is expressed.
Similarly, when determining the equation of a parabola given a key feature, you should select the form of the
• If the turning point is given, use the y = a(x − h)2 + k form.

equation that emphasises that key feature.
• If the x-intercepts are given, use the y = a (x − x1 ) (x − x2 ) form.

• Otherwise, use the y = ax2 + bx + c form.
Three pieces of information are always required to determine the equation, as each form involves 3 constants or
parameters.
WORKED EXAMPLE 11 Sketching a quadratic graph
Sketch the graph of y = 9 − (2x + 1)2 and state its domain and range.
THINK WRITE
y = 9 − (2x + 1)2
y = −(2x + 1)2 + 9
1. Rewrite the equation so it is in a standard
form (turning point form).
or
y = − 2 x+ +9
( ( ))2
1
2
y = −4 x + +9
( )2
1
2
The graph has a maximum turning point at − , 9 .
()
1
2. State the coordinates and type of turning
2
point.
y = 9 − (1)2
3. Calculate the y-intercept.
y=8
4. Calculate any x-intercepts. As the graph has a maximum turning point with a
Let y = 0.
positive y-value, there will be x-intercepts.
9 − (2x + 1)2 = 0
(2x + 1)2 = 9
2x + 1 = ± 3
2x = −4 or 2
x = −2 or 1
The x-intercepts are (−2, 0) and (1, 0).

5. Sketch the graph.

)–1–2, 9) y
(0, 8)
y = 9 – (2x + 1)2
(–2, 0) (1, 0)
0 x
6. State the domain and range. The domain is R and the range is (−∞, 9].

1. On a Graphs page, 1. On a Graph & Table screen,
complete the entry complete the entry line for
f 1 (x) = 9 − (2x + 1)2 y1 = 9 − (2x + 1)2

line for function 1 as: y1 as:
then press ENTER. then press EXE.

Select the Graph icon to
draw the graph.
2. To find the x-intercepts, 2. To find the x-intercepts,

press MENU, then select: select:
6: Analyze Graph • Analysis
1: Zero • G-Solve
Move the cursor to the left • Root
of the x-intercept when With the cursor on the first
prompted for the lower x-intercept, press EXE. Use
bound, then press ENTER. the left/right arrows to move
Move the cursor to the to the other x-intercept, then
right of the x-intercept press EXE.
when prompted for the
upper bound, then press
ENTER.
Repeat this step to find the
other x-intercept.
3. To find the y-intercept, 3. To find the y-intercept,
5: Trace • Analysis
1: Graph Trace • G-Solve
Type 0, then press ENTER • Y-Intercept
twice. then press EXE.
4. To find the maximum, 4. To find the maximum,

3: Maximum • G-Solve
Move the cursor to the left • Max
of the maximum when then press EXE.
prompted for the lower
bound, then press ENTER.
Move the cursor to the
right of the maximum
ENTER.
5. The domain and range can The domain ] is R and the range 5. The domain and range can The domain is R]and the
be read from the graph. is (−∞, 9 . be read from the graph. range is (−∞, 9 .
WORKED EXAMPLE 12 Determining the equation of a quadratic graph
Determine the equation of the given graph and hence obtain y

the coordinates of the turning point.
(–5, 0) 0 (8, 0) x
(0, –4)
THINK WRITE
1. Select a form of the equation. As the two x-intercepts are known, the x-intercept
y = a (x − x1 ) (x − x2 )
form of the equation will be used.
There is an x-intercept at x = −5.

⇒ (x + 5) is a factor.
2. Use the key features to partially determine
There is an x-intercept at x = 8.
the equation.
⇒ (x − 8) is a factor.
The equation is y = a (x + 5) (x − 8).
The point (0, −4) lies on the graph. Substitute this

point in y = a (x + 5) (x − 8).
3. Use the third piece of information to fully
−4 = a (5) (−8)
determine the equation.
−4 = −40a
a=
1
The equation is y = (x + 5) (x − 8).

10
1
10

4. Determine the equation of the axis of The axis of symmetry lies midway between the
−5 + 8
symmetry. x-intercepts.
∴x=
=
2
3
2
3
5. Calculate the coordinates of the turning point. The x-coordinate of the turning point is .
Substitute x = in the equation of the graph.

2
3
2) (
y= +5 −8
( )
1 3 3
1 13 −13
10 2 2
y= × ×
10 2 2
y=−
169
,−
40 ( )
3 169
The turning point is .
2 40
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Quadratic functions (int-2562)
1.4 Exercise

Technology free
a. 15u2 − u − 2 b. 6d 2 − 28d + 16 c. 3j2 + 12j − 6 d. b2 − 1

1. WE9 Use an appropriate technique to factorise each of the following quadratic expressions.
a. f2 − 12f − 28 b. g2 + 3g − 4
2. Use an appropriate method to factorise each of the following quadratic expressions.
a. 8x + 2x − 3 = 0 b. 2x2 − 4x + 1 = 0
3. WE10 Solve the following equations for x.
2
a. 81y2 = 1 b. 4z2 + 28z + 49 = 0 c. 5m2 + 3 = 10m d. x2 − 4x = −3

4. Fully factorise and solve the following quadratic equations over R.
a. 48p = 24p2 + 18 b. 39k = 4k2 + 77 c. m2 + 3m = 4 d. 4n2 = 8 − 5n

5. Fully factorise and solve the following quadratic equations over R.
6. WE11 Sketch the graph of y = 2(3x − 2)2 − 8 and state its domain and range.
7. a. Given the function f ∶ (−2, 2] → R, f (x) = 3(1 − x) + 2, state the range of the graph.
2
i. y = (x − 2) (2x + 3) , x ∈ [−2, 3]
b. Sketch the graphs of the following quadratic functions. State the range for each one.
ii. y = −x2 + 4x + 2, x ∈ R
iii. y = −2(x + 1) − 3, x ∈ (−3, 0]
2
iv. y = (2x − 3)2 − 1, x ∈ R

1
2
8. Consider the quadratic function f ∶ R+ ∪ {0} → R, f (x) = 4x2 − 8x + 7.

Technology active
a. Determine the number of intercepts the graph of y = f (x) makes with the x-axis.
b. Express the equation of the function in the form f (x) = a(x + b) + c.
c. Sketch the graph of y = f (x) and state its domain and range.
2
9. WE12 Determine the equation of the given graph and hence obtain the coordinates of the turning point.
y
(0, 2)
(4, 0)
1 0 x
(
–– , 0
2 (
a. The turning point has coordinates (−6, 12) and the graph of the function passes through the point (4, −3).
10. Determine the equations of the following quadratic functions.
b. The points (−7, 0), (0, −20) and −2 , 0 lie on the graph.
( )
1
c. The minimum value of the function is −5 and it contains the points (−8, 11) and (8, 11)
2
Express −x2 + 2x − 5 in the form a(x + b)2 + c.

Hence, state the coordinates of the turning point of the graph of y = −x2 + 2x − 5.
11. a.
Sketch the graph of y = −x2 + 2x − 5 and state its range.

b.
Use a graphical method to show that the graphs of y = x + 3 and y = −x2 + 2x − 5 never intersect.
c.
Determine the value of k so that the graphs of y = x + k and y = −x2 + 2x − 5 will touch exactly once.
d.
e.
12. Determine the possible values of k such that the graphs of y = 2x2 and y = kx − 2 do not intersect.
13. Find the values of m for which the line y = −3 − 2mx intersects the parabola y = x2 − 1 twice.
14. Show that y = 2x − 3 is a tangent to the graph y = x2 − 2.
15. a. Find the values of k for which the equation kx2 − 3x + k = 0 has no solutions.
b. If kx2 + 4x − k + 2 = 0, show that the equation has a solution for all values of k.
5 − 2m
16. A quadratic equation has the rule (m − 1) x + x + 2m = 0. Find the value(s) of m for which the
( )
2
2
quadratic equation has two solutions.

1.4 Exam questions
The set of values of k for which x2 + 2x − k = 0 has two real solutions is

Source: VCE 2019, Mathematical Methods Exam 2, Section A, Q2; © VCAA.
A. {−1, 1} B. (−1, ∞) C. (−∞, −1)

MC
D. {−1} E. [−1, ∞)
The turning point of the parabola y = x2 − 2bx + 1 is closest to the origin when
A. b = 0 B. b = −1 or b = 1 C. b = − √ or b = √
MC
1 1
D. b = or b = − E. b = or b = −
2 2
1 1 1 1
2 2 4 4
The graphs of y = mx + c and y = ax2 will have no points of intersection for all values of m, c and a
MC
A. a > 0 and c > 0 B. a > 0 and c < 0 C. a > 0 and c > −

such that
m2
D. a < 0 and c > − E. m > 0 and c > 0

4a
m2
4a
1.5 Cubic functions

LEARNING INTENTION
• factorise and solve cubic equations
• sketch cubic functions in different forms.
1.5.1 Factorisation
For polynomials of degree 3, it is necessary to remember the perfect cube patterns as well as the sum and
difference of two cubes.
Cubic factorisations
Perfect cubes:
a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3 = (a + b)3
a3 − 3a2 b + 3ab2 − b3 = (a − b)3
Sum and difference of two cubes:

a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 − ab + b2 )
a3 − b3 = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2 )
WORKED EXAMPLE 13 Factorising cubic expressions
a. 27y3 − 27y2 + 9y − 1 b. x3 + 8
Use an appropriate method to factorise each of the following cubic expressions.
c. 3y3 − 81 d. 8m3 + 60m2 + 150m + 125
a. 27y3 − 27y2 + 9y − 1
THINK WRITE
= (3y)3 − 3(3y)2 (1) + 3 (3y) (1)2 − (1)3

a. This is a perfect cube pattern.
a3 − 3a2 b + 3ab2 − b3 = (a − b)3 .

Check to see that it has the pattern of
= (3y − 1)3
b. x3 + 8 = x3 + 23
= (x + 2) x2 − 2x + 22
b. This is a sum of two cubes pattern.
( )
= (x + 2) x2 − 2x + 4
( )
c. 3y3 − 81 = 3 y3 − 27
( )
c. 1. Take out a common factor first.
= 3 y3 − 33
( )
= 3 (y − 3) y2 + 3y + 32
2. Now factorise using the difference of two
cubes pattern. ( )
= 3 (y − 3) y2 + 3y + 9
( )
d. 8m3 + 60m2 + 150m + 125

= (2m)3 + 3(2m)2 (5) + 3 (2m) (5)2 + (5)3
d. This is a perfect cube pattern.
a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3 = (a + b)3 .

Check to see that it has the pattern of
= (2m + 5)3
Factorising cubics using the technique of grouping

To factorise x3 − 3x2 + 4x − 12, start by grouping two groups of two terms in the following manner.
x3 – 3x2 + 4x – 12
TWO TWO
2
= x (x – 3) + 4 (x – 3)
= (x – 3)(x2 + 4)
The other possible method is to group three and one. For example, to factorise x2 − z2 + 4x + 4, rearrange the
expression as shown.
x2 + 4x + 4 – z2
x2 + 4x + 4 – z2
THREE ONE
= (x + 2)2 – z2
= (x + 2 – z)(x + 2 + z)

WORKED EXAMPLE 14 Factorising cubic expressions
a. m2 − n2 − 36 − 12n b. p3 + 2p2 − 4p − 8
Fully factorise the following polynomials.
a. m2 − n2 − 36 − 12n
THINK WRITE
rearrange, taking out −1 as a common factor. = m2 − n2 − 12n − 36

a. 1. Group the polynomial one and three and
= m2 – (n2 + 12n + 36)
= m2 − (n + 6)2
ONE THREE
2. Factorise the group of three terms as a perfect
square.
= (m − (n + 6)) (m + (n + 6))
= (m − n − 6) (m + n + 6)
3. Apply the difference of perfect squares
method.
b. 1. Group the polynomial two and two. b. p3 + 2p2 – 4p – 8
p3 + 2p2 − 4p − 8
TWO TWO
= p2 (p + 2) − 4 (p + 2)
2. Factorise each pair.
= (p + 2) p2 − 4
( )
= (p + 2) (p − 2) (p + 2)
= (p + 2)2 (p − 2)
3. Finish the factorisation by applying the
difference of perfect squares method.
Factor theorem
When the previous methods are not appropriate for a third degree polynomial or a higher degree polynomial,
then knowledge of the factor theorem is essential. The factor theorem is an algebraic theorem that links the
zeros of a polynomial. It states the following:
Factor theorem
A polynomial, P(x), has a factor (x − a) if and only if P(a) = 0;
that is, if a is a root of the polynomial.
Consider the factorisation of x3 + 3x2 − 13x − 15.

Let P (x) = x3 + 3x2 − 13x − 15.
is, to achieve P (x) = 0. If this is so, we have found one linear factor of the polynomial.
By substituting integer values of x that are factors of the constant term, we aim to achieve a zero remainder, that
P (1) = 13 + 3(1)2 − 13 (1) − 15

= 1 + 3 − 13 − 15
≠0
P (−1) = (−1)3 + 3(−1)2 − 13 (−1) − 15
= −1 + 3 + 13 − 15
=0
Thus, (x + 1) is a factor. The quadratic factor can then be found by long division or by inspection.
x2 + 2x − 15
)
x + 1 x3 + 3x2 − 13x − 15
− (x3 + x2)
2x2 − 13x − 15
− (2x2 + 2x)
− 15x − 15
− (−15x − 15)
0
–15x + 2x
or x3 + 3x2 – 13x – 15 = (x + 1) (x2 + 2x – 15)
2x2 + x2
Completing the factorisation gives:
x3 + 3x2 − 13x − 15 = (x + 1) x2 + 2x − 15
( )
= (x + 1) (x + 5) (x − 3)
WORKED EXAMPLE 15 Factorising a cubic expression
Fully factorise 2x3 − 3x2 − 8x − 3.
P (x) = 2x3 − 3x2 − 8x − 3

THINK WRITE
P (1) = 2 − 3 − 8 − 3 ≠ 0
1. Let P (x) equal the cubic polynomial.
P (−1) = −2 − 3 + 8 − 3 = 0
2. Try P (1), P (−1), P (2) and so on to get a zero
remainder.
Therefore, x + 1 is a factor.
3. Use long division to obtain a quadratic factor.

2x2 − 5x − 3
)
x + 1 2x3 − 3x2 − 8x − 3
− (2x3 + 2x2)
− 5x − 8x
− (− 5x − 5x)
− 3x − 3
− (3x − 3)
4. Complete the cubic factorisation by factorising P (x) = 2x3 − 3x2 − 8x − 3

0
= (x + 1) 2x2 − 5x − 3
( )
= (x + 1) (2x + 1) (x − 3)
the quadratic factor into its two linear factors.


1. On a Calculator page, press 1. On the Main screen, select:
MENU, then select: • Action
3: Algebra • Transformation
2: Factor • factor
factor 2x3 − 3x2 − 8x − 3

Complete • factor
( the entry line as:)
factor 2x3 − 3x2 − 8x − 3

Complete
( the entry line as:)
then press ENTER.
then press EXE.
2x3 − 3x2 − 8x − 3 = 2x3 − 3x2 − 8x − 3 =

(x − 3) (x + 1) (2x + 1) (x + 1) (x − 3) (2x + 1)
2. The answer appears on the 2. The answer appears on the
screen. screen.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities Long division of polynomials (int-2564)
The remainder and factor theorems (int-2565)
1.5.2 Solving polynomial equations

Consider again the cubic polynomial x3 + 3x2 − 13x − 15.
x3 + 3x2 − 13x − 15 = (x + 1) x2 + 2x − 15
( )
= (x + 1) (x + 5) (x − 3)
We will equate it to zero so that we have a cubic equation to solve.
x3 + 3x
( 2 − 13x − 15) = 0
(x + 1) x + 2x − 15 = 0
2
(x + 1) (x + 5) (x − 3) = 0
Applying the Null Factor Law, x = −1, x = −5 or x = 3.
WORKED EXAMPLE 16 Solving a cubic equation
Solve 2x3 − 3x2 − 8x − 3 = 0 for x.
0 = 2x3 − 3x2 − 8x − 3
THINK WRITE
= (x + 1) 2x2 − 5x − 3
1. The cubic expression was factorised in Worked example 15.
( )
= (x + 1) (2x + 1) (x − 3)
x = −1, − , 3
1
2. Use the Null Factor Law to solve the cubic equation for x.
2
Equality of polynomials
Two polynomials, P (x) and Q (x), are such that:
P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + an−2 xn−2 + ... + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 and
Q (x) = bn xn + bn−1 xn−1 + bn−2 xn−2 + ... + b2 x2 + b1 x + b0 .
P (x) is identically equal to Q (x) for all values of x (that is, P (x) ≡ Q (x)) if and only if:
an = bn , an−1 = bn−1 , an−2 = bn−2 ..., a2 = b2 , a1 = b1 and a0 = b0 .
For instance, 3x3 + (m − 2) x2 + (m + n) x ≡ kx3 + x2 . You are required to find the values of m, n and k. As the
polynomials are equal to each other, we can equate coefficients to give:
k=3 m−2 = 1 m+n = 0

m=3 3+n = 0
n = −3
WORKED EXAMPLE 17 Equating coefficients
If (n − 3) x3 + (2n + p) x2 + (p + q) x ≡ −2x3 + x2 , find the values of n, p and q.
n − 3 = −2
THINK WRITE
n=1
3
1. Equate the coefficients of the x terms and
solve for n.
2n + p = 1
2+p = 1
2. Equate the coefficients of the x2 terms and
p = −1
solve for p.
p+q = 0
−1 + q = 0
3. Equate the coefficients of the x terms and solve
q=1
for q.
Note: As there is no x term on the right-hand
n = 1, p = −1, q = 1
side, the coefficient is zero.
1.5.3 Graphing cubic functions

The function f ∶ R → R, f (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, a, b, c, d ∈ R, a ≠ 0 is the cubic polynomial function. Although
the shape of its graph may take several forms, for its maximal domain the function has a range of R. Its
long-term behaviour is dependent on the sign of the coefficient of the x3 term.
If a > 0, then as x → ∞, y → ∞ and as x → −∞, y → −∞.
If a < 0, then as x → ∞, y → −∞ and as x → −∞, y → ∞.
This behaviour is illustrated in the graph of y = x3 , the simplest cubic function, and that of y = −x3 .
y y
y = x3 y = –x3
(1, 1) (–1, 1)
0 x 0 x
(–1, –1) (1, –1)

Cubic functions of the form y = a(x − h)3 + k

A significant feature of the graphs of y = x3 and y = −x3 is the stationary point of inflection at the origin. This
point is constant under a dilation but becomes the point (h, k) following a horizontal and vertical translation of
h and k units respectively.
Cubic functions of the form y = a(x − h)3 + k

These cubic functions have:
• a stationary point of inflection at (h, k)
• one x-intercept
• long-term behaviour dependent on the sign of a.
The coordinates of the stationary point of inflection are read from the equation in exactly the same way the
turning points of a parabola are read from its equation in turning point form.
Cubic functions expressed in factorised form

A cubic function may have one, two or three x-intercepts, and hence its equation may have up to three linear
factors. When the equation can be expressed as the product of linear factors, we can readily deduce the
behaviour of the function and sketch its graph without finding the positions of any turning points. Unlike
a quadratic function, the turning points in a cubic function are not symmetrically placed between pairs of
x-intercepts.
y
y = (x − m)(x − n)(x − p)
Cubic functions — factorised form
y = (x − m)(x − n)(x − p), the graph cuts the

• If there are three linear factors, that is
x-axis at x = m, x = n and x = p. m 0 n p x
other linear factor, that is y = (x − m)2 (x − n), the

• If there is one factor of multiplicity 2 and one
x = m and cuts the x-axis at x = n.

graph touches the x-axis at a turning point at
y = (x − m)2(x − n)
If the equation of the cubic function has one linear factor and one irreducible quadratic factor, it is difficult
graphs of y = (x + 3) x2 + 1 and y = x2 + 3 (x − 1).

to deduce its behaviour
( without
) either(technology
) or calculus. For example, the following diagram shows the
The intercepts made with the coordinate axes can be located y
we could not predict that y = x + 3 (x − 1) has no turning

and the long-term behaviour is ( known.) However, at this stage
2
y = (x2 + 3)(x – 1)
points or stationary point of inflection (it has a non-stationary (0, 3)
point of inflection). Nor could we predict, without numerical y = (x2 + 1)(x + 3)
point on the graph of y = (x + 3) x + 1 .

calculations, that there is a maximum
( 2 and
) a minimum turning
(– 3, 0) (1, 0)
0 x
(0, –3)
Determining the equation of a cubic function from its graph
• If there is a stationary point of inflection given, use the y = a(x − h)3 + k form.
Depending on the information given, one form of the cubic equation may be preferable over another.
• If the x-intercepts are given, use the y = a (x − m) (x − n) (x − p) form, or the repeated factor form
y = a(x − m)2 (x − n) if there is a turning point at one of the x-intercepts.
• If an x-intercept occurs at x = , then x −
( )
b b
is a factor. Alternatively, the rational root theorem allows
this factor to be expressed as (cx − b).
c c
• Use the general form y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d if, for example, neither x-intercepts nor a stationary point of
inflection are given.
WORKED EXAMPLE 18 Sketching a cubic graph
Sketch the graph of y = 2(x − 1)3 + 8, labelling the intercepts with the coordinate axes with their exact
coordinates.
y = 2(x − 1)3 + 8
THINK WRITE
1. State the key feature that can be deduced from
the equation. This equation shows there is a stationary point of
inflection at (1, 8).
y = 2(−1)3 + 8
y=6
x-intercept: let y = 0.
2(x − 1)3 + 8 = 0
3. Calculate the x-intercept in exact form.
(x − 1)3 = −4
x − 1 = −4
√3
x = 1 + −4
√
3
x = 1− 4
√
3
The x-intercept is 1 − 4, 0 .
( √ )
3
4. Sketch the graph and label the intercepts with y

the coordinate axes. y = 2(x – 1)3 + 8
(1, 8)
(0, 6)
3
(1 – 4, 0)
0 x

WORKED EXAMPLE 19 Determining the equation of a cubic graph
Determine the function f whose graph is shown in the diagram, expressing its rule as the product of
linear factors with integer coefficients.
y
y = f (x)
(2, 0)
(–0.75, 0) 0 x
(0, –0.5)
The graph has an x-intercept at x = −0.75.

THINK WRITE
In fraction form, this is x = − .

1. Obtain a linear factor of the equation of the
graph that has integer coefficients. 3
Therefore, (4x + 3) is a factor.

4
The graph has a turning point on the x-axis at x = 2.

This means (x − 2)2 is a factor.
2. State a second factor.
3. State the form of the equation. The equation is of the form y = a (4x + 3) (x − 2)2 .
The point (0, −0.5) or 0, −

( )
1
4. Determine the equation fully. lies on the graph.
2
y = a (4x + 3) (x − 2)2 .
Substitute this point into
− = a (3) (−2)2
1
− = 12a
2
1
a=−
2
1
24
y = − (4x + 3) (x − 2)2 .
The graph has the equation
1
24
5. State the required function. The domain of the graph is R. Hence, the function f is
f ∶ R → R, f(x) = − (4x + 3) (x − 2)2 .

given by
1
24
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities Cubic polynomials (int-2566)
x-intercepts of cubic graphs (int-2567)
1.5 Exercise

Technology free
a. 125a3 − 27b3 b. 2c3 + 6c2 d + 6cd 2 + 2d 3

1. WE13 Use an appropriate method to factorise each of the following cubic expressions.
c. 40p3 − 5 d. 8x3 − 12x2 + 6x − 1
a. 27z3 − 54z2 + 36z − 8 b. m3 n3 + 64

2. Use an appropriate method to factorise each of the following cubic expressions.
a. 3x − xy − 3x + y b. 3y3 + 3y2 z2 − 2zy − 2z3

3. WE14 Fully factorise the following polynomials.
2
a. 9a2 − 16b2 − 12a + 4 b. n2 p2 − 4m2 − 4m − 1

4. Fully factorise the following polynomials.
5. WE15 Fully factorise x3 − 2x2 − 21x − 18.
7r3 − 49r2 + r − 7 36v3 + 6v2 + 30v + 5

6. Factorise the following expressions.
2m3 + 3m2 − 98m − 147 2z3 − z2 + 2z − 1

a. b.
4x2 − 28x + 49 − 25y2 16a2 − 4b2 − 12b − 9

c. d.
v2 − 4 − w2 + 4w 4p2 − 1 + 4pq + q2
e. f.
g. h.
7. WE16 Solve 2x3 − x2 − 10x + 5 = 0 for x.

Technology active
a. b3 + 5b2 + 2b − 8 = 0 b. −2m3 + 9m2 − m − 12 = 0

8. Solve each of the following equations over R.
c. 2x3 − x2 − 6x + 3 = 0 d. 2x3 + 7x2 + 2x − 3 = 0
9. a. Show that 3t3 + 22t2 + 37t + 10 is divisible by (t + 5) and hence solve the equation 3t3 + 22t2 + 37t + 10 = 0.
b. Show that 3d3 − 16d2 + 12d + 16 is divisible by (d − 2) and hence solve the equation
3d3 − 16d2 + 12d + 16 = 0.
10. WE17 If Ax3 + (B − 1) x2 + (B + C ) x + D ≡ 3x3 − x2 + 2x − 7, determine the values of A, B, C and D.
11. If x3 + 9x2 − 2x + 1 ≡ x3 + (dx + e) +

2 8
, determine the values of d and e.
9
12. a. Given that P (z) = 5z3 − 3z2 + 4z − 1 and Q (z) = az3 + bz2 + cz + d, calculate the values of a, b, c and d if
P (z) ≡ Q (z).

b. Given that P (x) = x3 − 6x2 + 9x − 1 and Q(x) = x (x + a) − b, calculate the values of a and b if
P (x) ≡ Q (x).
2
13. If 2x3 − 5x2 + 5x − 5 ≡ a(x − 1) + b(x − 1) + c (x − 1) + d, determine the values of a, b, c and d and hence
express 2x3 − 5x2 + 5x − 5 in the form a(x − 1)3 + b(x − 1)2 + c (x − 1) + d.
3 2
14. Given (x + 3) and (x − 1) are factors of ax3 + bx2 − 4x − 3, calculate the values of a and b.
15. WE18 Sketch the graph of y = −4(x + 2)3 + 16, labelling the intercepts with the coordinate axes with their
exact coordinates.
16. Consider the function f ∶ [−2, 4] → R, f (x) = 4x3 − 8x2 − 16x + 32.
a. Factorise 4x3 − 8x2 − 16x + 32.
b. Sketch the graph of y = f (x).
c. State the maximum and minimum values of the function f.
17. Sketch the graphs of the following cubic functions without attempting to locate any turning points that do
a. y = x3 − x2 − 6x b. y = 1 − (x + 1)3 , x ∈ [−3, 2)
not lie on the coordinate axes.
1
c. y = 12(x + 1) − 3(x + 1)
8
2 3
18. WE19 Determine the function f whose graph is shown in the diagram, expressing its rule as the product of
linear factors with integer coefficients.
y
(2, 24)
y = f (x)
(0, 0) x
(0.8, 0) (1.5, 0)
19. Form a possible equation for the cubic graph shown.

y
(0, 10)
(–4, 0)
0 x
( 5–4 , 0)
20. a. Show that the graph of y = f (x) where f (x) = −2x3 + 9x2 − 24x + 17 has exactly one x-intercept.
b. Show that there is no stationary point of inflection on the graph.
c. State the long-term behaviour of the function.

d. Given the function has a one-to-one correspondence, draw a sketch of the graph.
1.5 Exam questions
Let p (x) = x3 − 2ax2 + x − 1 where a ∈ R. When p is divided by x + 2, the remainder is 5.

MC
B. − D. − E. −2
The value of a is
7 1 3
A. 2 C.
4 2 2
Question 2 (4 marks) TECH-FREE
Let f ∶ [−3, 0] → R, f (x) = (x + 2)2 (x − 1).

Source: VCE 2017, Mathematical Methods Exam 1, Q3; © VCAA.
a. Show that (x + 2) (x − 1) = x3 + 3x2 − 4.

2
(1 mark)
b. Sketch the graph of f on the axes below. Label the axis intercepts and any stationary points with their
coordinates. (3 marks)
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2
–2
–4
–6
A graph with rule f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + c, where c is a real number, has three distinct x-intercepts.
Source: VCE 2015, Mathematical Methods (CAS) Exam 2 Section 1, Q17; © VCAA.
MC
B. R+ C. {0, 4}
The set of all possible values of c is
A. R D. (0, 4) E. (−∞, 4)

1.6 Higher degree polynomials

LEARNING INTENTION
• factorise and solve quartic functions
• graph quartic functions
• sketch polynomial functions of higher degrees.
1.6.1 Factorisation and solving

Many of the factorising resolving techniques covered in subtopics 1.4 and 1.5 also apply to polynomials of
degree 4 or higher.
WORKED EXAMPLE 20 Factorising a quartic expression
Fully factorise x4 − 4x3 − x2 + 16x − 12.
P (x) = x4 − 4x3 − x2 + 16x − 12

THINK WRITE
1. Let P (x) equal the quartic polynomial.
P (1) = 14 − 4(1)3 − (1)2 + 16 (1) − 12

= 17 − 17
2. Try P (1), P (−1), P (2), P (−2) etc. to get a
=0
zero remainder.
Thus, (x − 1) is a factor.
3. Use long division to obtain the cubic factor.
x3 − 3x2 − 4x + 12
x−1 x4
− 4x3 − x2 + 16x − 12
− (x4 − x3)
−3x3 − x2 + 16x − 12
− (−3x3 + 3x2)
−4x2 + 16x − 12
− (−4x2 + 4x)
12x − 12
− (12x − 12)
0
H (x) = x3 − 3x2 − 4x + 12
H (1) = 13 − 3(1)2 − 4 (1) + 12
4. Let H (x) equal the cubic polynomial. Apply
= 13 − 7
the factor theorem again to find a linear factor
≠0
of the cubic.
H (2) = 23 − 3(2)2 − 4 (2) + 12

= 20 − 20
=0
Thus, (x − 2) is a factor.
5. Use long division to obtain the quadratic x2 − x − 6

factor. x−2 − x3 3x2
− 4x + 12
− (x3 − 2x2)
−x2 − 4x + 12
− (−x2 + 2x)
−6x + 12
− (−6x + 12)
P (x) = x4 − 4x3 − x2 + 16x − 12

0
= (x − 1) (x − 2) x2 − x − 6
6. Complete the quartic factorisation by
( )
= (x − 1) (x − 2) (x − 3) (x + 2)
factorising the quadratic factor into its two
linear factors.
WORKED EXAMPLE 21 Solving quartic equations
a. Solve x4 − 4x3 − x2 + 16x − 12 = 0. b. Solve 2a4 − 5a2 − 3 = 0.
x4 − 4x3 − x2 + 16x − 12 = 0
THINK WRITE
(x − 1) (x − 2) (x − 3) (x + 2) = 0
a. 1. The quartic expression was factorised in a.
Worked example 20.
2. Use the Null Factor Law to solve the quartic x = 1, 2, 3, −2
2a4 − 5a2 − 3 = 0
polynomial for x.
m = a to help with the factorisation. Let m = a2 .

b. 1. The left-hand side is in quadratic form. Let b.
2
2m2 − 5m − 3 = 0
(2m + 1) (m − 3) = 0
3. Substitute m = a2 and factorise further where 2a + 1 a2 − 3 = 0
2. Factorise the quadratic.
( 2 )( )
2a + 1 a − 3 a + 3 = 0
possible. ( 2 )( √ )( √ )
Note: There is no factorisation technique for
2a2 + 1 =√0 has no real solution.

the addition of perfect squares.
∴ a= ± 3
4. Solve the equation.
1.6.2 Graphing quartic and higher degree polynomial functions

The function f ∶ R → R, f (x) = ax4 + bx3 + cx2 + dx + e, where a, b, c, d, e ∈ R, a ≠ 0, is the general form of
behaviour. If the x4 term has a positive coefficient, y → ∞ as x → ± ∞; if the x4 term has a negative coefficient,
a quartic polynomial function. Its graph can take various shapes, but all of them exhibit the same long-term
y → −∞ as x → ± ∞. Particular forms of the quartic equation enable some shapes of the graphs to be predicted.

Quartic functions of the form y = a(x − h)4 + k

The simplest quartic function is y = x4 . It has a graph that has much the
same shape as y = x2 , as shown in the diagram.
y
This leads to the conclusion that the graph of y = a(x − h)4 + k will
be much the same shape as that of y = a(x − h)2 + k and will have the
y = x4 y = x2
following characteristics.
Quartic functions in turning point form

For y = a(x − h)4 + k:
• if a > 0, the graph will be concave up with a minimum
(–1, 1) (1, 1)
• if a < 0, the graph will be concave down with a maximum

turning point (h, k)
(0, 0) x
• the axis of symmetry has the equation x = h

turning point (h, k)
• there may be zero, one or two x-intercepts.
Quartic functions with linear factors

Not all quartic functions can be factorised. However, if it is possible to express the equation as the product of
linear factors, then the multiplicity of each factor will determine the behaviour of its graph.
Quartic functions with linear factors

A quartic polynomial may have up to 4 linear factors as it is of fourth degree. The possible
• four distinct linear factors: y = (x − a) (x − b) (x − c) (x − d)

combinations of these linear factors are:
• one repeated linear factor: y = (x − a)2 (x − b) (x − c), where the graph has a turning point that
touches the x-axis at x = a
• two repeated linear factors: y = (x − a)2 (x − b)2 , where the graph has turning points that touch the
x-axis at x = a and x = b
• one factor of multiplicity three: y = (x − a)3 (x − b), where the graph has a stationary point of
inflection that cuts the x-axis at x = a.
The factorised forms may be derived from the general equation using standard algebraic techniques. Technology
or calculus is required to accurately identify the position of turning points that do not lie on the x-axis.
WORKED EXAMPLE 22 Sketching a quartic graph
Sketch the graph of y = −x4 + 8x2 − 7 and hence determine graphically the number of solutions to the
equation x4 − 8x2 + 3 = 0.
THINK WRITE
1. Express the equation in factorised form. y = −x4 + 8x2 − 7
y = − x − 8x + 7
2
This is( a quadratic in
) x.
Let a =( x2 .
4 2
y = − a2 − 8a + 7
)
= − (a − 7) (a − 1)
y = − x2 − 7 x2 − 1
Substitute
( back ) (for a: )
= − x + 7 x − 7 (x + 1) (x − 1)
( √ )( √ )
let y = 0.)
− x + 7 x − 7 (x + 1) (x − 1) = 0
2. State the x- and y-values of the intercepts x-intercepts:
( √ )( √
with the axes.
∴ x = ± 7, x = ± 1
√
y = −x4 + 8x2 − 7
y-intercept:
Let x = 0.
∴ y = −7.
As the coefficient of x4 is negative, y → −∞ as x →
± ∞.
3. State the long-term behaviour.

y = –x4 + 8x2 – 7
(– 7, 0 ) 0
( 7, 0 ) x
(–1, 0) (1, 0)
(0, –7)
5. Rearrange the given equation so that the The given equation is x4 − 8x2 + 3 = 0.
3 = −x4 + 8x2
graph’s equation appears on one of its This rearranges to
3 − 7 = −x4 + 8x2 − 7
sides.
−x4 + 8x2 − 7 = −4
y = −x4 + 8x2 − 7 with the horizontal line y = −4 will

6. Explain how the number of solutions to The number of intersections of the graph of
the equation could be solved graphically.
x4 − 8x2 + 3 = 0.
determine the number of solutions to the equation
The line y = −4 lies parallel to the x-axis between the

origin and the y-intercept of the graph y = −x4 + 8x2 − 7.
7. Specify the number of solutions.
y
y = –x4 + 8x2 – 7
(– 7, 0 ) 0
( 7, 0 ) x
(–1, 0) (1, 0)
y = –4
(0, –7)
solutions to the equation x4 − 8x2 + 3 = 0.

There are four points of intersection, so there are four


1. On a Graphs page, 1. On a Graph & Table
complete the entry line screen, complete the entry
f 1 (x) = −x4 + 8x2 − 7 y1 = −x4 + 8x2 − 7

for function 1 as: line for y1 as:

Select the Graph icon to
draw the graph.
2. To find the x-intercepts, 2. To find the x-intercepts,

1: Zero • G-Solve
of the x-intercept when With the cursor on the first
prompted for the lower x-intercept, press EXE.
bound, then press ENTER. Use the left/right arrows to
Move the cursor to the move to the next
right of the x-intercept x-intercept, then press
when prompted for the EXE.
upper bound, then press Repeat for all x-intercepts.
ENTER. Note: The calculator will
Repeat for all x-intercepts. show approximate values
Note: The calculator will for the x-intercepts, not
show approximate values exact values.
for the x-intercepts, not
exact values.
3. To calculate exact values 3. To calculate exact values
for the x-intercepts, open for the x-intercepts, go
a Calculator page and to the Main screen and
solve −x4 + 8x2 − 7 = 0, x solve −x4 + 8x2 − 7 = 0, x

complete
( the entry line as: ) complete
( the entry line as: )
then press ENTER. then press ENTER.
4. Return to the Graphs page, 4. To find the y-intercept,
−2.64. . . , √
double click on the value select:
value to − 7, then press

change the • Analysis
• G-Solve
ENTER. Double click on • Y-Intercept
the value 2.64. then press EXE.
√ . . , change
the value to 7, then press
ENTER.
5. To find the y-intercept, 5. Answer the question. The graph shows

press MENU, then select: four x-intercepts. Hence,
5: Trace there are four solutions
−x4 + 8x2 − 7 = 0.
1: Graph Trace to the equation
Type ‘0’, then press
ENTER twice.
6. Answer the question. The graph shows four

x-intercepts. Hence, there
equation −x4 + 8x2 − 7 = 0.

are four solutions to the
WORKED EXAMPLE 23 Determining the equation of a quartic function
A quartic function has the equation y = a(x + b)4 + c. The points (0, 5), (−2, 9) and (4, 9) lie on the
graph of the function. Calculate the values of a, b and c, and state the coordinates of the turning
point.
THINK WRITE
1. Deduce the equation of the axis of symmetry. y = a(x + b)4 + c

As the points (−2, 9) and (4, 9) have the same y-value,
the axis of symmetry must pass midway between
them.
−2 + 4
The axis of symmetry is the line
x=
x=1
2
∴ b = −1
2. Use the given points given to form a pair of The equation is y = a(x − 1)4 + c.
a(3)4 + c = 9
simultaneous equations. Substitute the point (4, 9):
81a + c = 9
[1]
a(−1)4 + c = 5
Substitute the point (0, 5):
a+c = 5
[2]
80a = 4
3. Solve the equations. Subtract equation [2] from equation [1]:
a=
1
∴ c = 5−
20
1
c=
20
99
20
The equation is y = (x − 1)4 + .

1 99
4. Give the coordinates of the turning point.
20 ( 20 )
99
The minimum turning point is 1, .
20

Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Polynomials of higher degrees (int-2569)
1.6.3 The family of polynomial functions y = xn where n ∈ N

One classification of the polynomial functions is to group them according to whether their degree is even or odd.
The graph of y = xn , where n is an even positive integer

The similarities shown between the graphs of y = x2 , and y = x4 y
comparison of the graphs of y = x2 , y = x4 and y = x6 is shown in the

continue to hold for all polynomial functions of even degree. A y = x2
diagram.
y = x4
The graphs each have a minimum turning point at (0, 0) and each
term behaviour that as x → ± ∞, y → ∞.

y = x6
contains the points (−1, 1) and (1, 1). They exhibit the same long-
The graph of the function with the highest degree, y = x6 , rises more
steeply than the other two graphs for x < −1 and x > 1. However, for
−1 < x < 0 and 0 < x < 1, the function with the highest degree lies
below the other graphs. (–1, 1) (1, 1)
0 x
The graph of y = xn , where n is an even positive integer

For y = a(x − h)n + k, where n is an even positive integer:
• if a > 0, the graph will be concave up with a minimum turning point (h, k)
• if a < 0, the graph will be concave down with a maximum turning point (h, k)
• the axis of symmetry has the equation x = h
• the shape of the graph will be similar to that of y = a(x − h)2 + k

• there may be zero, one or two x-intercepts
• if a > 0, the range is [k, ∞)

• if a < 0, the range is (−∞, k].
The graph of y = xn , where n is an odd positive integer, n > 1
y = x3 and y = x5 illustrate. Both y = x3 and y = x5 have a stationary

Polynomials of odd degree also share similarities, as the graphs of y
y = x5
(−1, −1) and (1, 1), as does the linear function y = x. The three
y = x3
point of inflection at (0, 0), and both pass through the points
graphs display the same long-term behaviour that as x → ± ∞,

y → ± ∞.
(1, 1)
with the highest degree, y = x5 , rises more steeply than the other
As observed for even degree polynomials, the graph of the function (0, 0) x
two graphs for x < −1 and x > 1. However, for −1 < x < 0 and 0 <
(–1, –1)
x < 1, the function with the highest degree lies closer to the x-axis.
The graphs of y = a(x − h)n + k, where n is an odd positive integer,
n ≠ 1, have the following characteristics.
The graph of y = xn , where n is an odd positive integer, n > 1

For y = a(x − h)n + k, where n is an odd positive integer and n > 1:
• if a > 0, the long-term behaviour is as x → ± ∞, y → ± ∞

• there is a stationary point of inflection at (h, k)
• if a < 0, the long-term behaviour is as x → ± ∞, y → ∓∞

• there will be one x-intercept
y = a(x − h)3 + k.
• the shape of the graph is similar to that of the cubic function
Polynomial functions that can be expressed as the product of linear factors

A degree n polynomial function may have up to n linear factors and y
therefore up to n intercepts with the x-axis. Where the polynomial
can be specified completely as the product of linear factors, its (0, 72)
graph can be drawn by interpreting the multiplicity of each linear
factor together with the long-term behaviour determined by the sign
of the coefficient of xn .
For example, consider y = (x + 2)3 (1 − x)(x − 3)2 . The equation
indicates there are x-intercepts at −2, 1 and 3. The x-intercept
(−2, 0) has a multiplicity of 3, meaning that there is a stationary (–2, 0) (1, 0) (3, 0)
point of inflection at this point. The x-intercept (3, 0) has a 0 x
multiplicity of 2, so this point is a turning point. The point (1, 0)
is a standard
x6 is negative; therefore, as x → ± ∞, y → −∞.

x-intercept. The polynomial is of degree 6 and the coefficient of

WORKED EXAMPLE 24 Sketching graphs of higher degree polynomials
Sketch the graph of y = (x − 1)5 − 32.

THINK WRITE
1. State whether the graph has a turning point or a y = (x − 1) − 32

5
point of inflection at (1, −32).

point of inflection, and give the coordinates of As the degree is odd, the graph will have a stationary
the key point.
y = (−1)5 − 32
2. Calculate the intercepts with the coordinate
= −33
axes.
The y-intercept is (0, −33).

x-intercepts: let y = 0.
0 = (x − 1)5 − 32
(x − 1)5 = 32
x−1 = 2
x=3
y = (x – 1)5 – 32
0 (3, 0) x
(0, –33) (1, –32)
1.6 Exercise

1. WE20 Fully factorise x4 − 5x3 − 32x2 + 180x − 144.

Technology free
a. x − 8x3 + 17x2 + 2x − 24 = 0 b. a4 + 2a2 − 8 = 0

2. WE21 Solve the following.
4
a. l4 − 17l + 16 = 0 b. c4 + c3 − 10c2 − 4c + 24 = 0
2
a. a4 − 10a2 + 9 = 0 b. 4k4 − 101k2 + 25 = 0

c. 9z4 − 145z2 + 16 = 0 d. x2 − 2x − 47 x2 − 2x − 48 = 0
( )2 ( )
5. If (x + 2), (x − 3) and (x + 4) are factors of x4 + ax3 + bx2 + cx + 24, determine the values of a, b and c.
Technology active
Sketch the graph of y = x2 − x4 and hence determine graphically the number of solutions to the
equation x4 − x2 + x − 2 = 0.
6. WE22
7. Sketch the graph of y = x4 − 6x3 and hence state the number of intersections the graph of y = x4 − 6x3 + 1
would make with the x-axis.
A quartic function has the equation y = a(x + b)4 + c. The graph of the function cuts the x-axis at
x = −9 and x = −3. The range of the graph is (−∞, 7]. Calculate the values of a, b and c, and state the
8. WE23
coordinates of the turning point.

9. Use CAS technology to sketch the graphs of y = x4 − 2 and y = 2 − x3 , and hence state to 2 decimal places
the values of the roots of the equation x4 + x3 − 4 = 0.
10. Use CAS technology to obtain the coordinates of any turning points or stationary points of inflection on the
a. y = x2 + x + 1 x2 − 4 b. y = 1 − 4x − x2 − x3
graphs of the following. Express answers to 2 decimal places where appropriate.
( )( )
c. y = ((x − 2) (x + 3) + 80)
1 5
11. WE24 Sketch the graph of y = (x + 1) + 10.

4
6
12. Sketch the graph of y = (x + 4) (x + 2) (x − 2) (x − 5).

2 3
13. a. A quartic function has exactly one turning point at (−5, 12) and also contains the point (−3, −36). Form
b. Sketch the graph of y = (2 + x) (1 − x) .

its equation.
c. i. Factorise −x4 + x3 + 10x2 − 4x − 24.

3
ii. Hence, sketch y = −x4 + x3 + 10x2 − 4x − 24.
14. a. i. Sketch the graphs of y = x6 and y = x7 on the same set of axes, labelling any points of intersection with
ii. Hence, state the solutions to {x ∶ x6 − x7 ≥ 0}.

their coordinates.
b. Sketch the graphs of y = 16 − (x + 2) and y = 16 − (x + 2) on

4 5
y
the same set of axes, identifying the key features of each graph
and any points of intersection.
c. Consider the graph of the polynomial function shown.
i. Assuming the graph is a monic polynomial that maintains
the long-term behaviour suggested in the diagram, give a
possible equation for the graph and state its degree. x
more at x = 10. This is not shown on the diagram. Given

(–3, 0) (–1, 0) 0 (2, 0)
ii. In fact, the graph cuts straight through the x-axis once
(0, –2)
this additional information, state the degree and a possible
equation for the function.

1.6 Exam questions

Source: VCE 2015, Mathematical Methods (CAS) Exam 2 Section 1, Q3; © VCAA.
MC
y
b d
x
O c
A. y = −2 (x + b) (x − c) (x − d) B. y = 2 (x + b) (x − c) (x − d)
The rule for a function with the graph above could be
C. y = −2 (x − b) (x − c) (x − d) D. y = 2 (x − b) (x − c) (x − d)
2 2
E. y = −2 (x − b) (x + c) (x + d)
2
2
Solve −x + 7x − 12x ≥ 0.
4 3 2
A quartic graph crosses the x-axis at x = −3, x = −1, x = 2 and x = 4, and crosses the y-axis at y = −24.
MC
A. y = − (x − 3) (x − 1) (x + 2) (x + 4) B. y = (x − 3) (x − 1) (x + 2) (x + 4)
The equation of the graph is
C. y = − (x + 3) (x + 1) (x − 2) (x − 4) D. y = − (x − 3) (x + 1) (x − 2) (x − 4)
E. y = (x + 3) (x + 1) (x − 2) (x − 4)
1.7 Other algebraic functions

LEARNING INTENTION
• determine the maximal domain of a function
• sketch graphs of the hyperbola and truncus functions
• sketch graphs of the square root and cube root functions
• sketch graphs of the form y = x q .

p
The powers of the variable in a polynomial function must be natural numbers. In this subtopic we consider
functions where the power of the variable may be rational.
1.7.1 Maximal domain

The maximal domain of any function must exclude:
• any value of x for which the denominator would become zero
• any value of x that would create a negative term under an even root sign.
The maximal or implied domain of rational functions of the form y =

g (x)
, where both f (x) and g (x) are
polynomials, must exclude any values of x for which f (x) = 0. The domain would be R \ {x ∶ f (x) = 0}.
f (x)
Likewise, the maximal domain of square root functions of the form y = f (x) would be {x ∶ f (x) ≥ 0}.
√
For a function of the form y = √ , the maximal domain would be {x ∶ f (x) > 0}.
g (x)
f (x)
WORKED EXAMPLE 25 Maximal domain
a. y = 3 − 4x b. y = 2 −
Determine the maximal domains of each of the following functions.
√
x−4
5
THINK WRITE
∴ 3 − 4x ≥ 0
a. 1. Identify what must be excluded from the The term under the square root cannot be negative.
domain. The restrictive element to the equation
3 − 4x ≥ 0
is the square root function.
−4x ≥ −3
2. Solve the inequation to find x.
x≤
3
4
Domain = −∞,
( ]
3
3. State the maximal domain.
4
∴ x−4≠0
b. 1. Identify what must be excluded from the The denominator cannot be equal to zero.
domain. The restrictive element to the equation
x≠4
is the denominator of the fraction.
Domain = x ∈ R \ {4}
2. Solve the equation.
1.7.2 The rectangular hyperbola

The equation of the simplest hyperbola is y = . In power
1
form this is written as y = x−1 . Its maximal domain is R \ {0},

y
x
as the function is undefined if x = 0.
• There is a vertical asymptote with equation x = 0.

The graph of this function has the following characteristics. 1
• There is a horizontal asymptote with equation y = 0.

y=–
x
• As x → ∞, y → 0 from above the horizontal asymptote,

and as x → −∞, y → 0 from below the horizontal
• As x → 0+ , y → ∞, and as x → 0− , y → −∞.
0 x
asymptote. y=0
• The domain is R \ {0} and the range is R \ {0}.

• The function has one-to-one correspondence.
As the asymptotes are perpendicular to each other, the graph

is called a rectangular hyperbola. The graph lies in the first
y = − would lie in the second and fourth quadrants.

and third quadrants formed by its asymptotes. The graph of x=0
1
x

Hyperbolas of the form y = +k

x−h
a
but if the graph of y = is horizontally or vertically translated, then the vertical and horizontal asymptotes are
The asymptotes are the key feature of the graph of a hyperbola. Their positions are unaffected by a dilation,
1
x
moved accordingly.
Hyperbolas of the form y = +k

x−h
a
The graph of y = + k has:

x−h
a
a vertical asymptote at x = h
a horizontal asymptote at y = k
•
a domain of R \ {h}
•
a range of R \ {k}.
•
•
If a > 0, the graph lies in quadrants 1 and 3 as formed by its asymptotes.

If a < 0, the graph lies in quadrants 2 and 4 as formed by its asymptotes.
Identifying the asymptotes

The presence of a vertical asymptote at x = h on the graph of y = + k could also be recognised by solving
x−h
a
x − h = 0. The hyperbola y = has a vertical asymptote when bx + c = 0, and its maximal domain is
bx + c
a
R \ {− }.
c
b
1 + 2x
The horizontal asymptote is identified from the equation of a hyperbola expressed in proper rational form, that
is, when the numerator is of lower degree than the denominator. The equation y = should be rewritten as
y = + 2 in order to identify the horizontal asymptote y = 2.

x
1
x
WORKED EXAMPLE 26 Sketching and determining the equations of hyperbolas
2x + 5
a. Determine an appropriate equation for the hyperbola shown.
b. i. Obtain the maximal domain of y =

y
x+1
.
2x + 5
ii. Sketch the graph of y =
x+1
and state its range.
(0, 0)
x
y = –4
x=2
a. Let the equation be y = + k.

THINK WRITE
x−h
a
a. 1. Write the general equation of a hyperbola.
at x = 2.
2. Identify the asymptotes and enter them The graph shows there is a vertical asymptote
∴ y= +k
into the equation.
x−2
a
There is a horizontal asymptote at y = −4.

∴ y= −4
x−2
a
3. Identify the known point through which The graph passes through the origin.
the graph passes and use this to fully
0= −4
Substitute (0, 0):
−2
determine the equation. a
4=−
a
a = −8
2
−8
The equation is y = − 4.
x−2
2x + 5
b. i. y =
x+1
b. i. 1. Identify what must be excluded from
the domain.
The function is undefined if its denominator is
When x + 1 = 0, x = −1.
zero.
The maximal domain is R \ {−1}.

This value must be excluded from the domain.
2x + 5 2 (x + 1) + 3
=
x+1 x+1
ii. 1. Express the equation in proper ii.
2 (x + 1)
= +
rational form.
x+1 x+1
3
= 2+
x+1
3
The equation is y = + 2.
x+1
3
The graph has a vertical asymptote at x = −1

and a horizontal asymptote at y = 2.
2. State the equations of the asymptotes.
2x + 5
x-intercept: let y = 0 in y =
x+1
3. Calculate any intercepts with the .
2x + 5
0=
coordinate axes.
x+1
0 = 2x + 5
x=−
5
The x-intercept is − , 0
2 ( )
5
2

y=
5
=5
1

2x + 5
y = ––––
x+1
(0, 5)
y=2
(–2.5, 0) 0 x
The range is R \ {2}.

x = –1
5. State the range.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Hyperbola (int-2573)
1.7.3 The truncus

The graph of the function y =
1
is called a truncus. Its rule
can be written as a power function, y = x−2 .
y
x2
• There is a vertical asymptote with equation x = 0.

The graph of this function has the following characteristics.
• There is a horizontal asymptote with equation y = 0.

• The domain is R \ {0}.
y = 1–2
x
• The range is R+ .
• The function has many-to-one correspondence.
• The graph is symmetric about its vertical asymptote.
The graph of y =
1 0 y=0 x
lies in the first and second quadrants that
are created by its asymptotes. The graph of y = − 2 would lie

x2
1
x x=0
in the third and fourth quadrants.
The truncus is steeper than the hyperbola for x ∈ (−1, 0) and x ∈ (0, 1). However, a similar approach is taken to
sketching both functions.
The general form of the truncus y = +k

(x − h)2
a
The graph of y = + k has the following characteristics.

(x − h)2
a
There is a vertical asymptote at x = h.

There is a horizontal asymptote at y = k.
•
The domain is R \ {h}.

•
If a > 0, then the range is (k, ∞).

•
If a < 0, then the range is (−∞, k).

•
•
WORKED EXAMPLE 27 Sketching the graph of a truncus
Sketch the graph of y = 8 −

(x − 3)2
2
and state its domain and range.
THINK WRITE
y=8−
(x − 3)2
2
1. State the equations of the asymptotes.
The vertical asymptote is x = 3.

The horizontal asymptote is y = 8.
2. Calculate the y-intercept. y-intercept: let x = 0.

y = 8−
2
y=7
(−3)2
7
9 ( )
7
The y-intercept is 0, 7 .
9
3. Calculate any x-intercepts. x-intercepts: let y = 0.
0 = 8−
(x − 3)2
2
=8
(x − 3)2
2
2 = 8(x − 3)2
(x − 3)2 =
1
4
x−3 = ±
1
2
x = 2 or x = 3
1 1
2 2
The x-intercepts are 2 , 0 , 3 , 0 .
( ) ( )
1 1
2 2

4. Sketch the graph. y y=8
(0, 7 –79) y=8–—

2
—
(x – 3)2
0 x
1
( 2 –, 0
2 ) (3 –12 , 0)
The domain is R \ {3} and the range is (−∞, 8).

x=3
5. State the domain and range.
1.7.4 The square root and cube root functions

The square root function has the rule y = x, and the rule for the cube root function is y =
√ √
3
x. As power
functions these rules can be expressed as y = x 2 and y = x 3 respectively.
1 1
The maximal domain of y = x is [0, ∞), because negative values under a square root must be excluded.
√
y = 3 x is R.
However,
√ cube roots of negative numbers are real, so the maximal domain of the cube root function
The graph of the square root function

The function y = x is the top half of the ‘sideways’ parabola y2 = x. The bottom half of this parabola is the
√
function y = − x.
√
y= x
0 x
y=– x
y2 = x is not a function, but its two halves are. The equation y2 = x could also be written as√
y = ± x. The turning point or vertex of the parabola is the end point for the square root functions y = x and
The parabola
√
y = − x. These functions both have domain [0, ∞), but their ranges are [0, ∞) and (−∞, 0] respectively.
√
parabola y2 = −x
y = −x and y = − −x, with domain (−∞, 0] and ranges [0, ∞) and (−∞, 0] respectively.
The√ √ would open to the left of its vertex. Its two branches would be the square root functions
The four square root functions show the different orientations that can be taken. Calculation of the maximal
domain and the range will identify which form a particular function takes.
y = –x
0 x
y = – –x
Square root functions
Square root functions of the form y = a x − h + k have the following

√
characteristics.
• The domain is [h, ∞).

• The end point is (h, k).
• If a > 0, the range is [k, ∞); if a < 0, the range is (−∞, k].
Square root functions of the form y = a −(x − h) + k have the following

√
characteristics.
• The end point is (h, k).
• If a > 0, the range is [k, ∞); if a < 0, the range is (−∞, k].
• The domain is (−∞, h].
The graph of the cube root function

The graph of the cubic function y = x3 has a stationary point of inflection at the origin. The graph of y3 = x has a
‘sideways’ orientation but still has a point of inflection at the origin.
The rule y3 = x can also be expressed as y = 3 x. The graph of y = 3 x is shown in the diagram.
√ √
y
3
y= x
(0, 0)
x
The graph y = 3 x has the following characteristics.

√
• There is a point of inflection at (0, 0) where the tangent drawn to the curve would be vertical.
• The domain is R and the range is R.

The graph of y = − 3 x is the reflection of y = 3 x in the x axis.

√ √
y
3
y=– x
(0, 0)
x
This is also the graph of y = −x, as −x = − 3 x.

√
3
√
3
√
Cube root functions

The general equation y = a x − h + k shows the graph has the following
√3
characteristics.
• There is a point of inflection at (h, k).
• One x-intercept can be located by solving a x − h + k = 0.

• The domain is R and the range is R.
√
• If a > 0, the long-term behaviour is x → ± ∞, y → ± ∞.

3
• If a < 0, the long-term behaviour is x → ± ∞, y → ∓∞.
The long-term behaviour of the cube root function resembles that of the cubic function.
WORKED EXAMPLE 28 Cube root and square root graphs
a. i. State the maximal domain of y = 4 − x − 1.

√
ii. Sketch the graph of y = 4 − x − 1 and state its range.

√
b. The graph of a cube root function has its point of inflection at (1, 5) and the graph cuts the y-axis at
(0, 2). Determine the rule and sketch the graph.
a. i. y = 4−x−1
THINK WRITE
√
a. i. Form the maximal domain.
The term under the square root cannot be
4−x ≥ 0
negative.
x≤4
ii. The end point is (4, −1).

The maximal domain is (−∞, 4].
ii. 1. State the coordinates of the end point.
2. Calculate the y-intercept, if there is one. With the domain (−∞, 4], the graph opens
let x = 0.
to the left, so it will cut the y-axis.
y = 4−1
y-intercept:
√
y=1
3. Calculate the x-intercept, if there is one. The end point lies below the x-axis and
the y-intercept lies above the x-axis. There
x-intercept:√let y = 0.
will be an x-intercept.
0 = 4−x−1
4−x = 1
√
4−x = 1
x=3
(0, 1)
y = (4 – x) – 1 (3, 0)
0 x
(4, –1)
5. State the range. The range is [−1, ∞).

Let the equation be y = a x − h + k.
√
3
b. 1. Write the general equation of a cube root b.
function.
∴ y=a x−1+5
2. Insert the information about the point of The point of inflection is (1, 5).
√3
inflection.
2 = a −1 + 5
3. Fully determine the equation using the Substitute the point (0, 2):
√
2 = −a + 5
3
other piece of information given.
a=3
The equation is y = 3 x − 1 + 5.
√3
let y = 0.
0 = 3 x−1+5
4. Calculate the x-intercept. x-intercept: √
−5
3
x−1 =
√3
3
x−1 = −
( )3
5
x = 1−
3
125
x=−
27
98
The x-intercept is − , 0 .
27 ( )
98
27
y
5. Sketch the graph. 3
y=3 x–1+5
(1, 5)
(0, 2)
0 x
( – 2798— , 0(

Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities Patterns of functions (int-6415)
The relation y2 = x (int-2574)
Fractional power functions (int-6521)
y=x , p, q ∈ N
p
1.7.5 Power functions of the form q
The square root and cube root functions are examples of power functions of the form y = x q , p, q ∈ N. For the
p
square root function, y = x = x 2 , so p = 1 and q = 2; for the cube root function, y = 3 x = x 3 , so p = 1 and q = 3.
√ 1 √ 1
In this section, we consider some other functions that have powers that are positive rational numbers and deduce
the shape of their graphs through an analysis based on index laws.
p √
q
Index laws enable x q to be expressed as xp .
With p, q ∈ N, the function is formed as the qth root of the polynomial xp . As polynomial shapes are known, this
interpretation allows the shape of the graph of the function to be deduced. Whichever is the larger of p and q will
determine whether the polynomial or the root shape will be the dominant function.
Power functions
For the graph of y = x q , p, q ∈ N:

p
• if p > q, the polynomial shape dominates, because the index >1

p
q
• if q > p, the root shape dominates, because the index must be in the interval 0 < <1
p
• if p = q, the index is 1 and the graph is y = x

q
• even roots of the polynomial xp cannot be formed in any section where the polynomial graph is
negative
• the points (0, 0) and (1, 1) will always lie on the graph.
is illustrated for p > q ⇒ index > 1, p = q ⇒ index = 1 and

p
The basic polynomial or root shape for the first quadrant –
q
q > p ⇒ index < 1.

y=x,p>q
y
y = x, p = q
Note that the polynomial shape lies below y = x for 0 < x < 1
and above y = x for x > 1, whereas the root shape lies above
y = x for 0 < x < 1 and below y = x for x > 1. It is always
helpful to include the line y = x when sketching a graph of
p
–
q
the form y = x q .
y=x,q>p
p
(1, 1)
(0, 0) x
WORKED EXAMPLE 29 Graphs of power functions
Give the domain and deduce the shape of the graph of each of following.
a. y = x 3 b. y = x 2
2 3
THINK WRITE
a. y = x 3
2
a. 1. Express the function rule in surd form and
= x2
deduce how the function can be formed. √3
quadratic polynomial y = x2 .
The function is formed as the cube root of the
2. Use the nature of the operation forming the Cube roots of both positive and negative
of y = x2 lies in quadrants 1 and 2 and is never

function to determine the domain of the numbers can be calculated. However, the graph
function.
negative. Therefore, there will be two non-
negative branches to the power function, giving
it a domain of R.
3. Reason which shape, the root or the As 3 > 2 (or as the index is less than 1), the
the graph lies above y = x for 0 < x < 1 and

polynomial, will dominate. root shape dominates the graph. This means
below it for x > 1.
relative to the line y = x.

4. Draw the required graph, showing its position The points (0, 0) and (1, 1) lie on the graph,
and by symmetry the graph will also pass
Note: There is a sharp point at the origin. through the point (−1, 1).
y y=x
2
–
y = x3
(–1, 1) (1, 1)
(0, 0) x
b. y = x 2
3
b. 1. Express the function rule in surd form and
= x3
deduce how the function can be formed. √
the cubic polynomial y = x3 .

The function is formed as the square root of
2. Use the nature of the operation forming the The graph of y = x3 is positive in quadrant 1
function to determine the domain of the and negative in quadrant 3, so the square root
function. can only be taken of the section in quadrant 1.
be R+ ∪ {0}.
There will be one branch and its domain will

3. Reason which shape, the root or the As 3 > 2 (or as the index is greater than 1), the
lie below y = x for 0 < x < 1 and above it for

polynomial, will dominate. polynomial shape dominates. The graph will
x > 1.
relative to the line y = x.

4. Draw the required graph, showing its position The points (0, 0) and (1, 1) lie on the graph.
y y=x
3
–
y = x2
(1, 1)
(0, 0)
x
1.7 Exercise

Technology free
x−6
1. WE25 Determine the maximal domains of each of the following functions.
a. y = b. y = 1 − 2x
√
x+9
−2
c. y = d. y =
(x + 3) x +3
1
2 2
5x − 2
b. i. Obtain the maximal domain of y =
2. a. WE26 Determine an appropriate equation for the hyperbola shown. y
x−1
.
5x − 2
ii. Sketch the graph of y =
x−1
and state its range. (0, 3)
y=1
3. Sketch the graph of y =

1 − 2x
4
, stating its domain and range. 0 x
(–9, 0)
4. Sketch the following hyperbolas and state the domain and range of each.
a. y = +5 b. y = 2 −
x+1
4 3
4x + 3
c. y = d. xy + 2y + 5 = 0
x
2x + 1
x = –3
e. y = −5
5−x
10
5. a. The graph of a hyperbola has a vertical asymptote at x = −3 and a

horizontal asymptote at y = 6. The point (−4, 8) lies on the graph.
y
Form the equation of this graph.

b. Form a possible equation for the graph shown.
Sketch the graph of y = − 2 and state its domain

(x + 2)2
8
6. WE27
and range. 0 x
−3
7. Sketch each of the following and state the domain and range of each.
a. y = +1 b. y = −2
3
y = ––
(–3, –2)
(3 − x)2 4(x − 1)2

2 2
25x2 − 1
c. y = −1 d. y =
(2x + 3)2
1
x = –2
5x2
8. Determine an appropriate equation for the truncus shown.
(–0.5, 0) (0.5, 0)
0 x
y = –1
x=0
Technology active
b. A function f defined on its maximal domain has a graph y = f (x)

9. a. The diagram shows the graph of a truncus. Form its equation. y
in the shape of a truncus with range (−4, ∞). Given f (−1) = 8 and
f (2) = 8, determine the equation of the graph and state the function
y=2
f using function notation.
a. i. State the maximal domain of y = − x + 9 + 2.

10. WE28
√ 0 x
ii. Sketch the graph of y = − x + 9 + 2 and state its range.

(5, –1)
√
b. The graph of a cube root function has its point of inflection

at (1, 3) and the graph cuts the y-axis at (0, 1). Determine its
rule and sketch its graph, locating its x-intercept.
11. a. Determine the maximal domain and the range of y = 3 4x − 9 − 6,

√ x=4
and sketch its graph.
y = (10 − 3x) 3 and sketch the graph.

b. State the coordinates of the point of inflection of the graph of
1
12. Give the equations of the two square root functions that form the branches of each of the following
a. (y − 2) = 4 (x − 3) b. y2 + 2y + 2x = 5
‘sideways’ parabolas, and state the domain and range of each function.
2

a. y = 1 − b. y = 2
−x + 4
13. Sketch the following square root functions and state the domain and range of each.
√ √
c. y = 2 4 + 2x + 3 d. y = − 3 − 12 − 3x
3x
√ √ √
14. a. The graph of the function f ∶ [5, ∞) → R, f(x) = a x + b + c is shown in the diagram. Determine the
√
values of a, b and c.
y
y = f (x)
(6, 0)
0 x
(5, –2)
b. The graph of the function f ∶ (−∞, 2] → R, f(x) = ax + b + c is shown in the diagram.

√
ii. State the equation of the reflection if the graph of y = f (x) is reflected in the x-axis.
i. Determine the values of a, b and c.
y = f (x)
(0, 0) x
(2, –2)
15. a. Sketch the graph of {(x, y) ∶ y = x + 2 − 1}, labelling the intercepts

√
3
y
1− x+8
with the coordinate axes with their exact coordinates.
Sketch the graph of y = f (x) where f(x) =

√3
b. , stating its (1, 0)
2
Sketch the graph of g ∶ [−3, 6] → R, g(x) = −x + 5 and state its

implied domain and range.
√3
0 x
c. (0, –2)
domain and range.
d. Form a possible equation for the cube root function shown in the
diagram.
and (−1, −2). At the point (−1, −2), the tangent drawn to the curve
e. The graph of a cube root function passes through the points (−9, 5)
f. Express y as the subject of the equation (y + 2) = 64x − 128 and hence state the coordinates of the point
is vertical. Determine the equation of the graph.
3
of inflection of its graph.

16. State the maximal domain of the function y = (2 − x) (x + 3). Use CAS technology to investigate the shape
√
of the graph.
17. WE29 Give the domain and deduce the shape of the graph of each of the following.
a. y = x 4 b. y = x 3
3 4
18. Give the domain and deduce the shape of the graph of each of the following.
a. y = x 5 b. y = x 8
1 1
graph, showing its position relative to the line y = x.

19. For each of the following, identify the domain and the quadrants in which the graph lies, and sketch the
a. y = x 2 b. y = x 3
5 5
c. y = x 5 d. y = x0.25
3
20. a. Explain how the graph of y = x 3 could be drawn using the graph of y = x.
1
b. On the same set of axes, sketch the graphs of y = x and y = x 3 .

1
c. Hence, obtain {x ∶ x 3 − x > 0}.

1
1.7 Exam questions
3x + 2
The graph of function f ∶ D → R, f (x) =
5−x
MC , where D is the maximal domain, has asymptotes
A. x = −5, y = B. x = −3, y = 5
3
C. x = , y = −3 D. x = 5, y = 3
2
2
E. x = 5, y = −3
3
Let a ∈ (0, ∞) and b ∈ R.

MC
Consider the function h ∶ [−a, 0) ∪ (0, a] → R, h (x) = + b.

a
x
A. [b − 1, b + 1] B. (b − 1, b + 1)
The range of h is
C. (−∞, b − 1) ∪ (b + 1, ∞) D. (−∞, b − 1] ∪ [b + 1, ∞)
E. [b − 1, ∞)
The maximal domain of the function f is R\ {1}.

MC
x2 − 5 x+4
A possible rule for f is
A. f (x) = B. f (x) =
x−1 x−5
x2 + x + 4 5 − x2
C. f (x) = D. f (x) =
√x + 1 1+x
E. f (x) = x − 1
2

1.8 Combinations of functions

LEARNING INTENTION
• sketch and determine hybrid functions
• sketch sums, differences and products of functions.
By combining together pieces of different functions defined over restricted domains, a ‘piecewise’ function
can be created. By combining together different functions using arithmetic operations, other functions can be
created. In this section we consider some of these combinations.
1.8.1 Hybrid functions

A hybrid function, or piecewise function, is a function whose rule takes a different form over different subsets
of its domain. An example of a hybrid function is the one defined by the rule
x≤0
√
f (x) = {2, 0 < x < 2.

3
x,
x, x≥2
branches, y = 3 x, y = 2 and y = x, are drawn on their respective

To sketch its graph,
√ the three functions that combine to form its y
restricted domains on the same set of axes. If the branches do not

y = f (x)
join, then it is important to indicate which end points are open and
unique y-value. The graph of this hybrid function y = f (x) is shown in

which are closed, as each of the x-values of any function must have a
(0, 2)
(2, 2)
the diagram.
The function is not continuous when x = 0 as the branches do not join
(0, 0) x
domain. As the rule shows, x = 0 lies in the domain of the cube root
for that value of x. It is said to be discontinuous at that point of its
section, the point (0, 0) is closed and the point (0, 2) is open.
The function is continuous at x = 2 as there is no break or gap in
the curve. There is no need for a closed point to be shown at x = 2,
because its two neighbouring branches run ‘naturally’ into each other
at this point.
To calculate the value of the function for a given value of x, choose the function rule of that branch defined for
the section of the domain to which the x-value belongs.
WORKED EXAMPLE 30 Sketching hybrid functions
⎧ −x, x ≤ −1
√
Consider the function for which f (x) = ⎨2 − x2 , −1 < x < 1.

⎪
⎪√x + 1, x ≥ 1
⎩

a. Evaluate f (−1), f (0) and f (4).
c. State:
i. any value of x for which the function is not continuous
ii. the domain and range.
THINK WRITE
⎧ −x, x ≤ −1
√
a. f (x) = ⎨2 − x2 −1 < x < 1

⎪
⎪√x + 1, x ≥ 1
a. For each x-value, decide which section of
the domain it is in and calculate its image
f (−1): Since x = −1 lies in√
⎩
using the branch of the hybrid function’s rule
x ≤ −1, use the rule f (x) = −x.
the domain section
applicable to that section of the domain.
f (−1) = − (−1)
√
= 1
√
=1
f (0): Since x = 0 lies in the domain section
−1 < x < 1, use the rule f (x) = 2 − x2 .
f (0) = 2 − 02
= 2−0
=2
f (4): Since x = 4 lies in the
x ≥ 1, use the rule f (x) = x + 1.
√ domain section
f (4) = 4 + 1
√
= 2+1
=3
b. y = −x, x ≤ −1 is a square root function.

√
b. 1. Obtain the information needed to sketch
y = 2 − x2 , −1 < x < 1 is a parabola with

each of the functions forming the branches The points (−1, 1) and (−4, 2) lie on its graph.
of the hybrid function.
At x = −1 or x = 1, y = 1. The points (−1, 1)

maximum turning point (0, 2).
y = x + 1, x ≥ 1 is a square root function.

and √
(1, 1) are open for the parabola.
The points (1, 2) and (4, 3) lie on its graph.

2. Sketch each branch on the same set of axes y
to form the graph of the hybrid function.
(4, 3)
(–4, 2) (0, 2)
y = f (x)
(1, 2)
(–1, 1) (1, 1)
0 x
c. i. State any value of x where the branches of c. The function is not continuous at x = 1.
the graph do not join.
The range is [1, ∞).

ii. State the domain and range. The domain is R.

a. 1. On a Calculator page, a. 1. On a Graph & Table

press MENU, then screen, complete the
=
select: entry line for y1 as:
−x, x ≤ −1
1: Actions y1√
⎧
1: Define
⎨√ x , −1 < x < 1
−
Complete the entry
⎩ x + 1, x ≥ 1
2
2
√ f 1 (x) =
line as:
−x, x ≤ −1
Define
⎧
then press EXE.
⎨√ x , −1 < x < 1
−
Note: The hybrid
⎩ x + 1, x ≥ 1
2
2 function template can
be found in the Math 3
then press ENTER. tab of the Keyboard
Note: The hybrid menu. Click it twice for
function template can three equations.
be found by pressing the
Template button.
2. Complete the next entry 2. Click the Table Input
line as: icon and complete the
Start: −1
f 1 (−1) fields as:
then press ENTER.
Complete the next entry End: 4
line as: Step: 1
f 1 (0) then select OK.
then press ENTER.
Complete the next entry
line as:
f 1 (4)
then press ENTER.
f (−1) = 1, f (0) = 2, f (4) = 3 f (−1) = 1, f (0) = 2,

f (4) = 3
3. The answers appear on 3. The answers appear on
the screen. the screen.
b. 1. On a Graphs page, b. 1. Click the Graph icon.
select f1, then press
ENTER.
Note: The hybrid
function automatically
appears in the entry
line for f1 as it was
previously defined on
the Calculator page.
2. Press MENU, then 2. Select:

select: • Analysis
5: Trace • Trace
1: Graph Trace Type ‘−1’, select OK,
Type ‘−1’, then press then press EXE to mark
ENTER twice to mark the point (−1, 1).
the point (−1, 1). Type ‘1’, select OK,
Type ‘1’, then press then press EXE to mark
ENTER twice to mark the point (1, 2).
the point (1, 2). Note: The point (1, 1)
Press the down arrow to should be drawn as an
move to the point (1, 1), open circle.
then press ENTER.
Note: The point (1, 1)
should be drawn as an
open circle.
3. To find the maximum, To find the maximum,
press MENU, then select:
6: Analyze Graph • G-Solve
3: Maximum • Max
Move the cursor to the then press EXE.
left of the maximum
when prompted for
the lower bound, then
press ENTER. Move
the cursor to the right
of the maximum when
prompted for the upper
bound, then press
ENTER.
x = 1. at x = 1.
c. i. Look for points where The graph is discontinuous at c. i. Look for points where The graph is discontinuous
a break in the graph a break in the graph
occurs. occurs.
[1, ∞]. range is [1, ∞].

ii. State the domain and The domain is R and the range is ii. State the domain and The domain is R and the
range. range.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Hybrid functions (int-6414)
1.8.2 Sums, differences and products of functions

New functions are formed when two given functions are combined together under the operations of addition,
subtraction and multiplication. The given functions can only be combined where they both exist, so the domain
domains df and dg respectively, the common domain is df ∩ dg .

of the new function formed must be the domain common to both the given functions. For functions f and g with
Sums, differences and products of functions

• The sum and difference functions f ± g are defined by ( f ± g)(x) = f(x) ± g(x) with domain df ∩ dg .
• The product function fg is defined by ( fg)(x) = f(x)g(x) with domain df ∩ dg .

Graphs of the functions f ± g and fg may be able to be recognised from their rules. If not, the graphs may
be deduced by sketching the graphs of f and g and combining by addition, subtraction or multiplication, as
f − g can be considered to be the sum function f + (−g).

appropriate, the values of f (x) and g (x) for selected x-values in their common domain. The difference function
WORKED EXAMPLE 31 Determining sums and products of functions
Consider the functions f and g defined by f (x) = 4 + x and g (x) = 4 − x respectively.

√ √
a. Form the rule for the sum function f + g, stating its domain, and sketch the graph of y = ( f + g) (x).
b. Form the rule for the product function fg and state its domain and range.
a. f(x) = 4+x
THINK WRITE
√
Domain: 4 + x ≥ 0
a. 1. Write the domains of the functions
x ≥ −4
f and g.
df = [−4, ∞)
g(x) = 4 − x
√
Domain: 4 + x ≥ 0
x≤4
dg = (−∞, 4]
2. State the common domain. df

dg
df ∩ dg = [−4, 4]
x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
( f + g) (x) = f (x) + g (x)

= 4+x+ 4−x
3. Form the sum function and state its
√ √
domain.
df+g = [−4, 4]
4. Sketch the graphs of y = f (x) and

y = g (x) on the same set of axes.
y
y = ( f + g)(x)
y = g(x) (0, 4)
Add the y-coordinates of key points
y = ( f + g) (x).
together to form the graph of (0, 2) y = f (x)
(−4, 8) (4, 8)
(−4, 0) (4, 0) x
x −4 0 4
√
f (x) 0 2 8
√
g (x) 8 2 0
f (x) + g (x)
√ √
8 4 8
b. (fg) (x) = f (x) g (x)

= 4+x × 4−x
b. 1. Form the product function and state
(√ ) (√ )
its domain.
= (4 + x) (4 − x)
√
= 16 − x2
√
dfg = [−4, 4]
The rule (fg) (x) = 16 − x2 is that of the top half of a

√
2. State the range of the function.
semicircle with centre (0, 0) and radius 4. Therefore, the
range is [0, 4].
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Sums, differences and products of functions (int-6416)
1.8.3 Graphical techniques

Given the graphs of functions whose rules are not necessarily known, it may be possible to deduce the shape of
the graph of the function that is the sum or other combination of the functions whose graphs are given.
Addition of ordinates
Given the graphs of y1 = f (x) and y2 = g (x), the graphing technique known as addition of ordinates adds together
function y = y1 + y2 = f (x) + g (x).

the y-values, or ordinates, of the two given graphs over the common domain to form the graph of the sum
Graphical techniques
domain df ∩ dg :
Note the following points when applying the addition of ordinates technique over the common
• If the graphs of f and g intersect at (a, b), then the point (a, 2b) lies on the graph of f + g.
• Where f(x) = −g(x), the graph of f + g cuts the x-axis.
• If one of f(x) or g(x) is positive and the other is negative, the graph of f + g lies between the graphs
• If one of f(x) or g(x) is zero, then the graph of f + g cuts the other graph.
of f and g.
• If f(x) → 0+ , then the graph of f + g approaches the graph of f from above.

• If f(x) → 0− , then the graph of f + g approaches the graph of g from below.
• Any vertical asymptote of f or g will be a vertical asymptote on the graph of f + g.
The subtraction of ordinates is usually simpler to achieve as the addition of the ordinates of y1 = f (x) and
y2 = −g (x).
Squaring ordinates
Given the graph of y = f (x), the graph of y = ( f (x))2 can be deduced by squaring the y-values, or ordinates,
noting in particular that 02 = 0, 12 = 1 and (−1)2 = 1.
• The graph of f and its square will intersect at any point on f where y = 0 or y = 1.
• If the point (a, −1) is on the graph of f, then (a, 1) lies on the graph of the squared function.
• Where 0 < f (x) < 1, ( f (x))2 < f (x), and where f (x) > 1 or f (x) < −1, ( f (x))2 > f (x).
• The squared function’s graph can never lie below the x-axis.

Similar reasoning about the ordinates and their square roots and the domain will allow the graph of y =
√
f (x) to
be deduced.
These graphing techniques can be applied to combinations of known functions where the first step would be to
draw their graphs.
WORKED EXAMPLE 32 Addition of ordinates

The graphs of the functions f and g are shown.
(0, 4)
(0, 2)
y = f (x)
(–2, 0) 0 (2, 0) x
y = g(x)
Draw the graph of y = ( f + g) (x).
Both of the functions have a domain of R, so df ∩ dg = R.

THINK WRITE
1. State the domain common to both functions.
At x = 0, f (x) = 2 and g (x) = 4. Hence, the point (0, 6)

lies on the graph of f + g.
2. Determine the coordinates of a key point on
the required graph.
At x = ± 2, g (x) = 0. Hence, the graph of f + g will cut

the graph of f when x = ± 2.
3. Deduce the behaviour of the required graph
where one of the given graphs cuts the x-axis.
As x → ± ∞, f (x) → 0+ . Hence, ( f + g) (x) → g (x) from

above as x → ± ∞.
4. Use the long-term behaviour of one of
the given graphs to deduce the long-term
behaviour of the required graph.
5. Draw a sketch of the required graph. y

(0, 6)
y = ( f + g)(x)
(0, 4)
(0, 2)
y = f (x)
(–2, 0) 0 (2, 0) x
y = g(x)
1.8 Exercise

Technology free
1. WE30 Consider the function for which:
− 3 x, x < −1
⎧
√
⎪
f (x) = x3 −1 ≤ x ≤ 1.
⎨
⎪
⎩2 − x, x>1

a. Evaluate f (−8), f (−1) and f (2).
c. State:
i. any value of x for which the function is not continuous
ii. the domain and range.
2. Sketch the graphs of each of the following hybrid functions and state their domains, ranges and any points of
x<1
discontinuity.
−2x, x≤0
√
a. y = { b. y = { 1
3
x,
4 − x2 , x>0 , x≥1
x
3. A hybrid function is defined by:
⎧ , x < −1
⎪ (x + 1)2
1
f (x) = x2 − x, −1 ≤ x ≤ 2
⎨
⎪
⎩8 − 2x, x>2
a. Evaluate:

i. f (−2) ii. f (2).
c. State the domain over which the hybrid function is continuous.
4. Consider the following function.
⎧ x + 5, x < −3
⎪9
1 3
f ∶ R → R, f(x) = √1 − x, −3 ≤ x ≤ 1.
⎨
⎪
⎩x − 2, x>1
a. Show the function is not continuous at x = 1.

b. Sketch the graph of y = f (x) and state the type of correspondence it displays.
c. Determine the value(s) of x for which f (x) = 4.

5. Form the rule for the hybrid function shown in the diagram.
y
(8, 8)
(0, 4)
(4, 4)
(−4, 0)
0 x
y = f (x)
6. Form the rule for the function whose graph is shown in the diagram.
y
y = f (x)
(0, 4) (2, 4)
(3, 2)
(–3, 0) (–1, 0) (4, 0)

0 x
Consider the functions f and g defined by f(x) = − 1 + x and g(x) = − 1 − x respectively.

Technology active
√ √
a. Form the rule for the sum function f + g, stating its domain, and sketch the graph of y = ( f + g) (x).
7. WE31
b. Form the rule for the product function fg and state its domain and range.
8. Given f (x) = x3 and g (x) = x2 , form the rule ( f − g) (x) for the difference function and sketch the graphs of
y = f (x), y = −g (x) and y = ( f − g) (x) on the same set of axes. Comment on the relationship of the graphs at
the places where y = ( f − g) (x) cuts the axes.
9. WE32 The graphs of the functions f and g are shown. Draw the graph of y = ( f + g) (x).
y
y = g(x)
y = f (x)
0 y=0 x
x=0
10. The graphs of two functions y = f (x) and y = g (x) are drawn in the following diagrams. Use the addition of
ordinates technique to sketch y = f (x) + g (x) for each diagram.
a. y b. y
y = f(x)
y = g(x)
y = g(x)
0 y=0 x y=0
x
0
y = f (x)
11. Consider the functions f and g defined by f (x) = 5 − 2x and g (x) = 2x − 2 respectively. For each of the
x=0 x=0
a. y = ( f + g) (x) b. y = ( f − g) (x) c. y = ( fg) (x)

following, give the rule, state the domain and the range, and sketch the graph.
12. Consider the functions f (x) = x2 − 1 and g(x) = x + 1.

√
i. (g − f ) (3) ii. (gf ) (8) .

a. Evaluate:
b. State the domain of the function f + g.
i. f + g ii. g − f
c. Draw a possible graph for each of the following functions.
iii. fg
13. Use addition of ordinates to sketch y = x + −x.

√
14. Sketch the graph of y = x2 − 1 and hence draw the graph of y = x2 − 1

( )2
, stating the domain and range.
15. a. Consider the function defined by g(x) = (2x − 1) . Sketch the graph of y = g (x) and hence sketch
y = (g (x)) .
3
b. Calculate the coordinates of the points of intersection of the graphs of y = f (x) and y = ( f (x))
2
if f (x) = x3 − 2x.
2
16. Use CAS technology to draw on screen the hybrid function defined by the rule:
−x, x < −1
f(x) = {1, −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
(2x − 1) (x − 3) , x>1
State the range of the function.

17. A hybrid function is defined by:
x + a, x ∈ (−∞, −8)
⎧√
⎪3
f (x) = x + 2, x ∈ (−8, 8)
⎨
⎪b, x ∈ (8, ∞)
⎩x
a. Determine the values of a and b so that the function is continuous for x ∈ R, and for these values, sketch
the graph of y = f (x).
b. Determine the values of k for which the equation f (x) = k has:

Use the values of a and b from part a for the remainder of this question.
c. Find {x ∶ f (x) = 1}.

i. no solutions ii. one solution iii. two solutions.
1.8 Exam questions
The diagram shows the graphs of three functions: y = f (x) , y = g (x) and y = h (x). State which of the
MC
following statements is true.
y
f(x)
g(x)
0 x
h(x)
A. f (x) = g (x) − h (x) B. g (x) = f (x) − h (x) C. g (x) = h (x) − f (x)

D. h (x) = f (x) − g (x) E. h (x) = g (x) − f (x)
Given the functions f(x) = x + 3 and g(x) = 1 − x, the graph of y = f (x) − g (x) has
√ √
A. a maximal domain of [−3, ∞) and a range of R.

MC
B. a maximal domain of [1, ∞) and a range of R+ .

C. a maximal domain of (−∞, −3] ∪ [1, ∞) and a range of R.
D. a maximal domain of [−3, 1] and a range of R+ .
E. a maximal domain of [−3, 1] and a range of [−2, 2].
x − 2, x ≥ 1
For the function defined by f(x) = { −1, −1 < x < 1 then

x, x ≤ −2
MC
A. f (1) = −1 and the range is R.

B. f (1) = −1 and the range is [−2, −1].
C. f (−1) = −1 and the range is R\ (−2, −1).
D. f (−1) does not exist and the range is R\ (−2, −1].
E. f (−1) does not exist and the range is R\ [−2, −1).
1.9 Modelling and applications

LEARNING INTENTION
• apply various functions to practical situations
• determine the best function to fit a set of data.
People in research occupations, such as scientists, engineers and economists, analyse data though the use of
mathematical models in order to increase our understanding of natural phenomena and to draw inferences about
future behaviour. In this subtopic we consider some applications of the functions that are discussed earlier in
this topic.
1.9.1 Modelling with data

Consider the set of data shown in the table.
t 2 4 7 9
h 15 23.5 21 8.5
In deciding what type of model this data might best fit, a linear h
model would be ruled out as the data is not steadily increasing or 26 h(t) = –0.9t2 + 9.3t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 10.333
decreasing. The values increase and then decrease; there are no 24 (4, 23.5)
obvious signs that the data is oscillating or showing asymptotic 22
(7, 21)
behaviour. Observations such as these would rule out an exponential 20
18
model, a trigonometric model, and a hyperbola or truncus model.
16
(2, 15)
The data is likely to be a polynomial model with a many-to-one 14
correspondence. Plotting the points can help us recognise a possible 12
model. If the variables t and h are time and height respectively, then 10
(9, 8.5)
we may suspect the polynomial would be a quadratic one. Three 8
h = at2 + bt + c, or the entire set of data could be used to obtain

of the data points could be used to form the model in the form 6
4
quadratic model h (t) = −0.9t2 + 9.3t shows a good fit with the data.
2
the model through a quadratic regression function on CAS. The
0 t
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Applications of mathematical models

The variables in a mathematical model are usually treated as continuous, even though they may represent a
quantity that is discrete in reality, such as the number of foxes in a region. Values obtained using the model need
to be considered in context and rounded to whole numbers where appropriate.
Domain restrictions must also be considered. A variable representing a physical quantity such as length must
carefully how the variables are defined. For example, if t is the time in hours after 10 am, then t = −2 would be
be positive. Similarly, a variable representing time usually cannot be negative. However, it is important to read
possible as it refers to the time 8 am.

1.9 Exercise

Technology active
1. Consider the data points shown.
x 0 1 3 4
y 4 2 10 8
a. Discuss why neither a linear, trigonometric, exponential nor a power function of the form y = xn is a likely
b. Assuming the data set fits a hyperbola of the form y = + k, x ∈ [0, ∞) \ {2} ∶
fit for the data.
x−2
a
i. use the data to determine the equation of the hyperbola

ii. sketch the model, showing the data points.
2. The population, in thousands, of bees in a particular

colony increases as shown in the table.
Month (t) 1 2 3 4
Population in thousands (P) 36 38.75 42.5 45
a. Plot the data points p against t and suggest a likely
b. Use the values when t = 2 and t = 4 to form a rule

model for the data.
for the model expressing P in terms of t.

c. If the variable t measures the number of months
since January, determine how many bees were in
the colony in January, according to the model.
d. State the rate of increase in the population of bees
according to the model.
3. A parabolic skate ramp has been built at a local park. It is y

accessed by climbing a ladder to a platform as shown. 32
The platform is 2 metres long. The horizontal distance from (9, ––
9(
the origin is x and the vertical distance from the origin is y.
The lowest point on the skate ramp is at (5, 0) and the highest
( )
32
point is at 9, . (0, a) (2, a)
9
a. Calculate the value of a where (0, a) is the point where
the ladder connects with the platform.
b. Find the coordinates of the point where the platform x
(–1, 0) 0 (5, 0)
and the skate ramp meet.
d. Write a hybrid function rule to define the complete skate ramp system for {x ∶ −1 ≤ x ≤ 9}.
c. Determine the equation of the parabolic section of the skate ramp.
e. Determine the exact values of x when the skateboarder is 1.5 metres above the ground.
so that ED = DF = x m. A gardener wishes to plant an Australian native garden in the region that is shaded in
4. ABCD is a square field of side length 40 metres. The points E and F are located on AD and DC respectively
the diagram.
a. Show that the area, A m2 , to be used for the Australian native garden is given by A = 800 + 20x − x2 .
1
2
b. State the restrictions that must be placed on x.
c. i. Calculate the value of x for which the area of the Australian native garden is greatest.
ii. Calculate the greatest possible area of the native garden.
A B
D C
F
5. The graph of y = g (x) is shown. The graph has a stationary point of inflection at the origin and also crosses
= − =
√ √
points − 3, 12 3 and 3, −12 3 respectively.

the x-axis
( √ at the points where x 5 and x 5. The coordinates of the maximum and minimum turning
√ ) (√ √ )
b. Hence, show that g (x) = 2x5 − 10x3 .

a. Use the above information to form the equation of the graph. y
(– 3, 12 3 )
c. A water slide is planned for a new theme park. Its cross-sectional
the curve g (x) = 2x5 − 10x3 .

shape is to be designed using a horizontal and vertical translation of
The image of the point A, the maximum turning point of the original (– 5, 0) (0, 0) ( 5, 0)
curve, now lies on the y-axis. The image of the point B, the minimum x
turning point of the original curve, now lies 1 unit above the x-axis.
The point C is the image of the origin (0, 0) after the original curve is
translated.
The water slide is modelled by the section of the curve from A to B
with the x-axis as the water level.
( 3, –12 3 )
y y
A A
C C
B
B
0 x 0 x

i. State the values of the horizontal and vertical translations required to achieve this model.
ii. Give the height of A above the water level to 1 decimal place.
iii. State the coordinates of the points C and B.
6. In an effort to understand more about the breeding habits of a species of

quoll, 10 quolls were captured and relocated to a small reserve where
their behaviour could be monitored. After 5 years the population size
grew to 30 quolls.
reserve is thought to be defined by the function N ∶ R+ ∪ {0} → R,

A model for the size of the quoll population, N, after t years on the
at + b
N (t) =
t+2
.
a. Calculate the values of a and b.

b. Sketch the graph of N against t.
c. Hence or otherwise, determine how large the quoll population can grow.
1.9 Exam questions

MC Zoe has a rectangular piece of cardboard that is 8 cm long and 6 cm wide. Zoe cuts squares of side length x
centimetres from each of the corners of the cardboard, as shown in the diagram below.
6 cm
x cm
8 cm
Zoe turns up the sides to form an open box.
The value of x for which the volume of the box is a maximum is closest to
A. 0.8 B. 1.1
C. 1.6 D. 2.0
E. 3.6

MC The graph shows the relationship between two variables, x and y.
0 x
A. y = a x B. y = ax2 C. y = D. y = aex E. y = a loge (x)

If a is a positive constant, the equation relating x and y is most likely
√ a
x
Question 3 (6 marks) TECH-ACTIVE
A right circular cone is inscribed in a sphere of radius 4 cm, as shown in the cross-section.
h
O
4 cm
A B r cm C
a. Express the radius, r cm, of the cone in terms of h. (1 mark)

b. Write an equation expressing the volume of the cone, V cm3 , in terms of h and state any restrictions
on h. (2 marks)
c. Sketch the graph of V versus h. (2 marks)
d. Use the graph to find the maximum volume for the cone to the nearest cm3 . (1 mark)

1.10 Review
1.10.1 Summary
doc-37030
Hey students! Now that it's time to revise this topic, go online to:
Access the Review your Watch teacher-led Practise VCAA
topic summary results videos exam questions
1.10 Exercise
Technology free: short answer
a. 3x2 − 5x = 4 b. 4x3 − 8x2 − 3x + 6 = 0

1. Solve the following equations.
c. 2m4 − 5m2 − 3 = 0 d. −2x3 + 12x2 − 22x + 12 = 0
2. a. Show that m − 2 is a factor of 4m4 − 11m3 − 19m2 + 44m + 12.

b. Hence, solve the equation 4m4 − 11m3 − 19m2 + 44m + 12 = 0.
3. If (x + 1), (x + 2) and (x + 3) are factors of x4 + ax3 + bx2 + cx − 6, find the values of a, b and c.
4. Sketch the graphs of each of the following, stating the domain and range.
a. y = (x − 2)4 − 1 b. y = 1 − c. y = (2x + 1) + 8
(x − 2)2
1 4 3
81
m + n − p = −2
3m + 5n − 2p = 1
5m + 4n + 2p = 9
6. Solve the pair of simultaneous equations through the use of a parameter, 𝜆.
2x + y − z = 7
−x − y + 3z = 1
7. a. Sketch the graph of the hybrid function defined by the following.
x + 1, x≤0
√
f (x) = {(3 − x) (x + 1) , 0<x≤3

3
x + 3, x>3
b. State where this function is discontinuous.

c. State the domain and range of the function.
8. Consider the functions f and g with respective rules f(x) = x + 2 and g(x) = 4 − x2 .
√ √
b. On the same axes, sketch y = f (x) and y = g (x), and hence sketch the graph of the function y = ( f + g) (x).
a. Give the maximal domain of each function and hence state their common domain, D.
9. MC When fully factorised, 4x3 − 2x2 − 36x + 18 becomes:

Technology active: multiple choice
A. (2x − 1) 2x2 − 18 B. 2 (2x − 1) (x − 3) C. 4 (x − 1) (x − 3) (x + 3)

( )
D. 2 (2x − 1) (x − 3) (x + 3) E. 2 (2x − 1) x − 9
2
( 2 )
10. (x − 1) is a linear factor of 6x3 − 5x2 − 2x + 1. The solutions to the equation 6x3 − 5x2 − 2x + 1 = 0 are:
A. x = 1, − and B. x = 1, − and − C. x = 1, and
MC
1 1 1 1 1 1
D. x = 1, and − E. x = −1, − and −

2 3 2 3 2 3
1 1 1 1
2 3 2 3
If ax3 + bx2 + cx + d ≡ 3 (x − 2)3 + 2 (x − 2), then a, b, c and d are respectively:

A. 3, −18, 36 and −24 B. 3, 18, −36 and 24 C. 3, −18, 38 and 28
11. MC
D. 3, −18, 38 and −28 E. 3, 18, 38 and −28
12. MC Find the value of k for which the simultaneous equations
2kx + (k + 2) y = 1
4x + (5k + 1) y = 2
have infinitely many solutions.

A. k = − B. k ≠ − and k ≠ −1 C. k = −1
4 4
D. k ≠ −1 and k = E. k = 1
5 5
4
5
13. A possible equation for the graph shown is:
y= −1
MC y
x−2
1
A.
y=− −1
x−2
1
B. (1, 0)
y= −1
(x − 2)2
1 0 x
C. y = –1
y=− −1
(x − 2)2
1
D.
y=− −2
x−1
1
E.
x=2

14. MC A possible equation for the graph shown is:

y
(–2, 0) (0, 0) (3, 0) x
A. y = x2 (x + 2) (x − 3) B. y = x2 (x − 2) (x + 3) C. y = x2 (x + 2) (3 − x)
D. y = −x2 (x − 2) (x + 3) E. y = −x (x + 2) (x − 3)
The maximal domain of the function with the rule y = √

x − 64
4
15. MC is:
3
A. R \ {4} B. R \ {64} C. (4, ∞)

D. (64, ∞) E. R
16. MC Data about the relationship between two variables, x and y, are plotted in the diagram.
y
0 x
A. linear of the form y = x − a B. exponential of the form y = ax

The most likely model for the relationship is:
C. power function of the form y = (x − a) 2 D. trigonometric of the form y = cos (x − a)

1
E. polynomial of the form y = (x − a)

4
17. MC The graphs of y = f (x) and y = g (x) are shown.

y
y = f(x)
0 x
y = g(x)
Select the correct statement about the graph of y = g (x) − f (x).

The graph of y = g (x) − f (x) has no x-intercepts.
The graph of y = g (x) − f (x) has one x-intercept.
A.
The graph of y = g (x) − f (x) has two x-intercepts.

B.
The graph of y = g (x) − f (x) has three x-intercepts.

C.
The graph of y = g (x) − f (x) has four x-intercepts.

D.
E.
18. a. If am4 + bm3 + cm2 + dm + e ≡ m2 + 2 − 13 m2 + 2 + 42, find the values of a, b, c, d and e.

Technology active: extended reponse
( )2 ( )
b. Hence, or otherwise, solve m2 + 2 − 13 m2 + 2 + 42 = 0 over R.

( )2 ( )
19. Determine the values of m for which the equation (m + 1) x2 + 2x + 3m = 0 has two solutions.
x−y+z+w = 5
2x + y − z + 2w = 1
x + 2z − w = 0
2y − 3z − 2w = −11
21. In the figure shown, the parabola is defined by y = ax2 + bx + c, where a, b and c are constants.
y
C (3, 4)
(2, 3)
0 A B x
The curve intersects the x-axis at points A and B. Point C is the vertex of the parabola. The curve passes
through the point (2, 3) and has a maximum turning point at (3, 4).
a. Calculate the values of a, b and c.
b. Find the coordinates of points A and B.
i. Show that every member of the family of quadratic polynomials defined by y = ax2 − 6ax + 8a + 3,
c. Hence, calculate the area of the triangle ABC.
a ∈ R\ {0} passes through the point (2, 3).

d.
ii. Determine the value(s) of a for which these parabolas will have two x-intercepts.
22. Consider the polynomial y = 8 + 4x − 2x2 − x3 .

a. Factorise 8 + 4x − 2x2 − x3 .
b. Sketch the graph of y = 8 + 4x − 2x2 − x3 and state an interval, using integer values for x, in which its
c. The cross-section of a mountain range is modelled by the curve y = 8 + 4x − 2x2 − x3 for −2 ≤ x ≤ a,

maximum turning point must lie. √
where x km is the horizontal distance and y is the vertical height in hundreds of metres.
ii. Express y = 8 + 4x − 2x2 − x3 as the product of a polynomial f and a square root function g,
i. State the largest value a can take.
√
specifying the rule for each function.

iii. Using the largest value that a can take, state the ranges of the functions f and g.
iv. Sketch the functions f and g.
v. Hence, draw a sketch of the cross-section of the mountain range.
1.10 Exam questions
Consider the function f [a, b] → R, f (x) = , where a and b are positive real numbers. The range of f is
1
MC
, , , ,
[ ) ( ] x [ ) ( ]
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
A. B. C. D. E. [a, b)
a b a b b a b a
The range of the function f ∶ (−1, 2] → R, f (x) = −x2 + 2x − 3 is

B. (−6, −3] C. (−6, −2] D. [−6, −3] E. [−6, −2]

MC
A. R
The graph of y = kx − 4 intersects the graph of y = x2 + 2x at two distinct points for

A. k = 6 √ B. k > 6 or k < −2 C. −2 ≤ k ≤ 6
MC
D. 6 − 2 3 ≤ k ≤ 6 + 2 3 E. k = −2
√
−3x + my = m − 1 and
MC The simultaneous linear equations
(m + 1)x − 10y = −8,
A. m = 5 or m = −6 B. m = 5 only C. m ∈ R\ {−6, 5}
where m is a real constant, have an infinite number of solutions for
D. m ≠ −6 E. m ≠ 5
Find the value(s) of a for which the simultaneous equations 3x + ay = 5 and (a + 2) x + 5y = a have no solution.
Hey students! Access past VCAA examinations in learnON

Sit past VCAA Receive immediate Identify strengths
examinations feedback and weaknesses
Hey Teachers! Create custom assignments for this topic

Create and assign Access quarantined Track your
unique tests and exams tests and assessments students results
Answers c. y
Topic 1 Functions and graphs (–2, 8)
1.2 Linear functions (0, 4)
1.2 Exercise –2 0 (2, 0) 4

x
Domain: −4, 2); range: 0, 16

1. a. Many-to-one correspondence (4, –4)
[ [ ]
f ∶ −4, 2) → R, f (x) = x2
b.
[
y = 12
c.
ii. −3, 6), −9, 7

d. ]
[ [ ]
2. a. i. Many-to-one Range (−4, 8
[0, ∞), R
iii. Yes d. y
−2, 2 , −2, 2
b. i. One-to-many ii. iii. No
[ ] [ ]
c. i. Many-to-many ii. (5, –253 )
iii. No
(0, 5)
R, {2}
d. i. One-to-one ii. R, R iii. Yes
e. i. Many-to-one ii. iii. Yes
(–1, –133 )
f. i. One-to-one ii. R, R iii. Yes 0 x
–1 5
3. a. y
3x – 4y = 12
,
0 x [ ]
(4, 0) 13 25
Range
3 3
(0, –3) y = −3x + 12 y = 3x + 2
y + 2x − 2 = 0 2y + x − 8 = 0
5. a. b.
y=x+6
6. a. b.
3
7. a. 140.2° b.
(4, −2)
b.
4 √
4. a. y 8. a. i. ii. 4 2 units
,
( ) √
1 1
b. i. ii. 74 units
(0, 9) 2 2
a=6 a=7
a = −2, 14 a = −5, 1
9. a. b.
p=6 9y − 7x = 23
c. d.
y = 9 – 4x
10. a. b.
c. 8.3 units
(–49 , 0) 1.2 Exam questions

0 x 1. A
2. D
3. C
Range R 1.3 Solving systems of equations

b. y
1.3 Exercise
k ∈ R \ {−1, 4}
m=2
3x
y = –– 1.
5
2.
3. m = ±
(5, 3)
1
(0, 0)
4. k ∈ R \ {−1, 2}
x 2
5. a. m ∈ R \ {−4, 1} m = −4
( 9
–3 , – – )
c. m = 1
5 b.
m = 2, n = 2 and p = −5
d = 1, e = 2 and f = 2
6.
Range − , 3
( ]
8. a. x = 3, y = 2 and z = −4
9 7.
b. m = 7, n = −2 and p = −1
5

u = 3, v = 6 and w = −2
[
c. 7. a. 2, 29)
d. a = , b = −3 and c =
13 1 b. i. y (3, 9)
2 2
9. The largest angle is 70°, the smallest angle is 50° and the
10. w = 1, x = −3, y = 2 and z = 3

third angle is 60°.
2 (a + 2) 4 (a + 2)
(–2, 4)
x= ,y= ,z=
a (a + 4) a (a + 4)
4
11.
a. 3x + 3z = 3
a
x
(––23 , 0) 0 (2, 0)
𝜆
12.
b. x = 1 − 𝜆, y = − , z = 𝜆
2
c. This solution describes the line along which the two (0, –6)
(–41 , – –498 )
2 (𝜆 + 5) 7𝜆 + 2
planes are intersecting.
x= ,y=− ,z=𝜆 Range = − , 9

[ ]
13.
49
2 (3𝜆 + 2)
3 3 8
x= ,y= ,z=𝜆
11 ii. y
14.
x = 3𝜆, y = 5𝜆 − 2, z = 𝜆
3 3
a. m ∈ R \ {6} , n ∈ R b. m = 6, n = −2
15. (2, 6)
c. m = 6, n ∈ R \ {−2}
16.
(0, 2)
1.3 Exam questions

(2 – √6, 0) 0 (2 + √6, 0) x
1. B
2. C
3. C
1.4 Quadratic functions
Range = (−∞, 6 ]
1.4 Exercise
(5u − 2) (3u + 1)
2 (3d − 2) (d
√ − 4)
1. a.
iii.
c. 3( j + 2 − 6)( j + 2 + 6)
y
b.
√
d. (b − 1) (b + 1) 0 x
2. a. ( f − 14)( f + 2) b. (g + 4)(g − 1)
2± 2
(–1, –3)
√
x=− , b. x =
3 1
3. a.
4 2 2 (0, –5)
y= ± z=−
1 7
4. a. b.
±
9 2
√
m= x = 1 or 3
5 10
c. d.
5
5. a. p = or b. k =
(–3, –11)
Range = (−11, −3 ]
1 3 11
or 7
−5 ± 3 17
2 2 4
√
m = −4 or 1 d. n =
iv. y
c.
8
6. y
y = 2(3x – 2)2 – 8
(0, 27 ) ( 3 +2 √2 , 0)
0 x
(–34 , 0) ( 3 – √2 , 0
)
0
(0, 0)
x
2 ( 23 , –1)
(–32 , –8) Range = [−1, ∞ )
Domain R, range [−8, ∞).
x2 − 2 = 2x − 3
b. f (x) = 4(x − 1) + 3 x2 − 2x + 1 = 0
8. a. None 14.
2
∆ = b2 − 4ac
c.
= (−2)2 − 4 × 1 × 1
y
= 4−4
y = 4x2 – 8x + 7
=0
As ∆ = 0, the graph of y = 2x − 3 is a tangent to the graph
(0, 7)
(1, 3) of y = x2 − 2.
15. a. k ∈ −∞, − ∪ ,∞
( ) ( )
0 x 3 3
Domain R+ ∪ {0}, range [3, ∞].

2 2
kx2 + 4x − k + 2 = 0
9. y = − (2x + 1) (x − 4) , TP = , ∆ = 16 − 4 × k × (−k + 2)
( ) b.
1 7 81
= 16( + 4k2 − 8k )
= 4 (k2 − 2k + 4
2 4 16
y=− (x + 6)2 + 12
= 4 [ k2 − 2k + 12] − 12 + 4
3 )
10. a.
= 4 (k + 1) + 3
20
b. y = − (x + 7) (2x + 5)
= 4(k + 1)2 + 12
2
4
As (k + 1)2 ≥ 0,
7
c. y = x − 5
∴ 4 (k + 1)2 ≥ 0
1 2
−(x − 1)2 − 4 and 4 (k + 1)2 + 12 > 0.

4
(1, −4) ∆ is always greater than zero. Therefore, the equation

11. a.
b.
3 − 2 46 3 + 2 46
c. y will always have a solution for all values of k.
( √ √ )
16. m ∈ , \ {1}
14 14
0 x 1.4 Exam questions

1. B
y = –x2 + 2x – 5
2. C
(1, –4)
(0, –5) 3. D
1.5 Cubic functions

1.5 Exercise
(5a − 3b) 25a2 + 15ab + 9b2
( )
2(c + d)3
1. a.
Range (−∞, −4
]
c. 5 2p − 1 4p + 2p + 1
b.
( )( 2 )
(2x − 1)3
d. y
2. a. (3z − 2) (mn + 4) m2 n2 − 4mn + 16

(0, 3) y=x+3 d.
3
( )
3. a. (x − 1) 3x − y b. y + z 3y − 2z
b.
( ) ( 2
)( 2 )
(3a − 2 − 4b) (3a − 2 + 4b)

x
b. np − 2m − 1 np + 2m + 1
(–3, 0) 0 4. a.
( )( )
5. (x + 1) (x − 6) (x + 3)
2
y = –x + 2x – 5
6. a. (r − 7) 7r + 1
(1, –4)
( 2 )
b. (6v + 1) 6v + 5
(0, –5)
( 2 )
c. (2m + 3) (m − 7) (m + 7)
d. (2z − 1) z + 1
(2 )
e. 2x − 7 − 5y 2x − 7 + 5y
( )( )
f. (4a − 2b − 3) (4a + 2b + 3)
k=− g. (v − w + 2) (v + w − 2)
19
e.
12. k ∈ (−4, 4) h. 2p + q − 1 2p + q + 1
4 ( )( )
13. m ∈ −∞, 2 ∪ 2, ∞ 7. x = ± 5,
( √ ) (√ ) √ 1
2

8. a. b = −4, −2, 1 17. a.
b. m = −1, , 4
y
3
2
c. x = ± 3,
√ 1
2
x = −3, −1 and
(–2, 0) (0, 0) (3, 0)
1
d. 0 x
9. a. Let P (t) = 3t + 22t + 37t + 10

2
3 2
P (−5) = 3(−5)3 + 22(−5)2 + 37 (−5) + 10

= 3 × 125 + 22 × 25 − 185 + 10
= −375 + 550 − 175
=0
∴ t + 5 is a factor.
y = x3 – x2 – 6x
t = −5, −2 and −
b. y
1
1 (x + 1)3
Let P (d) = 3d3 − 16d2 + 12d + 16.

3 y=1– –
8
(–3, 2)
P (2) = 3 (2)3 − 16 (2)2 + 12 (2) + 16

b.
(0, –78 )
= 24 − 64 + 24 + 16
(1, 0)
=0
∴ d − 2 is a factor
0 x
d = − , 2 and 4
2
(2, –2 –38 )
10. A = 3, B = 0, C = 2 and D = −7
3
d = ± 3, e = ±
1
11. c.
12. a. a = 5, b = −3, c = 4 and d = −1

y 2 3
3 y = 12(x + 1) – 3(x + 1)
b. a = −3 and b = 1
13. a = 2, b = 1, c = 1 and d = −3;
2(x − 1)3 + (x − 1)2 + (x − 1) − 3
14. a = 2, b = 5
(0, 9)
15. y
(3, 0)
(–1, 0) 0 x
y = –4(x + 2)3 + 16
(–2, 16)
y = 2x (5x − 4) (2x − 3)
3
( 4 – 2, 0)
18.
y= (x + 4) (4x − 5)2
0 x
1
19.
f (x) = −2x3 + 9x2 − 24x + 17

(0, –16) 10
f (1) = −2 + 9 − 24 + 17 = 0
20. a.
∴ (x − 1) is a factor.
4(x − 2) (x + 2)
−2x3 + 9x2 − 24x + 17 = (x − 1) −2x2 + 7x − 17 .
2
16. a. By inspection,
( )
b. y
−2x2 + 7x − 17.
(4, 96)
Consider the discriminant of the quadratic factor
∆ = 49 − 4 (−2) (−17)
= 49 − 136
(0, 32) y = 4x3 – 8x2 – 16x + 32
<0
(–2, 0) (2, 0)
0 x
c. Maximum value 96, minimum value 0.
b. y
As the discriminant is negative, the quadratic cannot be
factorised into real linear factors; therefore, it has no real
zeros.
For the cubic, this means there can only be one
factor, (x − 1).
x-intercept, the one which comes from the only linear
b. For there to be a stationary point of inflection, the
in the form y = a(x + b)3 + c.

equation of the cubic function must be able to be written (–2, 0)
Let −2x3 + 9x2 − 24x + 17 = a(x + b)3 + c

0
By inspection, the value of a must be −2.

x
∴ − 2x3 + 9x2 − 24x + 17

= −2 x3 + 3x2 b + 3xb2 + b3 + c
( ) (0, –4)
(–3, –4)
Equate coefficients of like terms:
x2 ∶ 9 = −6b ⇒ b = −
3
3. D
x ∶ −24 = −6b2 ⇒ b2 = 4
2
1.6 Higher degree polynomials
1.6 Exercise
(x − 1) (x − 4) (x − 6) (x + 6)
It is not possible for b to have different values.
function in the form. y = a(x + b)3 + c.

Therefore, it is not possible to express the equation of the
a. x = −1, 2, 3, 4
1.
b. a = ± 2
2.
There is no stationary point of inflection on the graph of √
c. x → ± ∞, y → ∓ ∞ a. l = ± 4 and ± 1
the function.
b. c = −3 and ± 2
3.
a. a = ± 1 and ± 3
d. y
4.
b. k = ± and ± 5
1
2
c. z = ± and ± 4
(0, 17)
y = –2x3 + 9x2 – 24x + 17 1
d. x = 8, −6, 1
3
5. a = 2, b = −13, c = −14
(1, 0)
0 x 6. y
y=x–2
(0, 0)
(1, 0)
(–1, 0)
0 (2, 0) x
(0, –2)
y = x 2 – x4
1.5 Exam questions
2 solutions
f (x) = (x + 2) (x − 1)
1. E
2 7. y
= x2 + 4x + 4 (x − 1)
2. a.
( ) y = x4 – 6x3
= x3 − x2 + 4x2 − 4x + 4x − 4
(0, 0) (6, 0)
= x3 + 3x2 − 4
x
y = x4 − 6x3 + 1 will make 2 intersections with the x-axis.
a=− , b = 6, c = 7, (−6, 7)
7
8.
81

x = −1.75, x = 1.22
Minimum turning points (−1.31, −3.21) and
9. 14. a. i. y
(1.20, −9.32), maximum turning point (−0.64, −2.76)

10. a.
y = x6
c. Minimum turning point (−2.17, −242), stationary point

b. None
(1, 1)
of inflection (2, 20) (0, 0) x
11. y
y = (x + 1)6 + 10
(0, 11) y = x7
{x ∶ x ≤ 1}
(–1, 10)
ii.
b. y
0 x
(–2, 16)
12. y = 16 – (x + 2)5
y = (x + 4 )(x + 2)2(x – 2)3(x – 5)
y
(–1, 15)
(–4, 0) (0, 0)
(–2, 0)
(0, 640) x
(–4, 0) (2, 0) (5, 0) y = 16 – (x + 2)4
0 x
(0, –16)
y = (x + 3)2 (x + 1) (x − 2)3 , degree 6

ii. y = (x + 3) (x + 1) (x − 2) (10 − x), degree 7
c. i.
y = −3(x + 5)4 + 12
2 3
13. a.
b. y
1.6 Exam questions
x ∈ 3, 4 ∪ {0}
1. C
[ ]
2.
3. C
y = (2 + x)(1 – x)3
1.7 Other algebraic functions
(0, 2) 1.7 Exercise
R \ {−9} −∞,
(–2, 0) (1, 0) ( ]
0 x 1
1. a. b.
R \ {−3}
2
c. d. R
2. a. y = +1
x+3
6
b. i. Maximal domain R \ {1}

ii. Range R \ {5}
−(x + 2)2 (x − 2) (x − 3)
y 5x—
–2
c. i. y=—
x–1
ii. y y=5
4 3
y = –x + x + 10x – 4x – 24 2
(–2, 0) (2, 0) (3, 0) (0, 2)

0 x
(0.4, 0)
0 x
x=1
(0, –24)
3. y d. y
(0, 4) x = 0.5
xy + 2y + 5 = 0
y=0 y=0
0 x 0 x
4
y=— —
1 – 2x (0, –2.5)
(1, – 4)
Domain R \ {−2}, range R \ {0}

x = –2
Domain R \ { } , range R \ {0}.

1
2 e. y x=5
4. a. y (3, 0)
y = 10 – 5
5–x
4+5
y =– 0 x
x
y = –5 (0, –3)
y=5
(– –45 , 0)
Domain R \ {5}, range R \ {−5}
0 x
−2
5. a. y = +6
x+3
b. y = −
2 (x + 2) 2
1 3
Domain R \ {0}, range R \ {5}

x=0
6. y
b. y
y= 8 –2
(x + 2)2
y=2– 3 (–4, 0)
x+1 (0, 0)
1 0 x
( )
2
,0
y=2
y = –2
x
Domain R \ {−2}, range (−2, ∞).

0 x = –2
(0, –1)
7. a. y
Domain R \ {−1}, range R \ {2}

x = –1 2
y= +1
(3 – x)2
c. y (0, 119 )
4x + 3 (6, 119 )
y=
2x + 1
y=1
(0, 3) 0 x
Domain R \ {3}, range (1, ∞)

y=2 x=3
1
x = ––
2
0 x
(– –34 , 0)
Domain R \ {− }, range R \ {2}
1
2

b. y 10. a. i. Maximal domain [−9, ∞)

]
ii. Range (−∞, 2
y= –3 –2 y
4(x – 1)2
x=1 (–9, 2) y=– x+9+2

0 x
y = –2 (–5, 0)
0 x
(0, – 11 ) 2, – 11
4 ( 4
) (0, –1)
y=2 x−1+3
√
3
b.
y
Domain R \ {1}, range (−∞, −2)

(1, 3)
y = 2 3x – 1 + 3
c. (0, 1)
y
0 x
y= 1 –1 (–19
—, 0 )
8
(2x + 3)2
x-intercept − , 0 .
) (
19
8
, ∞ , range [−6, ∞)
[ )
9
11. a. Maximal domain
(–2, 0) (–1, 0) 4
0 x y
y = –1
y = 3 4x – 9 – 6
x=–
3 ( 0, – 8
9
)
2
Domain R \ {− }, range (−1, ∞)

3
2
d. y )13—4, 0)
y=5 0 x
y=
25x2 – 1 ) —94 , –6)
5x2
,0
(–0.2, 0) (0.2, 0) ( )
0 x 10
b.
3
y
1–
3
y = (10 – 3x)
Domain R \ {0}, range (−∞, 5)

x=0 1–
(0, 10 3( (10
— , 0(
8. y = −1
3
1 0 x
−3
4x2
9. a. y = +2
(x − 4)2
b. y = − 4; y=2 √ (x − 3) + 2, domain [3, ∞), range [2, ∞);

√
(2x − 1)2
108
y = −2 (x − 3) + 2, domain [3, ∞), range (−∞, 2 .
12. a.
]
f ∶ R \ { } → R, f (x) = −4 b. y = −2 (x − 3) − 1, domain (−∞, 3 , range [−1, ∞);

(2x − 1)2
1 108 √ ]
y = − −2 (x − 3) − 1, domain (−∞, 3 , range

2 √ ]
(−∞, −1 .
]
13. a. y 15. a. y
y= 3x + 2 –1
y = 1 – 3x
(0, 1) (0, 32–1 )
0 x (–1, 0)
x
( )
1, 0
–
3
0
(–2, –1)
Domain [0, ∞), range (−∞, 1

]
b. y
b. y y=– (
1 1 – 3x + 8 )
y = 2 –x + 4
( 1
–8, –
2) 2
(–7, 0)
0 x
(–1, 6)
(0, – –12)
(0, 4)
Domain R, range R
c. y
y = g(x) = 3 –x + 5
0 x
(–3, 2)
(0, 3 5)
Domain (−∞, 0 , range [4, ∞)
] (5, 0)
0 x
c. y
(6, –1)
Domain −3, 6 , range −1, 2

[ ] [ ]
d. y = 2 3 x − 2
(0, 7) √
7 x+1
√
e. y = − −2
y = 2 4 + 2x + 3
3
f. y = 4 (x − 2) − 2, (2, −2)
(–2, 3) 2
√
16. The maximal domain is x ∈ −3, 2 .

3
[ ]
17. a. Domain R ∪ {0}

x
+
0
Domain [−2, ∞), range [3, ∞)

y
(1, 1) y=x
d. y
3
–
x (0, 0) y = x4
0
x
(4, – 3 )
b. Domain R
(0, –3 3 )
y = – 3 – 12 – 3x
Domain (−∞, 4 , range −∞, − 3

] ( √ ]
a = 2, b = −5, c = −2
a = −2, b = 4, c = −2
14. a.
ii. y = − −2x + 4 + 2
b. i.
√

18. a. Domain R d. Domain [0, ∞), quadrant 1

y y=x y
1 y=x
–
5
y=x y = x0.25
(0, 0) (1, 1) (0, 0) (1, 1)
(–1, –1) x x
b. Domain R+ ∪ {0} 20. a. Draw y = x and determine the cube roots of the
y y=x
appropriate y-values to construct the shape.
b. y
1
–
8
y=x 1
y=x –
y = x3
(1, 1)
(1, 1)
(0, 0)
x (–1, –1) 0 x
Domain [0, ∞), quadrant 1

{x ∶ x < −1} ∪ {x ∶ 0 < x < 1}
19. a.
y c.
5
–
2
y=x y=x
1.7 Exam questions
1. E
(0, 0) (1, 1)
x 2. D
3. A
1.8 Combinations of functions

1.8 Exercise
f (−8) = 2, f (−1) = −1, f (2) = 0
b. Domain R, quadrants 1 and 3
1. a.
y 5
–
y = x3 b. y
y=x
(–1, 1)
(0, 0) (1, 1) (1, 1)
(2, 0)
(–1, –1) x x
0
(–1, –1)
c. Domain R, quadrants 1 and 3 c. i. x = −1 ii. Domain R, range R.

y 2. a. y
y=x 3
– (0, 4)
y = x5
(0, 0) (1, 1)
(–1, –1) x (0, 0) (2, 0)
x
Domain R, range R, x = 0
y = − 1 + x − 1 − x, domain −1, 1
√ √ [ ]
b. y 7. a.
y
3
(1, 1) 2
(0, 0)
x 1
y=0
(–1, 0) (1, 0)
x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
–1
] y = f(x) y = g(x)
Domain R, range (−∞, 1 , no point of discontinuity –2
3. a. i. 1 (–1, – 2 ) –3
(1, – 2 )
ii. 2
b. y
b. y = 1 − x2 , domain −1, 1 , range 0, 1 .

y = ( f + g)(x)
√ [ ] [ ]
8. f − g (x) = x − x
(2, 4)
( ) 3 2
(–1, 2) (2, 2)
(4, 0) y
4
0 (1, 0) x y = ( f – g)(x)
3
(0, 0) 2
(0, 0) 1 (1, 0)
R \ {−1, 2}
x = –1
0 x
√ to the left of x = 1 has the rule

–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5
c. –1
–2
f (x) = 1 − x, so f (1) = 0.
4. a. The branch –3
The branch to the right of x = 1 has the rule f (x) = x − 2,

y = f(x) y = –g(x)
The graphs of f and g intersect when x = 0, x = 1, which

–4
so f (1) → −1 (open circle).

gives the places where the difference function has
continuous at x = 1.
These branches do not join, so the hybrid function is not
x-intercepts.
9. y
b. y
5
(–3, 2) 4
(0, 1) y = g(x)
( – 3 45, 0) (1, 0) (2, 0) 3
0 x
2 y = ( f + g)(x)
(1, –1)
y = f(x) 1
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
c. x = 6
Many-to-one correspondence –1
x + 4, x < 0
5. y = {4, 0≤x<4
10. a. y
4≤x≤8
6
x, 5
⎧ (x + 3) (x + 1) , x<0
4
⎪3
y = g(x)
4
6. y =
3
⎨4, 0≤x≤2
2
⎪
⎩−2x + 8, x≥3
y = f(x) + g(x) 1 y = f(x)
x
–3 –2 –1 –10 1 2 3
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6

b. y c. i. y
6
y = g(x) 5
4 4
y = f (x) y = f (x) + g(x)
3
2 2
y = f(x) + g(x) 1 y = g(x)
(–1, 0)
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
0 x –1
–4 –2 2 4 –2
y = f (x)
–2 ii. y
y = 3, domain R, range {3}, horizontal line through (0, 3)

6
5
11. a. 4
y = f (x) y = g(x) – f (x)
y 3
2
y=3 1 y = g(x)
(–1, 0)
(0, 3)
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
–1
–2
x iii. y
0
6
y = 7(− 4x,)domain R, range R, straight line through (0, 7)

5
b.
,0
4 y = f (x)g(x)
y = f (x)
7 3 (0, 1)
and 2
4 y = g(x)
1
y (–1, 0) (1, 0)
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
(0, 7) –1
y = 7 – 4x –2
13. y
6
5
4
) –47 , 0) y = –x 3
0 x 2
y=x
(–1, 0) 1
y = 2 (5 − 2x) (x − 1), domain R, range −∞, ,

x
] ( –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
9 –1
c. y = x + –x –2 (0, 0)
( 4 )
,
7 9 14. y
concave down parabola with turning point and
passing through (0, −10), (1, 0) and (2.5, 0)
4 4
4
y = 2(5 – 2x)(x – 1) 3
y y = x2 – 1 (0, 1)
(7, –
–
4 4
9
) (– 2, 1 ) 2
( 2 , 1)
(1, 0)
0 x 1
( –52 , 0) (–1, 0) (1, 0)
x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
(0, –10) –1 (0, –1)
Domain R, range [0, ∞)

(
y = x2 – 1 )2
−6
[−1, ∞)
12. a. i. ii. 189
b.
y= +6
x−2
15. a.
4
y b. i.
2 ii. y
y = (g(x))2
(3, 10)
1 (0, 1)
(4, 8)
(0.5, 0) y=6
0 y=– 4 +6
–1 1 2 x (x – 2)
(0, 4)
y = g(x)
(1, 2)
–1 (0, –1)
x=2
1±
(0, 0) , ±
( √ )
,1
0 x
( √ ) 5
b. 2, 0 , (−1, 1) ,
2 2. a. P (’000s)
16. y 50
45
40
(–1, 1) (1, 1) 35
(3, 0)
0 x (0, 32.5)
(1, –2) 30
25
(–47 , – ––258 )
20
Range = − , ∞
[ )
25 0 t
1 2 3 4 5 6
a = 8, b = 32
8
P = 3.125t + 32.5
The data appears to be linear.
17. a. b.
y c. 32 500 bees
a=2
(8, 4)
d. 3.125 thousand per month
(–8, 0) (0, 2) 3. a.
0 x b. (2, 2)
y = (x − 5)2 , 2 ≤ x ≤ 9
2
b. i. k > 4 k = 4 or k ≤ 0
c.
2x + 2, −1 < x < 0
9
iii. 0 < k < 4 ⎧
ii.
y= 0≤x≤2
{−1, 32}
⎨2
2,
(x − 5) , 2 < x ≤ 9
d.
⎩9
c.
2
1.8 Exam questions

x=5±
√
or x = −
1. E 3 3 1
e.
2. E 2 4
4. a. The garden area is the area of the entire square minus the
3. D
area of the two right-angled triangles.
A = 40 × 40 − × x × x − × (40 − x) × 40
1 1
2 2
= 1600 − x − 20 (40 − x)
1.9 Exercise 1 2
The data points increase and decrease, so they cannot 2
= 1600 − x2 − 800 + 20x
1. a.
be modelled by a one-to-one function. Neither a linear 1
model nor an exponential model is possible. 2
trigonometric. The jump between x = 1 and x = 3 is a = − x2 + 20x + 800

The data is not oscillating, so it is unlikely to be 1
0 < x < 40
2
such as a cubic with a turning point between x = 1 and

concern, but the data could be modelled by a polynomial b.
x = 3. However, y = xn requires the point (0, 0) to be on it

c. i. 20
2
and that is not true for the data given. ii. 1000 m

y = 2x3 x − 5 x + 5 Let P (m) = 4m4 − 11m3 − 19m2 + 44m + 12.

( √ )( √ )
If m − 2 is a factor, then P (2) = 0.

5. a. 2. a.
b. y = 2x x − 5
( 2 )
P (2) = 4(2)4 − 11(2)3 − 19(2)2 + 44 (2) + 12
3
= 2x5 − 10x3
= 4 × 16 − 11 × 8 − 19 × 4 + 88 + 12
= 64 − 88 − 76 + 88 + 12
√
vertical translation of 12 3 + 1 units upward = 76 − 88 − 76 + 88

c. i. Horizontal translation of√ 3 units to the right and
=0
ii. 24 3 + 1 ≈ 42.6 metres
( √ )
∴ m − 2 is a factor.
3, 12 3 + 1 b. m = − , ± 2 and 3
( √ ) (√ √ )
1
a = 38, b = 20
iii. B 2 3, 1 , C
3. a = 5, b = 5 and c = −5
4
4. a. Domain R, range [−1, ∞)

6. a.
b. N
y
1
N = 38 y = — (x – 2)4 – 1
81
(5, 30) (–1, 0)
N = 38t
– + 20
(5, 0)
t+2
0 x
(0, 10) 65
( 0, – —
81) (2, –1)
0 t
Domain R \ {2}, range (−∞, 1)

c. The population will never exceed 38.
b.
1.9 Exam questions y
1. B y=1
3. a. r = 8h − h2
2. C √
V = 𝜋h2 (8 − h), 0 < h < 8

1 (0, 0) (4, 0) x
b.
3
c. V
)5 –31 , 79.4) y=1– 4

(x – 2)2
1 πh2 (8 – h)
V= –
3
x=2
c. Domain R, range R
y
y = (2x + 1)3 + 8
( )
1,8
––
2 (0, 9)
(8, 0) ( )
3, 0
––
2
(0, 0) h 0 x
3
79 cm
m = −1, n = 2 and p = 3
d.
x = 8 − 2𝜆, y = 5𝜆 − 9 and z = 𝜆
5.
1.10 Review
6.
1.10 Exercise
5 ± 73
±
√ √
1. a. x = b. x = 2,
3
c. m = ± 3 d. x = 1, 2, 3
6 2
√
7. a. y 22. a. (2 + x)2 (2 − x)
b. y = (2 + x)2(2 – x)
y
y = f (x)
(3, 6)
(1, 4)
(0, 8)
(0, 3)
(0, 1) (2, 0)
(–1, 0) (3, 0) 0 x
(–2, 0)
0 x
x = 0 and x = 3
c. Domain R, range R \ (4, 6
b.
]
−2 ≤ x ≤ 2.
The maximum turning point lies in the interval
8. a. df = [−2, ∞), dg = −2, 2 , df ∩ dg = D = −2, 2
[ ] [ ]
c. i. a = 2
ii. f (x) = 2 + x, x ∈ −2, 2 ; g (x) = 2 − x,
b. y [ ] √
x ∈ −2, 2
[ ]
iii. ranf = 0, 4 , rang = 0, 2

(0, 2 + 2 ) y = ( f + g)(x)
[ ] [ ]
iv. y
(2, 2)
(–2, 0)
0 x (2, 4)
f(x) = x + 2
(–2, 2) (0, 2)
(0, 2 )
Technology active: multiple choice g(x) = 2 – x
(–2, 0)
9. D (2, 0)
0 x
10. A
11. D
12. E
13. B v. y
14. C
15. B
y= 8 + 4x – 2x2 – x3
16. C (0, 2 2 ) (1, 3)
17. C
18. a. a = 1, b = 0, c = −9, d = 0 and e = 20

Technology active: extended response
b. m = ± 5 and ± 2
(–2, 0)
√ (2, 0)
3 − 21 3 + 21
0 x
( √ √ )
19. m ∈ ,
−6 −6 Exercise 1.10 Exam questions
x = 0, y = −2, z = 1, w = 2
a = −1, b = 6, c = −5
20. 1. D
21. a. 2. C
b. A (1, 0) and B (5, 0) 3. B
d. i. y = ax − 6ax + 8a + 3, a ∈ R \ {0}
2
c. 8 units 4. B
Let x = 2 ∶
2
y = 4a − 12a + 8a + 3
=3
Every parabola in this family passes through the
ii. a < 0 or a > 3

point (2, 3).

“c02TrigonometricFunctions_PrintPDF” — 2022/7/1 — 6:07 — page 103 — #1
2 Trigonometric functions
LEARNING SEQUENCE
2.1 Overview ................................................................................................................................................................. 104
2.2 Trigonometric symmetry properties ..............................................................................................................105
2.3 Trigonometric equations ................................................................................................................................... 118
2.4 General solutions of trigonometric equations .......................................................................................... 125
2.5 The sine and cosine functions ........................................................................................................................ 130
2.6 The tangent function .......................................................................................................................................... 139
2.7 Modelling and applications ..............................................................................................................................148
2.8 Review ..................................................................................................................................................................... 154

2.1 Overview
2.1.1 Introduction
Trigonometry comes from two Greek words meaning
‘triangle’ and ‘measure’.
Trigonometry has its origins in astronomy and was
used to give coordinates for stars using spherical
triangles — the stars were thought to be fixed on a
crystal sphere of a large size. It has been hypothesised
that the beginnings of trigonometry began with
Hipparchus of Nicaea around 150 BCE, as he was
the first to create a table of chords from a circle —
he tabulated corresponding arc and chord lengths for
different angles. He is known as the ‘father of trigonometry’. In the early ninth century a Persian astronomer,
al-Khwarizmi, produced accurate sine and cosine tables; he also created the first table of tangents.
Trigonometry has been used for centuries by surveyors and engineers. It is also used in developing digital
music. Sound travels in the form of a wave, and this wave pattern can be described by a sine or cosine function.
Other applications include calculating the heights of buildings; in microbiology, investigating how the depth of
sunlight affects algae in terms of photosynthesis; and in oceanography, calculating the heights of ocean tides
and waves.
KEY CONCEPTS
• graphs of the following functions: power functions y = xn , n ∈ Q; exponential functions, y = ax , a ∈

This topic covers the following key concepts from VCE Mathematics Study Design:
R+ , in particular y = ex ; logarithmic functions, y = loge (x) and y = log10 (x); and circular functions,
y = sin (x), y = cos (x) and y = tan (x) and their key features
• transformation from y = f (x) to y = Af (n (x + b)) + c, where A, n, b and c ∈ R, A, n ≠ 0, and f is one of
the functions specified above, and the inverse transformation
• modelling of practical situations using polynomial, power, circular, exponential and logarithmic
functions, simple transformation and combinations of these functions, including simple piecewise
• solution of equations of the form f (x) = g (x) over a specified interval, where f and g are functions of
(hybrid) functions
the type specified in the ‘Functions, relations and graphs’ area of study, by graphical, numerical and
algebraic methods, as applicable
• solution of literal equations and general solution of equations involving a single parameter.

2.2 Trigonometric symmetry properties

LEARNING INTENTION
• state two trigonometric identities
• understand the symmetry properties of the unit circle
• determine complementary angles
• determine exact values for the sine, cosine and tangent of specific angles.
2.2.1 The unit circle

Angles are measured in degrees or radians. To define a radian, a circle with a y
radius of 1 unit is used. This circle is called the unit circle. When the point P is
1 1 unit
moved around the circle such that the arc length from S to P is 1 unit, the angle P
SOP is defined. The measure of this angle is 1 radian, 1c .
For the blue right-angled triangle POX, where 𝜃 is the angle at the origin, we
1 unit
1c S
O x
know that, by definition, the distance along the x-axis is defined as cos(𝜃) and –1 1
the distance along the y-axis is defined as sin(𝜃). In addition, if we consider the
similar triangles POX (blue) and TOA (pink), the following important facts can be –1
observed.
y
π
– T
2
P (x, y)
T
Tangent
P π 0
θ
O X A x
tan(θ)
1 2π
sin(θ)
θ θ
O X O A
cos(θ) 1
3π
2
For triangle TOA, by definition, tan(𝜃) = = ; hence, TA = tan(𝜃).

TA TA
OA 1
Using similar triangles, we can say that
=
tan(𝜃) 1
sin(𝜃) cos(𝜃)
So
tan(𝜃) =
sin(𝜃)
cos(𝜃)
This result is known as one of the trigonometric identities. You should learn and remember it, as it will be used
frequently in later sections.
TOPIC 2 Trigonometric functions 105

Also, if we consider the triangle POX, then by Pythagoras’ theorem,
(sin (𝜃))2 + (cos (𝜃))2 = 1
or
sin2 (𝜃) + cos2 (𝜃) = 1
This is known as the Pythagorean identity and should also be learned and remembered.
Trigonometric identities
tan(𝜃) =
sin(𝜃)
sin2 (𝜃) + cos2 (𝜃) = 1

cos(𝜃)
Special values for sine, cosine and tangent
𝜋
0, , 𝜋,
Using the unit circle and rotating anticlockwise, we can determine the values of sine and cosine for the angles
3𝜋
and 2𝜋 by reading off the x-axis or the y-axis. The value for tangent is determined by the identity
tan(𝜃) =
2 2
sin(𝜃)
.
cos(𝜃)
Angle (𝜃) sin(𝜃) cos(𝜃) tan(𝜃)

0 0 1 0
𝜋
1 0 Undefined
𝜋 −1
2
0 0
−1
3𝜋
0 Undefined
2
2𝜋 0 1 0
𝜋
The first quadrant: 0° < 𝜃 < 90° or 0 < 𝜃 <
𝜋
y
For 0° < 𝜃 < 90° or 0 < 𝜃 <

2
, P' (–x, y) P (x, y)
2
cos(𝜃) = =x
x
θ
sin(𝜃) = = y
1 O X x
y
1
tan(𝜃) = =
sin(𝜃) y P'' (–x, –y) P''' (x, –y)
cos(𝜃) x
𝜋
The second quadrant: 90° < 𝜃 < 180° or <𝜃<𝜋
Consider the point P′ in the second quadrant. When 𝜃 is the angle in the blue
2
P'
as 180° − 𝜃 or 𝜋 − 𝜃. The angle refers to the angle made with respect to the
triangle at the origin, angles in the second quadrant are usually expressed
positive direction of the x-axis and in an anticlockwise direction. 180° – θ or π – θ
All angles in the second, third and fourth quadrants can be related back to –X
θ
X
the first quadrant. O
Remember that in the first quadrant, x = cos(𝜃), y = sin(𝜃) and tan(𝜃) = .

y
y
x
So in the second quadrant, using symmetry, the angles are: P' (–x, y) P (x, y)
cos(𝜋 − 𝜃) = −x = − cos(𝜃)
sin(𝜋 − 𝜃) = y = sin(𝜃)
sin(𝜋 − 𝜃)
tan(𝜋 − 𝜃) =
θ
x
cos(𝜋 − 𝜃)
–X X
=
−x
y
= − tan(𝜃)
P'' (–x, –y) P''' (x, –y)
The third quadrant: 180° < 𝜃 < 270° or 𝜋 < 𝜃 <

3𝜋
When the point P′′ is in the third quadrant and 𝜃 is the angle in the blue triangle at
2
the origin, angles in the third quadrant are usually expressed as 180° + 𝜃 or 𝜋 + 𝜃.
180° + θ or π + θ
–X X
The angle refers to the angle made with respect to the positive direction of the x-axis θ O
and in an anticlockwise direction.
P"
In the first quadrant, x = cos(𝜃), y = sin(𝜃) and tan(𝜃) = .

y
y
x
So in the third quadrant, using symmetry, the angles are: P' (–x, y) P (x, y)
cos(𝜋 + 𝜃) = −x = − cos(𝜃)
sin(𝜋 + 𝜃) = −y = − sin(𝜃)
sin(𝜋 + 𝜃)
tan(𝜋 + 𝜃) =
x
cos(𝜋 + 𝜃)
–X θ X
−y
=
−x
= tan(𝜃)
P'' (–x, –y) P''' (x, –y)
The fourth quadrant: 270° < 𝜃 < 360° or < 𝜃 < 2𝜋

3𝜋
When P′′′ is a point in the fourth quadrant and 𝜃 is the angle in the blue triangle at
2
the origin, angles in the fourth quadrant are usually expressed as 360° − 𝜃 or 2𝜋 − 𝜃.
The angle refers to the angle made with respect to the positive direction of the x-axis O θ
and in an anticlockwise direction.
P'"

In the first quadrant, x = cos(𝜃), y = sin(𝜃) and tan(𝜃) = .

y
y
x
So in the fourth quadrant, using symmetry, the angles are: P' (–x, y) P (x, y)
cos(2𝜋 − 𝜃) = x = cos(𝜃)
sin(2𝜋 − 𝜃) = −y = − sin(𝜃)
sin(2𝜋 − 𝜃)
tan(2𝜋 − 𝜃) =
x
cos(2𝜋 − 𝜃)
–X θ X
−y
=
= − tan(𝜃)
P'' (–x, –y) P''' (x, –y)
x
The summary of the results from all four quadrants is as follows.
Symmetry properties of the trigonometric functions
sin(𝜋 − 𝜃) = sin(𝜃)
2nd quadrant 1st quadrant
cos(𝜋 − 𝜃) = −cos(𝜃)
sin(𝜃)
tan(𝜋 − 𝜃) = −tan(𝜃)
cos(𝜃)
tan(𝜃)
S A
Sin positive All positive
T C
sin(𝜋 + 𝜃) = −sin(𝜃) sin(2𝜋 − 𝜃) = −sin(𝜃)

Tan positive Cos positive
cos(𝜋 + 𝜃) = −cos(𝜃) cos(2𝜋 − 𝜃) = cos(𝜃)

tan(𝜋 + 𝜃) = tan(𝜃) tan(2𝜋 − 𝜃) = −tan(𝜃)
3rd quadrant 4th quadrant
Negative angles
cos(−𝜃) = x = cos(𝜃)
Angles measured in a clockwise direction rather than in an anticlockwise direction are called negative angles.
sin(−𝜃) = −y = − sin(𝜃)
O X
tan(−𝜃) =
–θ
sin(−𝜃)
−y
=
cos(−𝜃)
= − tan(𝜃)
x
P'"
The following relationships apply for negative angles.
Negative angles of trigonometric functions

sin( − 𝜃) = −sin(𝜃)
cos( − 𝜃) = cos(𝜃)
tan( − 𝜃) = −tan(𝜃)
Note: These relationships are true no matter what quadrant the negative angle
is in.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1 Symmetry properties
If sin(𝜃) = and cos(𝛼) = , and 𝜃 and 𝛼 are in the 1st quadrant, determine the exact values of the
√
3 4
2 5
a. sin(𝜋 + 𝜃)
following trigonometric expressions.
d. cos(𝜋 − 𝜃) e. sin(𝜋 + 𝛼) f. tan(2𝜋 − 𝛼)

b. cos(−𝛼) c. tan(𝜃)
a. 1. (𝜋 + 𝜃) means the 3rd quadrant, where sine a. sin(𝜋 + 𝜃) = − sin(𝜃)

THINK WRITE
is negative.
=−
√
3
2. Substitute the appropriate value.
b. cos(−𝛼) = cos(𝛼)
2
b. 1. (−𝛼) means the 4th quadrant, where cosine
is positive.
=
4
5
c. 1. Use the Pythagorean identity to find the value c. sin (𝜃) + cos2 (𝜃) = 1
cos2 (𝜃) = 1 − sin2 (𝜃)
2
of cos(𝜃).
cos2 (𝜃) = 1 −
( √ )2
3
2
cos2 (𝜃) = 1 −
3
4
cos2 (𝜃) =
1
4
cos2 (𝜃) = ±
1
𝜃 is in the 1st quadrant, so cosine is positive.

2
Hence, cos(𝜃) = .
1
2

2. Use the identity tan(𝜃) = tan(𝜃) =

sin(𝜃) sin(𝜃)
to find
cos(𝜃) cos(𝜃)
tan(𝜃).
=
√
3
2
1
2
= ×
√
3 2
2 1
= 3
√
d. 1. (𝜋 − 𝜃) means the 2nd quadrant, where cosine d. cos(𝜋 − 𝜃) = − cos(𝜃)

is negative.
2. In part c we determined cos(𝜃) = =−

1 1
, so we
2 2
can substitute this value.
e. sin (𝛼) + cos2 (𝛼) = 1

2
sin2 (𝛼) = 1 − cos2 (𝛼)

e. 1. In order to find the value of sin (𝛼), apply the
Pythagorean identity.
sin2 (𝛼) = 1 −
( )2
4
sin2 (𝛼) = 1 −
5
16
sin (𝛼) =
25
2 9
sin(𝛼) = ±
25
3
5
𝛼 is in the 1st quadrant, so sine is positive.
Hence, sin(𝛼) = .
3
5
2. (𝜋 + 𝛼) means the 3rd quadrant, where sine is sin(𝜋 + 𝛼) = − sin(𝛼)

negative.
=−
3
sin(2𝜋 − 𝛼)
5
f. Use the identity tan(𝜃) = f. tan(2𝜋 − 𝛼) =

cos(2𝜋 − 𝛼)
sin(𝜃)
and simplify.
− sin(𝛼)
cos(𝜃)
=
− 35
cos(𝛼)
= 4
=−
5
3
4
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities The unit circle (int-2582)
Symmetry points and quadrants (int-2584)
All sin cos tan (int-2583)
2.2.2 Complementary angles

𝜋
± 𝜃 or ± 𝜃. These
3𝜋
Sometimes angles are named relative to the y-axis rather than the x-axis, for example
2 2
𝜋
are special cases, and great care should be taken with these types of examples.
The first quadrant: reference angle 90° − 𝜃 or −𝜃

2
Remember that in the first quadrant the distance along the x-axis is defined as cos(𝜃), while the distance along
the y-axis is defined as sin(𝜃).
y
Y P
P' (–x, y) P (x, y)
𝜃
π
– – θ or x
2
θ
90° – θ
X P'' (–x, –y) P''' (x, –y)
O
𝜋
− 𝜃 = sin(𝜃)
( )
cos
𝜋
(2
− 𝜃 = cos(𝜃)
)
sin
𝜋 sin 𝜋2 − 𝜃
2
−𝜃 = )= =
cos 2 − 𝜃
( )
cos(𝜃) 1
(𝜋
( )
tan
2 sin(𝜃) tan(𝜃)
𝜋 𝜋
− 𝜃 = cos(𝜃) is a complementary relationship because the sum of the angles adds to .
( )
Note: sin
𝜋
2 2
The second quadrant: reference angle 90° + 𝜃 or +𝜃

2
y
P' Y P' (–x, y) P (x, y)
θ
𝜋
90° + θ or – + θ
2 x
θ
X
O
P'' (–x, –y) P''' (x, –y)

𝜋
+ 𝜃 = − sin(𝜃)
( )
cos
𝜋
(2
+ 𝜃 = cos(𝜃)
)
sin
𝜋 sin 𝜋2 + 𝜃
2
+𝜃 = )= =−
cos 2 + 𝜃 − sin(𝜃) tan 𝜃
( )
cos(𝜃) 1
(𝜋
( )
tan
2
The third quadrant: reference angle 270° − 𝜃 or −𝜃

3𝜋
2
y
P' (–x, y) P (x, y)

3𝜋 – θ
270° – θ or ––
2 X
O
θ
θ x
P" Y
P'' (–x, –y) P''' (x, –y)
− 𝜃 = − sin(𝜃)
3𝜋
( )
cos
( 2
− 𝜃 = − cos(𝜃)
3𝜋
)
sin
−𝜃 − cos(𝜃)
2
−𝜃 = )= =
sin 3𝜋
cos 2 − 𝜃 − sin(𝜃) tan 𝜃
( )
3𝜋 1
( )
2
tan ( 3𝜋
2
The fourth quadrant: reference angle 270° + 𝜃 or +𝜃

3𝜋
2
y
3𝜋 P' (–x, y) P (x, y)

270° + θ or –– + θ O
2 X
θ
x
θ
Y P'"
P'' (–x, –y) P''' (x, –y)
+ 𝜃 = sin(𝜃)
3𝜋
( )
cos
( 2
+ 𝜃 = − cos(𝜃)
3𝜋
)
sin
+𝜃 − cos(𝜃)
2
+𝜃 = )= =−
sin 3𝜋
+ 𝜃
( )
3𝜋 1
( )
2
tan
2 cos 3𝜋 sin(𝜃) tan(𝜃)
(
2
WORKED EXAMPLE 2 Complementary angles
If cos(𝜃) = 0.5300 and 𝜃 is in the 1st quadrant, determine the values of the following, correct to
𝜋
4 decimal places.
−𝜃 −𝜃 +𝜃
3𝜋 3𝜋
( ) ( ) ( )
a. sin b. cos c. tan
2 2 2
𝜋 𝜋
THINK WRITE
− 𝜃 is in the 1st quadrant, so all − 𝜃 = cos(𝜃)

( ) ( )
a. 1. a. sin
2 2
trigonometric ratios are positive.
2. Substitute the appropriate value. = 0.5300
−𝜃 − 𝜃 = − sin(𝜃)
3𝜋 3𝜋
( ) ( )
b. 1. is in the 3rd quadrant, so sine is b. cos
2 2
negative.
2. Use the Pythagorean identity to find sin(𝜃). sin2 𝜃 + cos2 (𝜃) = 1

sin2 𝜃 = 1 − cos2 (𝜃)
sin2 𝜃 = 1 − (0.5300)2
sin(𝜃) = ± 1 − (0.5300)2
√
sin(𝜃) = 0.8480
as 𝜃 is in the 1st quadrant.
− 𝜃 = − sin(𝜃)
3𝜋
( )
3. Substitute the)appropriate values to determine cos
−𝜃 . = −0.8480
(
3𝜋 2
cos
2
+ 𝜃 is in the 4th quadrant, so tangent +𝜃 =−

tan 𝜃
3𝜋 3𝜋 1
( ) ( )
c. 1. tan
2 2
is negative.
2. Use the identity tan 𝜃 = =

sin(𝜃) 1 cos(𝜃)
to find the
cos(𝜃) tan(𝜃) sin(𝜃)
=
reciprocal. 0.5300
= 0.6250
0.8480
∴ tan +𝜃 = −0.6250
3𝜋
( )
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Complementary properties of sin and cos (int-2979)

2.2.3 Exact values

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
In Mathematical Methods Unit 2, you studied the exact trigonometric ratios for the angles , and (30°, 45°
6 4 3
and 60°). These values come from an isosceles triangle and an equilateral triangle.
30° 30°
2 2
2 45°
1 3
45° 60° 60°

1 1
2
The following table provides a summary of these angles and their ratios.
Angle (𝜃) sin(𝜃) cos(𝜃) tan(𝜃)

𝜋
√
1 3 1
30° or
6 2 2
𝜋
√
3
1 1
45° or 1
4
√ √
2 2
𝜋
√
3 1 √
60° or 3
3 2 2
WORKED EXAMPLE 3 Exact values

Give exact values for the following trigonometric expressions.
𝜋
c. cos −
2𝜋 7𝜋 11𝜋
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
a. cos b. tan d. sin
3 4 6 3
𝜋
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Rewrite the angle in terms of 𝜋 and find the = cos 𝜋 −

2𝜋
( ) ( )
a. cos
3 3
𝜋
corresponding angle in the 1st quadrant.
= − cos
( )
2. The angle is in the 2nd quadrant, so cosine is negative.
3
=−
1
𝜋
2
= tan 2𝜋 −
7𝜋
( ) ( )
b. 1. Rewrite the angle in terms of 2𝜋 and find the b. tan
corresponding angle in the 1st quadrant. 4 4
𝜋
= − tan
( )
2. The angle is in the 4th quadrant, so tangent is negative.
4
3. Write the answer. = −1

𝜋 𝜋
Rewrite the negative angle as cos(−𝜃) = cos(𝜃). c. cos − = cos
( ) ( )
c. 1.
6 6
=
√
3
𝜋
2
= sin 4𝜋 −
11𝜋
( ) ( )
d. 1. Rewrite the angle in terms of a multiple of 2𝜋. d. sin
𝜋
3 3
= sin 2𝜋 −
( )
2. Subtract the extra multiple of 2𝜋 so the angle is within
3
𝜋
one revolution of the unit circle.
= − sin
( )
3. The angle is in the 4th quadrant, so sine is negative.
3
=−
√
3
2
2.2 Exercise

Technology free
𝜋
1. WE3 Give exact values for the following trigonometric expressions.
c. sin −
3𝜋 5𝜋
( ) ( ) ( )
a. tan b. cos
𝜋
4 6 4
e. tan −
7𝜋 11𝜋
( ) ( ) ( )
d. cos f. sin
3 3 6
2. Give exact values for the following trigonometric expressions.
c. tan −
5𝜋 14𝜋 5𝜋
( ) ( ) ( )
a. tan b. cos
6 3 4
d. cos − e. sin −
3𝜋 2𝜋 17𝜋
( ) ( ) ( )
f. sin
4 3 6
3. Determine exact values for the following trigonometric expressions.
7𝜋 7𝜋 5𝜋
( ) ( ) ( )
3 3 6
f. tan −
7𝜋 7𝜋
( ) ( )
d. sin(150°) e. cos
6 6

𝜋
4. Determine exact values for the following trigonometric expressions.
( )
a. cos b. tan(270°) c. sin(−4𝜋)
2
3𝜋
( )
d. tan(𝜋) e. cos(−6𝜋) f. sin
2
a. sin(𝜋 − 𝜃) b. cos(6𝜋 − 𝜃) c. tan(𝜋 + 𝜃)

5. Simplify the following.
d. cos(−𝜃) e. sin(180° + 𝜃) f. tan(720° − 𝜃)
6. Calculate the exact values of the following.
+ cos + 4 sin − tan

7𝜋 2𝜋 7𝜋 5𝜋 5𝜋 5𝜋
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) √ ( ) ( )
a. cos b. 2 sin c. 3 tan
6 3 4 6 4 3
+ sin e. 2 cos2 − −1
( 17𝜋 )
tan 4 cos(−7𝜋)
sin − 11𝜋
8𝜋 9𝜋 5𝜋
( ) ( ) ( )
2
d. sin f.
3 4 4
( )
6
7. WE1 Evaluate the following expressions correct to 4 decimal places, given that sin(𝜃) = 0.4695,
Technology active
cos(𝛼) = 0.5592 and tan(𝛽) = 0.2680, where 𝜃, 𝛼 and 𝛽 are in the first quadrant.
a. sin(2𝜋 − 𝜃) b. cos(𝜋 − 𝛼)
d. sin(𝜋 + 𝜃) e. cos(2𝜋 − 𝛼) f. tan(𝜋 + 𝛽)
c. tan(−𝛽)
8. Evaluate the following expressions correct to 4 decimal places, given that sin(𝜃) = 0.4695 and
cos(𝛼) = 0.5592, where 𝜃 and 𝛼 are in the first quadrant.
a. cos(−𝜃) b. tan(180° − 𝜃) c. sin(360° + 𝛼) d. tan(360° − 𝛼)
𝜋
−𝛼 b. tan(90° + 𝛼) c. sin(270° − 𝛼)
( )
a. cos
2
−𝛼 +𝛼 f. sin(90° − 𝛼)
11𝜋 3𝜋
( ) ( )
d. tan e. cos
2 2
Evaluate the following expressions correct to 4 decimal places, given that cos(𝜃) = 0.8829 and
sin(𝛼) = 0.1736, where 𝜃 and 𝛼 are in the first quadrant.
10. WE2
𝜋 𝜋
+𝜃 −𝜃 −𝜃
3𝜋
( ) ( ) ( )
𝜋
2 2 2
+𝛼 −𝛼 +𝛼
3𝜋 3𝜋
( ) ( ) ( )
d. sin e. sin f. tan
2 2 2
11. Evaluate the following expressions correct to 4 decimal places, given that sin(𝜃) = 0.8290 and
cos(𝛽) = 0.7547, where 𝜃 and 𝛽 are in the first quadrant.
a. sin(90° − 𝜃) b. cos(270° + 𝜃) c. tan(90° + 𝜃)
d. sin(270° − 𝛽) e. tan(90° − 𝛽) f. cos(270° − 𝛽)
12. Given that sin(𝜃) = 0.9511 and 𝜃 is in the first quadrant, evaluate the following correct to 4 decimal places.
𝜋
a. sin(2𝜋 − 𝜃) b. sin(𝜋 − 𝜃) −𝜃
( )
c. cos
e. cos(3𝜋 + 𝜃) f. tan(2𝜋 − 𝜃)
2
d. tan(𝜃)
13. Given that cos(𝛼) = 0.8572 and 𝛼 is in the first quadrant, evaluate the following correct to 4 decimal places.
a. cos(180° + 𝛼) +𝛼
3𝜋
( )
b. cos(−𝛼) c. sin
𝜋
2
d. tan(180° − 𝛼) e. cos(360° − 𝛼) +𝛼
( )
f. tan
𝜋
2
14. If sin(𝛽) = and < 𝛽 < 𝜋, determine the exact values of:
4
c. cos2 (𝛽) + sin (𝛽) d. cos2 (𝛽) − sin (𝛽)

5 2
2 2
a. cos (𝛽) b. tan (𝛽)
15. For the given triangle, determine the values of:
d. sin(90° − 𝜃) e. cos(90° − 𝜃) f. tan(90° − 𝜃)

a. sin (𝜃) b. tan (𝜃) c. cos (𝜃) 13
5
θ
12
16. a. Use the Pythagorean identity sin (x) + cos2 (x) = 1 to show that:
2
tan2 (x) + 1 =
1
cos2 (x)
𝜋
b. Hence, determine the value of tan(x) correct to 4 decimal places, given that sin(x) = 0.6157 and 0 ≤ x ≤ .
𝜋t
2
17. The weight on a spring moves in such a way that its speed, v cm/s, is given by the rule v = 12 + 3 sin
( )
.
3
Determine:
a. the initial speed of the weight
b. the exact value of the speed of the weight after 5 seconds
c. the exact value of the speed of the weight after 12 seconds.
18. The height, h(t) metres, that water reaches up the side of the bank of the Yarra river is determined by the rule
𝜋t
h(t) = 0.5 cos + 1.0
( )
12
where t is the number of hours after 6 am. Calculate the height of the water up the side of the bank at:
a. 6 am b. 2 pm c. 10 pm.
Give your answers in exact form.
2.2 Exam questions
Question 1 (1 mark)
Select the expression from the following that is equal to sin −

TECH-ACTIVE
4𝜋
( )
MC .
3
B. − C. −
√ √
3 3 1
A.
2 2( ) 2
1 4𝜋
D. E. sin
2 3

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
Select(the)false statement
( ) from ( the)following.
+ cos = sin + cos
MC
( )
A. sin
B. cos (𝜋) + sin (𝜋) = 1

6 6 3 3
C. cos2 (𝜋) + sin (𝜋) = 1

3 3
D. cos (𝜋) + sin (𝜋) = −1

2
𝜋 𝜋
+ sin =1
( ) ( )
E. cos
2 2
sin (𝜋 + 𝜃) + sin (𝜋 − 𝜃) = 0
MC Select the false statement from the following.
cos (𝜋 + 𝜃) + cos (2𝜋 − 𝜃) = 0

A.
tan (𝜋 + 𝜃) + tan (2𝜋 − 𝜃) = 0

B.
cos (𝜋 + 𝜃) − cos (𝜋 − 𝜃) = 0
C.
sin (𝜋 + 𝜃) + sin (2𝜋 − 𝜃) = 0

D.
E.
2.3 Trigonometric equations

LEARNING INTENTION
• solve trigonometric equations over specific domains
• solve trigonometric equations by first changing the domain
• solve trigonometric equations that can be written as polynomials by substitution.
2.3.1 Solving trigonometric equations

Trigonometric equations frequently involve working with the special angles that have exact values previously
discussed, but may also require the use of CAS.
To solve the basic equation sin(x) = a, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2𝜋, remember the following:
• if a > 0, x must lie in quadrants 1 and 2 where sine is positive

• Identify the quadrants in which solutions lie from the sign of a:
• if a < 0, x must be in quadrants 3 and 4 where sine is negative.

• Obtain the base value or first quadrant value by solving sin(x) = a if a > 0 or ignoring the negative sign if
a < 0 (to ensure the first quadrant value is obtained).
• Use the base value to generate the values for the quadrants required from their symmetric forms.
The basic equations cos(x) = a or tan(x) = a, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2𝜋, are solved in a similar manner, with the sign of a
determining the quadrants in which solutions lie.
For cos(x) = a: if a > 0, x must lie in quadrants 1 and 4 where cosine is positive; if a < 0, x must be in quadrants
2 and 3 where cosine is negative.
For tan(x) = a: if a > 0, x must lie in quadrants 1 and 3 where tangent is positive; if a < 0, x must be in quadrants
2 and 4 where tangent is negative.
In technology active questions, by defining the domain of the equation, the CAS technology will solve the
problem without having to determine a base value or first quadrant value.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4 Trigonometric equations
2 cos(x) + 1 = 0, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2𝜋
Solve
√ the following equations.
b. 2 sin(x) = −1.5, 0° ≤ x ≤ 720°, correct to 2 decimal places

a.
c. tan(𝜃) − 1 = 0, −𝜋 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋
THINK WRITE
2 cos(x) + 1 = 0
2 cos(x) = −1
√
a. 1. Express the equation with the trigonometric a.
function as the subject.
√
cos(x) = − √
1
2
2. Identify the quadrants in which the Cosine is negative in quadrants 2 and 3.

solutions lie.
𝜋 𝜋
=√ .
1
( )
3. Use knowledge of exact values to state the The base is , since cos
𝜋 𝜋
first quadrant base. 4 4 2
4. Generate the solutions using the appropriate x=𝜋− ,𝜋+

quadrant forms. 4 4
x= ,
3𝜋 5𝜋
5. Calculate the solutions from their quadrant
4 4
b. 2 sin(x) = −1.5
forms.
sin(x) = −0.75
b. 1. Express the equation with the trigonometric
2. Identify the quadrants in which the Sine is negative in quadrants 3 and 4.
solutions lie.
3. Calculate the base using CAS, as an exact The base is sin−1 (0.75) = 48.59°.
x = 180° + 48.59°, 360° − 48.59°,

value is not possible.
quadrant forms. As x ∈ [0°, 720°], there 540° + 48.59°, 720° − 48.59°

4. Generate the solutions using the appropriate
will be four positive solutions from two
x = 228.59°, 311.41°, 588.59°, 671.41°

anticlockwise rotations.
5. Calculate the solutions from their quadrant
forms. Alternatively, the solve function on
CAS can be used to find the solutions (but
c. tan(𝜃) − 1 = 0
remember to define the domain).
tan(𝜃) = 1
c. 1. Express the equation with the trigonometric
2. Identify the quadrants in which the Tangent is positive in quadrants 1 and 3.
solutions lie.

𝜋 𝜋
= 1.
( )
3. Use knowledge of exact values to state the The base is , since tan
𝜋 𝜋
first quadrant base. 4 4
x= , −𝜋 +
quadrant forms. As the domain is x ∈ [−𝜋, 𝜋],
4. Generate the solutions using the appropriate
4 4
there will be one positive solution and one
𝜋 −3𝜋
negative solution.
5. Calculate the solutions from their quadrant x= ,

forms. 4 4
a. 1. Put the Calculator into a. 1. Put the Calculator into Radian

Radian mode. mode.
On a Calculator page, press On the Main screen, complete
solve ( 2 cos(x) + 1 = 0, x)
MENU, then select: the entry√ line as:
| 0 ≤ x ≤ 2𝜋
3: Algebra
1: Solve
Complete the entry line as: then press EXE.
2 cos(x) + 1 = 0, x
solve
(√ )
| 0 ≤ x ≤ 2𝜋
then press ENTER.
The answers appear on the x = , x= x= , x=

3𝜋 5𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
2. 2. The answers appear on the
screen. 4 4 screen. 4 4
b. 1. Put the Calculator into b. 1. Put the Calculator into Degree
Degree mode by toggling mode.
between RAD and DEG in On the Main screen, complete
solve (2 sin(x) = −1.5, x) | 0 ≤

the top right corner. the entry line as:
x ≤ 720
On a Calculator page, press
MENU, then select:
3: Algebra then press EXE.
1: Solve
solve (2 sin(x) = −1.5, x)

|0 ≤ x ≤ 720
then press ENTER.
2. The answers appear on the x = 228.59°, 311.41°, 2. The answers appear on the x = 228.59°, 311.41°,
screen. 588.59°, 671.41° screen. 588.59°, 671.41°
2.3.2 Changing the domain

Equations such as sin(2x) = 1, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2𝜋 can be expressed in the basic form by the substitution 𝜃 = 2x. However,
the accompanying domain must be changed to be the domain for 𝜃. This requires the end points of the domain
for x to be multiplied by 2. Hence, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2𝜋 ⇒ 2 × 0 ≤ 2x ≤ 2 × 2𝜋 gives the domain requirement for 𝜃 as
0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 4𝜋.
This allows the equation to be written as sin(𝜃) = 1, 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 4𝜋.
WORKED EXAMPLE 5 Solving by changing the domain
a. 2 sin(2x) − 1 = 0, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2𝜋
Solve the following for x.
b. 2 cos(2x − 𝜋) − 1 = 0, −𝜋 ≤ x ≤ 𝜋.
a. 2 sin(2x) − 1 = 0, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2𝜋
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Change the domain to be that for the given
2 sin(2x) − 1 = 0, 0 ≤ 2x ≤ 4𝜋
multiple of the variable. Multiply each value by 2:
2 sin(2x) − 1 = 0
2 sin(2x) = 1
2. Express the equation with the trigonometric
sin(2x) =
1
3. Solve the equation for 2x. As 2x ∈ [0, 4𝜋],

2
Sine is positive in quadrants 1 and 2.
each of the 2 revolutions will generate 2
solutions, giving a total of 4 values for 2x.
𝜋
The base is .
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
2x = , 𝜋 − , 2𝜋 + , 3𝜋 −
6
𝜋 5𝜋 13𝜋 17𝜋
2x = , , ,
6 6 6 6
6 6 6 6
𝜋 5𝜋 13𝜋 17𝜋
4. Calculate the solutions for x. x= , , ,
Note: By dividing by 2 at the very end, 12 12 12 12
originally specified, namely 0 ≤ x ≤ 2𝜋.

the solutions lie back within the domain
b. 1. Change the domain to that for the given b. 2 cos(2x − 𝜋) − 1 = 0, −𝜋 ≤ x ≤ 𝜋
2 cos(2x − 𝜋) − 1 = 0, −2𝜋 ≤ 2x ≤ 2𝜋
multiple of the variable. Multiply each value by 2:
Subtract 𝜋 from each value:

2 cos(2x − 𝜋) − 1 = 0, −3𝜋 ≤ 2x − 𝜋 ≤ 𝜋
2 cos(2x − 𝜋) − 1 = 0
2 cos(2x − 𝜋) = 1
2. Express the equation with the trigonometric
cos(2x − 𝜋) =
1
3. Solve the equation for (2x − 𝜋).

2
The domain of [−3𝜋, 𝜋] involves 2 complete

Cosine is positive in quadrants 1 and 4.
rotations of the unit circle, so there will be 4

solutions, 3 of which will be negative and 1 of
𝜋
which will be positive.
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
The base is .
2x − 𝜋 = , − , −2𝜋 + , −2𝜋 −
3
𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋 7𝜋
2x − 𝜋 = , − , − , −
3 3 3 3
3 3 3 3

𝜋 𝜋
2x = + 𝜋, − + 𝜋, − + 𝜋, − +𝜋
5𝜋 7𝜋
4. Calculate the solutions for x.
= , ,− ,−
3 3 3 3
4𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 4𝜋
2𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
x= , ,− ,−
3 3 3 3
3 3 3 3
2.3.3 Further types of trigonometric equations
before they can be reduced to the basic form f(x) = a, where f is either sin, cos or tan.
Trigonometric equations may require algebraic techniques or the use of relationships between the functions
• Equations of the form sin(x) = a cos(x) can be converted to tan(x) = a by dividing both sides of the equation
• Equations of the form sin2 (x) = a can be converted to sin(x) = ± a by taking the square roots of both
by cos(x). √
• Equations of the form sin2 (x) + b sin(x) + c = 0 can be converted to standard quadratic equations by using
sides of the equation.
the substitution A = sin(x).

Because −1 ≤ sin(x) ≤ 1 and −1 ≤ cos(x) ≤ 1, neither sin(x) nor cos(x) can have values greater than 1 or less
than −1. This may have implications requiring the rejection of some steps when working with sine or cosine
trigonometric equations. As tan(x) ∈ R, there is no restriction on the values the tangent function can take.
WORKED EXAMPLE 6 Further trigonometric equations
a. sin(2x) = cos(2x), 0 ≤ x ≤ 2𝜋
Solve the following equations.
b. 2 sin2 (𝜃) + 3 sin(𝜃) − 2 = 0, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2𝜋

c. cos2 (2𝛼) − 1 = 0, −𝜋 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 𝜋
a. 0 ≤ x ≤ 2𝜋
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Change the domain to that for the given multiple of
0 ≤ 2x ≤ 4𝜋
the variable. Multiply through by 2:
2. Reduce the equation to one trigonometric function by sin(2x) = cos(2x)
= providing cos(2x) ≠ 0
dividing through by cos(2x). sin(2x) cos(2x)
tan(2x) = 1
cos(2x) cos(2x)
3. Solve the equation for 2x. Tangent is positive in quadrants 1 and 3.
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
The base is .
2x = , 𝜋 + , 2𝜋 + , 3𝜋 +
4
𝜋 5𝜋 9𝜋 13𝜋
= , , ,
4 4 4 4
4 4 4 4
𝜋 5𝜋 9𝜋 13𝜋
x= , , ,
are within the prescribed domain of 0 ≤ x ≤ 2𝜋.
4. Calculate the solutions for x. Note that the answers
8 8 8 8
b. 2 sin (𝜃) + 3 sin(𝜃) − 2 = 0

Let A = sin(𝜃).
2
b. 1. Use substitution to form a quadratic equation.
2A2 + 3A − 2 = 0
2. Solve the quadratic equation. (2A − 1) (A + 2) = 0
A = or A = −2
1
But A = sin (𝜃).

2
sin(𝜃) = or sin(𝜃) = −2
1
2
sin(𝜃) =
1
3. Solve each trigonometric equation separately.
2
Sine is positive in quadrants 1 and 2.
𝜋 𝜋
The base is .
𝜃= ,𝜋−
6
𝜋 5𝜋
𝜃= ,
6 6
sin(𝜃) = −2
6 6
There is no solution as −1 ≤ sin(𝜃) ≤ 1.

𝜋 5𝜋
4. Write the answer. 𝜃= ,
c. −𝜋 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 𝜋
6 6
c. 1. Change the domain to that for the given multiple of
−2𝜋 ≤ 2𝛼 ≤ 2𝜋
the variable. Multiply through by 2:
cos2 (2𝛼) − 1 = 0
Let A = cos(2𝛼).
2. Use substitution to form a quadratic equation and
A2 − 1 = 0
factorise by applying the difference of perfect squares
(A − 1)(A + 1) = 0
method.
A = 1, −1
3. Solve the quadratic equation.
But A = cos(2𝛼).
∴ cos(2𝛼) = 1 or cos(2𝛼) = −1
cos(2𝛼) = 1
2𝛼 = −2𝜋, 0, 2𝜋
4. Solve each trigonometric equation separately.
𝛼 = −𝜋, 0, 𝜋
cos(2𝛼) = −1
2𝛼 = −𝜋, 𝜋
𝜋 𝜋
𝛼=− ,
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
5. Write the answers in numerical order. ∴ 𝛼 = −𝜋, − , 0, , 𝜋
2 2

2.3 Exercise

Technology free
a. 2 cos(𝜃) + 3 = 0 for 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋 b. tan(x) + 3 = 0 for 0° ≤ x ≤ 720°

1. WE4 Solve the following equations.
√ √
a. 2 cos(3𝜃) − 2 = 0 for 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋. b. 2 sin(2x + 𝜋) + 3 = 0 for −𝜋 ≤ x ≤ 𝜋.

2. WE5 Solve the following for x.
√ √
3. Solve the following trigonometric equations for 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋.

2 sin(𝜃) = −1 b. 2 cos(𝜃) = 1
𝜋
√
a.
c. tan(3𝜃) − 3 = 0 d. tan 𝜃 − +1=0

√ ( )
4. Solve the following trigonometric equations for 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.

2
a. 2 cos(x) + 1 = 0 b. 2 sin(2x) + 2=0

√
5. Solve the following for 𝜃 given that −𝜋 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋.

a. 2 sin(2𝜃) + 3 = 0 2 cos(3𝜃) = 1
c. tan(2𝜃) + 1 = 0 d. 2 cos(𝜃) = 1 for −𝜋 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋
√ √
b.
𝜋
6. Solve the following for x.
a. 2 sin 2x + = 2, x ∈ [−𝜋, 𝜋] b. 2 cos(x + 𝜋) = 3, x ∈ [−𝜋, 𝜋]

( ) √ √
𝜋
4
c. tan(x − 𝜋) = −1, x ∈ [−𝜋, 𝜋] 3x − + 3 = 0, x ∈ [0, 2𝜋]

( ) √
d. 2 cos
2
Technology active
a. 3 sin(𝜃) − 2 = 0 given that 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋.

7. Solve the following, correct to 2 decimal places.
b. 7 cos(x) − 2 = 0 given that 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.
8. a. Solve the equation sin(𝜃) + 0.5768 = 0, 0° ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 360°, correct to 2 decimal places.

b. Solve sin(x) = 1, −2𝜋 ≤ x ≤ 2𝜋.
9. Solve sin(3𝜃) = cos(2𝜃) for 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋, correct to 3 decimal places.
10. Solve 2 sin(2x) − 1 = − x + 1 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2, correct to 3 decimal places.

1
2
11. Solve the equation cos2 (𝜃) − sin(𝜃) cos(𝜃) = 0 for 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋.
Solve {𝜃 ∶ 2 cos2 (𝜃) + 3 cos(𝜃) = −1, 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋}. The sum of the solutions is:
WE6
12. MC
7𝜋 13𝜋 2𝜋
A. 2𝜋 B. C. 3𝜋 D. E.
3 6 3
13. Solve the following for 𝜃 given that 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋.

a. tan2 (𝜃) − 1 = 0
b. 4 sin (𝜃) − (2 + 2 3) sin(𝜃) + 3=0
2
√ √
14. Solve the following for 𝛼 where −𝜋 ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 𝜋.

a. sin(𝛼) − cos2 (𝛼) sin(𝛼) = 0 b. sin(2𝛼) =
c. sin (𝛼) = cos2 (𝛼) d. 4 cos (𝛼) − 1 = 0
√
3 cos(2𝛼)
2 2
2.3 Exam questions
𝜋
Given that tan (𝛼) = d, where d > 0 and 0 < 𝛼 < , the sum of the solutions to tan (2x) = d, where
MC
0<x< in terms of 𝛼, is
2
5𝜋
𝜋 3 (𝜋 + 𝛼)
C. 𝜋 + 2𝛼 +𝛼
4
A. 0 B. 2𝛼 D. E.
2 2

MC The sum of the solution of sin (2x) = over the interval [−𝜋, d] is −𝜋.
√
3
2
𝜋
The value of d could be
3𝜋 7𝜋 3𝜋
A. 0 B. C. D. E.
6 4 6 2
Solve 2 cos (2x) = − 3 for x, where 0 ≤ x ≤ 𝜋.

Source: VCE 2014, Mathematical Methods (CAS) Exam 1, Q3; © VCAA.
√
2.4 General solutions of trigonometric equations

LEARNING INTENTION
• determine general solutions for sine, cosine and tangent equations in terms of a parameter.
2.4.1 General solutions

All of the trigonometric equations solved so far have been solved over a specific domain and therefore have
defined numbers of solutions. However, if no domain is given, there will be an infinite number of solutions to the
general equation. This is because multiples of 2𝜋 can be added and subtracted to any solutions within a specific
domain. In cases such as this, a general solution is given in terms of the parameter n, where n is an integer.
The general solution for the sine function

Consider sin(𝜃) = a, where a is a positive value. The solutions are found in quadrants 1 and 2, and the basic
angle is in quadrant 1 and determined by 𝜃 = sin−1 (a). The angle in quadrant 2 is found by (𝜋 − 𝜃). If we keep
cycling around the unit circle in either direction, the two solutions can be summarised as even numbers of 𝜋
adding on 𝜃 and odd numbers of 𝜋 subtracting 𝜃.

The general solution is as follows.
The general solution for the sine function

𝜃 = 2n𝜋 + sin−1 (a) or 𝜃 = (2n + 1)𝜋 − sin−1 (a)
where n ∈ Z and a ∈ [−1, 1].
The solutions if a is positive are represented in the diagram.
y
(2n + 1)π ‒ sin–1(a) 2nπ + sin–1(a)
θ θ
0 x
Note: If a is negative, choose the basic angle to be in quadrant 4 (therefore a negative angle).
The general solution for the cosine function

Consider cos(𝜃) = a, where a is a positive value. The solutions are found in quadrants 1 and 4, and the basic
angle is in quadrant 1 and determined by 𝜃 = cos−1 (a). The angle in quadrant 4 is found by (2𝜋 − 𝜃). If we keep
cycling around the unit circle in either direction, the two solutions can be summarised as even numbers of 𝜋
adding on 𝜃 or subtracting 𝜃.
The general solution is as follows.
The general solution for the cosine function

𝜃 = 2n𝜋 ± cos−1 (a)
where n ∈ Z and a ∈ [−1, 1].
y
2nπ + cos–1(a)
θ
0 θ x
2nπ ‒ cos–1(a)
Note: If a is negative, choose the basic angle to be in quadrant 2 (therefore a positive angle).
The general solution for the tangent function

Consider tan(𝜃) = a, where a is a positive value. The solutions are found in quadrants 1 and 3, and the basic
angle is in quadrant 1 and determined by 𝜃 = tan−1 (a). The angle in quadrant 3 is found by (𝜋 + 𝜃). If we keep
cycling around the unit circle in either direction, the two solutions can be summarised as multiples of 𝜋 adding
on 𝜃.
The general solution isas follows.
The general solution for the tangent function

𝜃 = n𝜋 + tan−1 (a)
where n ∈ Z and a ∈ R.
nπ + tan–1(a)
θ
θ 0 x
nπ + tan–1(a)
Note: If a is negative, choose the basic angle to be in quadrant 4 (therefore a negative angle).
We can summarise the general solutions for sine, cosine and tangent as follows.
Summary
• If sin(𝜃) = a, then 𝜃 = 2n𝜋 + sin−1 (a) or 𝜃 = (2n + 1)𝜋 − sin−1 (a), where a ∈ [−1, 1] and n ∈ Z.
• If cos(𝜃) = a, then 𝜃 = 2n𝜋 ± cos−1 (a), where a ∈ [−1, 1] and n ∈ Z.
• If tan(𝜃) = a, then 𝜃 = n𝜋 + tan−1 (a), where a ∈ R and n ∈ Z.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7 General trigonometric solutions
a. Determine the general solution of the equation tan(x) − = 0.

b. Determine the general solution of the equation 2 cos(2𝜃) − 2 = 0 and hence find all the solutions
√
3√
for 𝜃 ∈ [−𝜋, 𝜋].

THINK WRITE
a. tan(x) − 3=0
tan(x) = 3
√
a. 1. Express the equation with the trigonometric
√

2. Recognise the exact value and determine the Tangent is positive in quadrants 1 and 3.
quadrants in which the tangent function is
positive.
𝜋
The base angle is .
3. Write the general solution for tan(x) = a. x = n𝜋 + tan−1 (a)

3
= n𝜋 + tan−1 ( 3)
√
𝜋
4. Substitute the basic angle for tan−1 ( = n𝜋 + ,n∈Z
√
3) and
3n𝜋 + 𝜋
Note that n ∈ Z must always be included as =
simplify. 3
(3n + 1)𝜋
= ,n∈Z
part of the solution. 3
b. 2 cos(2𝜃) − 2=0
2 cos(2𝜃) = 2
√
b. 1. Express the equation with the trigonometric
√
cos(2𝜃) =
√
2
2
2. Recognise the exact value and determine Cosine is positive in quadrants 1 and 4.
the quadrants in which the cosine function
is positive.
𝜋
The base is .
2𝜃 = 2n𝜋 ± cos−1 (a)

4
3. Write the general solution for cos(2𝜃) = a.
= 2n𝜋 ± cos−1
(√ )
2
2
𝜋
Substitute the basic angle for cos−1 = 2n𝜋 ± ,n∈Z
(√ )
2
8n𝜋 𝜋
2 4
= ±
and simplify.
8n𝜋 + 𝜋 8n𝜋 − 𝜋
4 4
= ,
(8n + 1)𝜋 (8n − 1)𝜋

4 4
= , ,n∈Z
(8n + 1) 𝜋 (8n − 1) 𝜋
4 4
4. Divide through by 2 to find the solution for 𝜃. 𝜃= , ,n∈Z
This is always best done once the solutions are 8 8
written with common denominators.
If n = −1, 𝜃 = − or 𝜃 = − .
9𝜋 7𝜋
solutions for 𝜃 ∈ [−𝜋, 𝜋].
5. Substitute appropriate values of n to achieve
𝜃=−
8 8
9𝜋
𝜋 𝜋
is outside the domain.
If n = 0, 𝜃 = or 𝜃 = − .
8
8 8
If n = 1, 𝜃 = or 𝜃 =
Both are within the domain.
7𝜋 9𝜋
.
𝜃=
8 8
9𝜋
lies outside the domain.
Therefore, the solutions for 𝜃 ∈ [−𝜋, 𝜋] are
8
7𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 7𝜋
𝜃=− ,− , , .
8 8 8 8
Radian mode. mode.
On a Calculator page, On the Main screen,
solve (tan(x) − 3 = 0, x)
press MENU, then select: complete the entry
√ line as:
3: Algebra
1: Solve then press EXE.
solve (tan(x) − 3 = 0, x)
Complete the entry
√ line as:
then press ENTER.
𝜋 𝜋
2. The answers appear on the x = n𝜋 + , n ∈ Z 2. The answers appear on the x = n𝜋 + , n∈Z
screen. 3 screen. 3
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Trigonometric equations and general solutions (int-6413)
2.4 Exercise

2 sin(𝜃) − 3 = 0.
Technology free
b. Determine the general solution of the equation 3 tan(2𝜃) + 1 = 0 and hence find all the solutions for
√
1. a. WE7Determine the general solution of the equation
𝜃 ∈ [−𝜋, 𝜋].
√

a. 2 cos(x) + 1 = 0 b. 2 sin(x) − 2=0

2. Calculate the general solutions for the following.
√
3. Calculate the general solution of 2 sin(2x) + 1 = 0 and hence find all solutions for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2𝜋.
𝜋 𝜋
Technology active
3 sin x + = cos x +
√ ( ) ( )
−𝜋 ≤ x ≤ 𝜋.
4. Determine the general solution of and hence find all solutions for
2 2
5. Determine the general solution of 2 cos (2𝜃) − 2 = 0.
𝜋
6. Determine the general solution of 3 tan 2𝜃 + = 0.
( )
2.4 Exam questions
𝜋
MC The solutions of the equation 2 cos 2x − + 1 = 0 are
( )
𝜋 (6k − 2) 𝜋 (6k − 2) 𝜋 (6k − 2) 𝜋 (6k + 5)

A. x = or x = , for k ∈ z B. x = or x = , for k ∈ z
3
𝜋 (6k − 1) 𝜋 (6k + 2) 𝜋 (6k − 1) 𝜋 (6k + 3)

6 6 6 6
C. x = or x = , for k ∈ z D. x = or x = , for k ∈ z
𝜋 (6k + 2)
6 6 6 6
E. x = 𝜋 or x = , for k ∈ z
6
𝜋
Find the general solution of sin x − =

√
3
( )
.
3 2
𝜋
x = n𝜋 − , n ∈ z is the general solution to the equation
A. sin (2x) = 1 B. sin (x) = 1 C. sin (2x) = −1

MC
4
D. sin (x) = −1 E. cos (x) = 1

2.5 The sine and cosine functions

LEARNING INTENTION
• state and understand the key features of sine and cosine graphs
• sketch sine and cosine graphs, including those that have undergone transformations.
2.5.1 Features of the sine and cosine graphs

Circular functions, or trigonometric functions, are periodic functions such as y = sin(x), y = cos(x) and
y = tan (x).
The graph of the sine function has a wave shape that repeats itself every 2𝜋 units. Its period is 2𝜋 as shown in
its graph.
y
1 y = sin(x)
0 x
–2π 3π –π π
––
π
– π 3π 2π
–— —
2 2 2 2
–1
The graph oscillates about the line y = 0 (the x-axis), rising and falling by up to 1 unit. This gives the graph its
range of [−1, 1] with a mean, or equilibrium, position of y = 0 and an amplitude of 1.
The graph of the cosine function has the same wave shape with period 2𝜋.
y y = cos(x)
1
0 π x
3π
–2π – — –π π
–– – π 3π 2π
2 2 —
2 2
–1
Key features of the sine and cosine functions

The graphs of y = sin(x) and y = cos(x) have:
• period 2𝜋
• mean position y = 0
• amplitude 1
• domain R
• range [−1, 1]
• many-to-one correspondence.
Although the domain of both the sine and cosine functions is R, they are usually sketched on a given restricted
𝜋 𝜋
domain.
The two graphs of y = sin(x) and y = cos(x) are ‘out of phase’ by ; that is, cos x − = sin(x). In other
( )
𝜋
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
words, a horizontal shift of the cosine graph by units to the right gives the sine graph. Likewise, a horizontal
shift of the sine graph by units to the left gives the cosine graph; sin x + = cos(x).
2 ( )
The periodicity of the functions is expressed by f(x) = f(x + n2𝜋), n ∈ Z, where f is sin or cos.
2 2
Graphs of y = a sin(nx) and y = a cos(nx)

The value of a affects the amplitude of the sine and cosine functions.
Because −1 ≤ sin(nx) ≤ 1, −a ≤ a sin(nx) ≤ a. This means the graphs of y = a sin(nx) and y = a cos(nx) have
amplitude |a|.

As the amplitude measures a distance — the rise or fall from the mean position — it is always positive. If a < 0,
the graphs will be inverted, or reflected in the x-axis.
The value of n affects the period of the sine and cosine functions.
Since one cycle of y = sin(nx) is completed for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2𝜋, one cycle of y = sin(nx) is completed for 0 ≤ nx ≤ 2𝜋.
This means one cycle is covered over the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ , assuming n > 0.
2𝜋
n
Features of y = a sin(nx) and y = a cos(nx)

The graphs of y = a sin(nx) and y = a cos(nx) have:
2𝜋
• period
• amplitude |a|
n
• range [ − a, a].
The graphs of y = a sin(nx) + k and y = a cos(nx) + k

Any vertical translation affects the equilibrium or mean position about which the sine and cosine graphs
oscillate.
Features of y = a sin(nx) + k and y = a cos(nx) + k

The graphs of y = a sin(nx) + k and y = a cos(nx) + k have:
• mean position y = k
• range [k − a, k + a].
Where the graph of y = f(x) crosses the x-axis, the intercepts are found by solving the trigonometric equation
f(x) = 0.
WORKED EXAMPLE 8 Sketching trigonometric graphs
a. Sketch the graph of y = 3 sin(2x) + 4, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2𝜋. y

b. The diagram shows the graph of a cosine function. State its mean
position, amplitude and period, and give a possible equation for the
function. (–π3, 4)
0 π x
–
3
(0, –8)
a. y = 3 sin(2x) + 4, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2𝜋
THINK WRITE
a. 1. State the period and amplitude of the
= 𝜋.
graph. 2𝜋
The period is
2
The amplitude is 3.
The mean position is y = 4.

The range of the graph is [4 − 3, 4 + 3] = [1, 7].
2. State the mean position and the range.
3. Construct appropriate scales on the axes y

and sketch the graph.
7
(–π4 , 7) (––
5π , 7)
4 y = 3 sin(2x) + 4
(2π, 4)
4 (0, 4)
1 (––
3π , 1)
4
(––
7π , 1)
4
0 π π 3π π 5π 3π 7π 2π x
b. The minimum value is −8 and the maximum

– – — — — —
4 2 4 4 2 4
b. 1. Deduce the mean position.
−8 + 4
value is 4, so the mean position is
y= = −2.
2
2. State the amplitude. The amplitude is the distance from the mean
position to either its maximum or minimum.
𝜋
The amplitude is 6.
3. State the period. At x = , the graph is halfway through its
3
2𝜋
cycle, so its period is .
3
Let the equation be y = a cos(nx) + k.
The graph is an inverted cosine shape, so a = −6.
4. Determine a possible equation for the
given graph.
2𝜋
The period is .
=
n
2𝜋 2𝜋
n=3
n 3
The mean position is y = −2, so k = −2.

The equation is y = −6 cos(3x) − 2.

Radian mode. mode.
On a Graphs page, On a Graphs screen, complete
f 1(x) = 3 sin(2x) + 4 = 0|
complete the entry line the entry line for y1 as:
f 1(x) = 3 sin(2x) + 4, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2𝜋
for function 1 as:
0 ≤ x ≤ 2𝜋 then press EXE.

then press ENTER. Select the Graph icon to draw
Note: You may need to the graph.
adjust the Window/Zoom
to see the full domain.

2. To find the end points, 2. To find the end points, select:

press MENU, then select: • Analysis
5: Trace • Trace
1: Graph Trace Type ‘0’, then select OK and
Type ‘0’, then press press EXE. Type ‘2𝜋’, then
ENTER twice. select OK and press EXE.
Type ‘2𝜋’, then press
ENTER twice.
Note: The calculator will
show an approximate value
of 6.28 for 2𝜋. To change
this, double click on 6.28,
change the value to 2𝜋,
then press ENTER.
3. To find the maximums, 3. To find the maximums, select:
3: Maximum • Max
Move the cursor to the left then press EXE. Use the
of the maximum when left/right arrows to move to
prompted for the lower the next maximum, then press
bound, then press ENTER. EXE.
right of the maximum
ENTER. Repeat this
process to find the other
maximum.
4. To find the minimums, 4. To find the minimums, select:
2: Minimum • Min
Move the cursor to the then press EXE. Use the
left of the minimum when left/right arrows to move to
prompted for the lower the next minimum, then press
bound, then press ENTER. EXE.
right of the minimum when
Repeat this process to find
the other minimum.
2.5.2 Horizontal translations of the sine and cosine graphs

Horizontal translations do not affect the period, amplitude or mean position of the graphs of sine or cosine
y = a sin (n(x − h)) + k in exactly the same way it is for any other type of function. The graph will have the same
functions. The presence of a horizontal translation of h units is recognised from the equation in the form given as
shape as y = a sin(nx) + k, but it will be translated to the right or to the left, depending on whether h is positive or
negative, respectively.
Translations affect the position of the maximum and minimum points and any x- and y-intercepts. However,
successive maximum points would remain one period apart, as would successive minimum points.
The equation in the form y = a sin(nx − b) + k must be rearranged into the form y = a sin n x − + k to
b
( ( ))
identify the horizontal translation h = .

n
b
n
WORKED EXAMPLE 9 Sketching trigonometric graphs with a horizontal translation
𝜋
Sketch the graph of the function f ∶ 0, → R, f(x) = 4 cos 2x +
3𝜋
[ ] )(
.
2 3
𝜋
THINK WRITE
1. State the period, amplitude, mean position and f ∶ 0, → R, f(x) = 4 cos 2x +

3𝜋
[ ] ( )
𝜋
horizontal translation. 2 3
f(x) = 4 cos 2 x +
( ( ))
= 𝜋.
2𝜋
The period is
2

The amplitude is 4.
𝜋
The horizontal translation is to the left.
6
translation, y = 4 cos(2x).
2. Sketch the graph without the horizontal y
(0, 4) y = 4 cos(2x)
4
0 π π 3π π 5π 3π x
– – — — —
4 2 4 4 2
–4
( 3π
— , –4 )
𝜋
2
f (0) = 4 cos
( )
3. Calculate the coordinates of the end points of
= 4×
the domain of the given function. 3
1
=2
2
𝜋
= 4 cos 3𝜋 +
3𝜋
( ) ( )
f
−1
2 3
= 4×
= −2
2
, −2 .
3𝜋
( )
The end points of the graph are (0, 2) and
2

𝜋
4. Calculate or deduce the positions of the Each x-intercept on y = 4 cos(2x) is translated units
x-intercepts. 6
Alternatively, let y = 0.
to the left.
𝜋
4 cos 2x + =0
( )
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
3
cos 2x + = 0, ≤ 2x + ≤ 3𝜋 +
( )
3 3 3 3
2x + = , ,
𝜋 7𝜋 13𝜋
3 2 2 2
2x = , ,
𝜋 7𝜋 13𝜋
6 6 6
x= , ,
12 12 12
5. Apply the horizontal translation to key points y

π
on the graph already sketched and hence 4 (
f (x) = 4 cos 2x + –
3 )
sketch the function over its given domain. (0, 2)
2
π 7π 13π
– – –
12 12 12
0 π π 3π π 5π 3π x
– – — — —
4 2 4 4 2
–2 —(
3π , –2
2
)
–4
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities Sine and cosine graphs (int-2976)
The unit circle, sine and cosine graphs (int-6551)
Oscillation (int-2977)
2.5.3 Combinations of the sine and cosine functions

Trigonometric functions such as y = sin(x) + cos(x) can be sketched using addition of ordinates. In this example,
both of the functions being combined under addition have the same period. If the functions have different
periods, then to observe the periodic nature of the sum function the graphs should be sketched over a domain
that allows both parts to complete at least one full cycle.
For example, the function y = sin(2x) + cos(x) would be drawn over [0, 2𝜋], with two cycles of the sine function
and one cycle of the cosine function being added together.
WORKED EXAMPLE 10 Combinations of trigonometric functions
Sketch the graph of y = cos(x) + sin(2x) for x ∈ [0, 2𝜋].

1
2
THINK WRITE
y = cos(x) +
1
1. Identify the two functions forming sin(2x)
y = y1 + y2 where y1 = cos(x) and y2 =

the sum function. 2
1
sin(2x).
y1 = cos(x) has period 2𝜋 and amplitude 1.

2
2. State the key features of the two
y2 = sin(2x) has period 𝜋 and amplitude .

functions. 1 1
2 2
3. Sketch the two functions on the y
same set of axes and add together 2
(0, 1) 1 sin(2x)
the y-values of known points. y = cos(x) + –
2 y = cos(x) (2π, 1)
1
π 0 (0, 0) π π 3π 2π x
–– – — (2π, 0)
4 –1 2 2
–2 1 sin(2x)
y=–
2
2.5 Exercise

Technology free
1. State the period, amplitude and range of each of the following.
a. y = 6 sin(8x) b. y = 2 − 3 cos
x
( )
c. y = − sin(3x − 6) d. y = 3(5 + 2 cos(6𝜋x))

4
2. a. WE8 Sketch the graph of y = 2 cos(4x) − 3, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2𝜋. y (1.5, 13)

b. The diagram shows the graph of a sine function. State its mean position,
amplitude, and period, and give a possible equation for the function.
(0, 5)
(2, 5)
0 x
(0.5, –3)

3. Sketch the graph of f : [0, 2𝜋] → R, f(x) = 1 − 2 sin

3x
)(
, locating any intercepts with the coordinate axes.
2
→ R, f(x) = −6 sin 3x −
3𝜋 3𝜋
[ ] ( )
4. WE9 Sketch the graph of the function f : 0, .
2 4
a. y = −7 cos(4x), 0 ≤ x ≤ 𝜋 b. y = 5 − sin(x), 0 ≤ x ≤ 2𝜋
5. Sketch the following over the intervals specified.
c. y = cos(2x) + 3, −𝜋 ≤ x ≤ 2𝜋 d. y = 2 − 4 sin(3x), 0 ≤ x ≤ 2𝜋
1
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
2 (
e. y = 2 sin x + , 0 ≤ x ≤ 2𝜋 f. y = −4 cos 3x − + 4, − ≤x≤
3𝜋
) ( )
4 2 2 2
6. MC A positive sine function has the general equation y = a sin(x(− h) + k. The

Technology active
minimum value is −1. The graph also passes through the point 𝜋, 2 + 1 . Select the equation of the
√ ) maximum value is 3 and the
graph from the following.

𝜋
A. y = 2 sin x − +1 B. y = 2 sin x − C. y = 2 sin x − + 2+1
3𝜋 3𝜋
( ) ( ) ( ) √
4 4 4
D. y = 2 sin x + +1 E. y = sin x + +1
3𝜋 3𝜋
( ) ( )
4 4
7. a. i. Solve the equation 2 sin(2x) + 3 = 0 for x ∈ [0, 2𝜋].

ii. Sketch the graph of y = sin(2x) for x ∈ [0, 2𝜋].
√
iii. Hence, find {x: sin(2x) < − , 0 ≤ x ≤ 2𝜋}.

√
3
𝜋
b. State the maximum value of the function f (x) = 2 − 3 cos x +
2 ( )
and give the first positive value of x
12
for when this maximum occurs.
8. Sketch the graph of y = cos(2x) − 3 cos(x) for x ∈ [0, 2𝜋].
9. Sketch the graphs of y = (sin(x)) and y = sin(x) for x ∈ [−𝜋, 𝜋].
WE10
a. y = sin(2x) − 4 sin(x), 0 ≤ x ≤ 2𝜋
10. Use addition of ordinates to sketch the graphs of the following.
b. y = x + sin(x), 0 ≤ x ≤ 2𝜋
2.5 Exam questions
Let f ∶ R → R, f (x) = 3 sin − 2.

2x
( )
MC
5
The period and range of f are respectively
A. 5𝜋 and [−3, 3] B. 5𝜋 and [−5, 1] C. 5𝜋 and [−1, 5]
5𝜋 5𝜋
D. and [−5, 1] E. and [−3, 3]
2 2
Let f ∶ [0, 2𝜋] → R, f (x) = 2 cos (x) + 1.

a. Solve the equation 2 cos (x) + 1 = 0 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2𝜋.

MC
(2 marks)
b. Sketch the graph of the function f on the axes below. Label the endpoints and local minimum point with
their coordinates. (3 marks)
y
4
3
2
1
0 π 2π π 4π 5π 2π x
–1 3 3 3 3
–2
Question 3 (1 mark)
𝜋x
Let f ∶ R → R, f (𝜋) = 1 − 2 cos .

( )
MC
2
The period and range of this function are respectively
A. 4 and [−2, 2] B. 4 and [−1, 3] C. 1 and [−1, 3]
D. 4𝜋 and [−1, 3] E. 4𝜋 and [−2, 2]
2.6 The tangent function

LEARNING INTENTION
At the end of this subtopic you should able to:
• state and understand the key features of the graph of the tangent function
• sketch graphs of the tangent function, including those that have undergone transformations.
2.6.1 The graph of y = tan(x)

The domain of the tangent function, y = tan(x), can be deduced from the relationship tan(x) =
sin(x)
. Whenever
cos(x) = 0, the tangent function will be undefined and its graph will have vertical asymptotes. Because cos(x) = 0
cos(x)
𝜋 𝜋
when x is an odd multiple of , the domain is R\ {x ∶ x = (2n + 1) , n ∈ Z}.
If sin(x) = 0, then tan(x) = 0; therefore, its graph will have x-intercepts when x = n𝜋, n ∈ Z.
2 2

The graph of y = tan(x) is shown.
y
6
5
4
3
2
1
0 x
–2π 3π –π π π π 3π 2π
–— – – –1 – —
2 2 2 2
–2
–3
–4 y = tan(x)
–5
–6
3π π π 3π
x = −–– x = –– x= – x = ––
2 2 2 2
Key features of the tangent function

The graph of y = tan(x) has:
• period 𝜋
𝜋 𝜋
• range R, which implies it is not meaningful to refer to an amplitude
• vertical asymptotes at x = ± , ± , …, i.e. x = (2k + 1) , k ∈ Z

3𝜋
2 2 2
• x-intercepts at x = 0, ± 𝜋, ± 2𝜋, …, i.e. x = k𝜋, k ∈ Z

• asymptotes spaced one period apart
• mean position y = 0
𝜋
• domain R\ x ∶ x = (2k + 1) , k ∈ Z
{ }
2
• many-to-one correspondence.
The graphs of y = tan(nx) and y = a tan(x)

𝜋
The period of y = tan(x) is 𝜋, so the period of y = tan(nx) will be .
𝜋
n
𝜋
Altering the period alters the position of the vertical asymptotes, as these will now be units apart. An
asymptote occurs when nx = . Once one asymptote is found, others can be generated by adding or subtracting
n
2
multiples of the period.
The mean position remains at y = 0, so the x-intercepts will remain midway between successive pairs of
asymptotes.
The dilation factor a affects the steepness of the tangent graph y = a tan(x). Its effect is illustrated by comparing
𝜋
the values of the functions f(x) = tan(x) and g(x) = 2 tan(x) at the point where x = .
4
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
= tan = 1 and g = 2 tan = 2, the point , 1 lies on the graph of y = f(x) but
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Because f
𝜋
( 4 ) 4 4 4 4
the point , 2 lies on the dilated graph y = g(x).
4
Features of y = a tan(nx)
The graph of y = a tan(nx) has:
𝜋
• period
𝜋
n
• vertical asymptotes units apart
• mean position y = 0 with x-intercepts on this line midway between pairs of successive asymptotes.
n
Also note that the graph has an inverted shape if a < 0.
by solving the equation a tan(nx) = 0.

The x-intercepts can be located using their symmetry with the asymptotes. Alternatively, they can be calculated
WORKED EXAMPLE 11 Sketching y = a tan (nx)
Sketch the graph of y = 2 tan(3x) for x ∈ [0, 𝜋].
y = 2 tan(3x)
THINK WRITE
𝜋
1. State the period.
The period is .
𝜋 𝜋
An asymptote occurs when 3x = ⇒x= .
3
2. Calculate the positions of the
2 6
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋
asymptotes.
Others are formed by adding multiples of the period.
Asymptotes occur at x = + = and x = + =
within the domain constraint x ∈ [0, 𝜋].
6 3 2 2 3 6
3. Calculate the positions of the The mean position is y = 0, and the x-intercepts occur
1 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
x-intercepts. midway between the asymptotes. One occurs at
let y = 0 and solve the trigonometric x= + = . The next is a period apart at

Note: An alternative method is to
( )
𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋
2 6 2 3
x= + = , and the one after that is at x = + = 𝜋.
equation for x.
3 3 3 3 3
6
5
4
3
2
1
(π, 0)
(0, 0)π π π 2π 5π x
–1 – — – — —
6 3 2 3 6
–2
–3
y = 2 tan(3x)
–4
–5
–6 x = –π π 5π
6 x=– x = ––
2 6


Radian mode. mode.
On a Graphs page, On a Graphs screen, complete
f 1(x) = 2 tan(3x) = 0 ∣ 0 ≤ x ≤ 𝜋
complete the entry line the entry line for y1 as:
f 1(x) = 2 tan(3x) = 0 ∣
for function 1 as:
0≤x≤𝜋
then press EXE.
Select the Graph icon to draw
then press ENTER. the graph.
2. To find the x-intercepts, 2. To find the x-intercepts, select:

1: Zero • Root
Move the cursor to the left Press EXE. Use the left/right
of the x-intercept when arrows to move to the next
prompted for the lower x-intercept, then press EXE.
bound, then press ENTER. Repeat this process to find the
Move the cursor to the other x-intercepts.
right of the x-intercept
ENTER. Repeat this
process to find the other
x-intercepts.
3. To draw the asymptotes, 3. To draw the asymptotes, select:
8: Geometry • Sketch
4: Construction • Vertical
𝜋
x-axis where x = .
1: Perpendicular then click on the point on the
Click on the x-axis, then
𝜋
x-axis where x = .
click on the point on the 6
Repeat this process to draw the
6 other asymptotes.
Press MENU, then select:
1: Actions
4: Attributes
Click on the asymptote,
press the down arrow,
then press the right arrow
twice to select dashed line.
Repeat this process to draw
the other asymptotes.
2.6.2 The graph of y = tan(x − h)
translation will not affect the period of the graph. An asymptote for the graph of y = tan(x − h) occurs when
A horizontal translation of h units will move the vertical asymptotes h units in the same direction, but the
𝜋 𝜋
x − h = ⇒ x = + h. Other asymptotes can be generated by adding or subtracting multiples of the period 𝜋.
2 2
The x-intercepts will remain midway between successive pairs of asymptotes, as the mean position is unaffected
tan(x − h) = 0.
at a horizontal translation. They may be found by this means or alternatively found by solving the equation
Features of y = a tan(nx − b)
The graph of y = a tan(nx − b) has:
𝜋
• period
n
• horizontal translation of h = , as the equation is y = a tan n x −
b b
( ( ))
• mean position y = 0.
n n
WORKED EXAMPLE 12 Sketching y = a tan (nx − b)
𝜋
Sketch the graph of y = −tan 2x + for x ∈ (0, 2𝜋).
( )
𝜋
THINK WRITE
y = − tan 2x +
( )
1. State the period.
𝜋
2
∴ y = − tan 2 x +
( ( ))
𝜋
4
The period is .
2
𝜋 𝜋
2. Calculate the positions of the asymptotes. An asymptote occurs when 2x + = ⇒ x = 0.
2 2
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
x = 0 + = , another at x = + = 𝜋, another at
Adding multiples of the period, another occurs at
𝜋 3𝜋 3𝜋 𝜋
x=𝜋+ = , and another at x = + = 2𝜋.
2 2 2 2
𝜋
The asymptotes are x = 0, x = , x = 𝜋, x =
2 2 2 2
3𝜋
x = 2𝜋.
,
2 2
3. Calculate the positions of the x-intercepts. The mean position is y = 0, and the x-intercepts are
𝜋
x-intercepts occur at x = , x = ,x= ,x=
midway between the asymptotes.
3𝜋 5𝜋 7𝜋
.
4 4 4 4

𝜋
4. Sketch the graph, noting its orientation. The graph is inverted due to the presence of the
) negative
coefficient in its equation, y = − tan 2x + .
(
2
y
6
5
4
3
2 ( π
y = –tan 2x + –
2 )
1
0 π π 3π π 5π 3π 7π 2π x
–1 – – — — — —
4 2 4 4 2 4
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6
x=0 π 3π
x= – x=π x = –– x = 2π
2 2
The graph of y = a tan(n(x − h)) + k

Under a vertical translation of k units, the mean position becomes y = k. The points that are midway between the
asymptotes will now lie on this line y = k, not on the x-axis, y = 0. The x-intercepts must be calculated by letting
y = 0 and solving the ensuing trigonometric equation this creates.
The vertical translation does not affect either the asymptotes or the period.
Features of y = a tan(n(x − h) + k
The graph of y = a tan(n (x − h)) + k has:
𝜋
• period
𝜋
• vertical asymptotes when n(x − h) = (2k + 1) , k ∈ Z
n
• mean position y = k
2
• x-intercepts where a tan(n(x − h) + k = 0.
WORKED EXAMPLE 13 Sketching y = a tan (n(x − h)) + k
Sketch the graph of y = 3 tan(2𝜋x) + 3 over the interval − ≤ x ≤ .

√ 7 7
8 8
y = 3 tan(2𝜋x) + 3
THINK WRITE
𝜋
√
1. State the period and mean position.
= .
1
The period is

2𝜋 2
√
𝜋
An asymptote occurs when 2𝜋x = ⇒x= .
1
2. Calculate the positions of the
asymptotes. 2 4
Others are formed by adding and subtracting a period.
For the interval − ≤ x ≤ , the asymptotes occur at
7 7
x = + = , x = − = − and x = − − = − .
8 8
1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 3
4 2 4 4 2 4 4 2 4
The asymptotes are x = − , x = − , x = , x = .

3 1 1 3
4 4 4 4
3. Calculate the positions of the x-intercepts: let y = 0.

3 tan(2𝜋x) + 3 = 0, − ≤ x ≤
x-intercepts. √ 7 7
√8 8
tan(2𝜋x) = − ,− ≤ 2𝜋x ≤
3 7𝜋 7𝜋
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
3 4 4
2𝜋x = − , −𝜋 − , 𝜋 − , 2𝜋✚−✚
✚
𝜋 7𝜋 5𝜋
2𝜋x = − , − ,
6 6 6 ✚ 6
x = − ,− ,
6 6 6
1 7 5
12 12 12
When x = 0, y√= 3 tan(0) + 3 = 3.

√ √
4. Obtain the y-intercept.
The point (0, 3) is on the mean position.
End points: let x = − .

7
5. Calculate the coordinates of the end
)8 √
y = 3 tan 2𝜋 × − + 3
points.
7
(
)8 √
= 3 tan − + 3
7𝜋
(
= 3×1+ 3
√4
= 3+ 3
√
One end point is − , 3 + 3 .

7
( √ )
8
Let x = .
7
8( )
y = 3 tan + 3
7𝜋 √
= 3 × −1 + 3
4√
= −3 + 3
√
, −3 + 3 .
7
( √ )
The other end point is
8

6. Sketch the graph. y = 3 tan(2πx) + 3

y
(– –78 , 3 + 3)
(0, 3 )
5
(– 127 , 0) (– 12–1– , 0) ( 12–– , 0)
0 x
(–78 , –3 + 3)
3 1 1 3
x =–— x =–— x=— x =—
4 4 4 4
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity The tangent function (int-2978)
2.6 Exercise

Technology free
1. State the period and calculate the equation of the first positive asymptote for each of the following.
a. y = tan(4x) b. y = 9 + 8 tan
x
( )
c. y = − tan d. y = 2 tan(6𝜋x + 3𝜋)

3 4x
( )
2 5
2. WE11 Sketch the graph of y = 3 tan for x ∈ [−𝜋, 𝜋].

x
( )
2
3. WE12 Sketch the graph of y = − tan(2x − 𝜋) for x ∈ [−𝜋, 𝜋].
𝜋
4. Sketch the following graphs over the intervals specified.
a. y = − tan(2x), x ∈ [0, 𝜋] b. y = 3 tan x + , x ∈ [0, 2𝜋]

( )
𝜋
4
c. y = tan + 3, x ∈ [0, 6𝜋] d. y = 5 3 tan 𝜋x − − 5, x ∈ (−2, 3)
x
( ) √ √ ( )
3 2
Sketch the graph of y = 3 tan(2𝜋x) − 3 over the interval − ≤ x ≤ .

√ 7 7
5. WE13
8 8
𝜋
6. Sketch the graph of y = 1 − tan x + over the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 2𝜋.
( )
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
Technology active
7. The graph of y = a tan(nx) has the domain − , with vertical asymptotes at x = − and x = only.
( )
𝜋 1
3 3( 3 3
The graph passes through the origin and the point − , − . Determine its equation.
)
6 2
8. The graph of y = tan(x) undergoes a set of transformations to form that of the graph shown.
2 (–π3 , 3)
0 x
–π – 3π π π π π 3π π
— –– –– – – —
4 2 4 –2 4 2 4
–4
x = – 3π
— x =–π— x=π
— x = 3π
—
4 4 4 4
a. Explain why there was no vertical translation among the set of transformations applied to y = tan(x) to
obtain this graph.
b. State the period of the graph shown.
c. Form a possible equation for the graph.
9. a. Use CAS technology to find the coordinates of the points of intersection of the graphs of y = sin(2x) and
y = tan(x) for −2𝜋 ≤ x ≤ 2𝜋.
b. Hence or otherwise, give the general solution to the equation sin(2x) = tan(x), x ∈ R.
10. A hybrid function is defined by the rule
𝜋
⎧− sin(x), −2𝜋 ≤ x ≤ −
⎪ 𝜋 𝜋
f(x) = tan(x), − <x<
2
⎨
⎪ 𝜋
.
≤ x ≤ 2𝜋
2 2
⎩
cos(x),
2
𝜋 𝜋
a. Evaluate:
iii. f −
( ) ( )
i. f ii. f(𝜋) .
b. Sketch the graph of y = f(x).

3 2
c. Identify any points of the domain where the function is not continuous.
d. State the domain and range of the function.

2.6 Exam questions
𝜋x
The period of the function with rule y = tan
Source: VCE 2021, Mathematical Methods Exam 2, Section A, Q1: © VCAA.
( )
is
2
A. 1 B. 2 C. 4 D. 2𝜋 E. 4𝜋
Shown below is part of the graph of a period of the function of the form y = tan (ax + b).
(1, 3 )
x
O
(–1, –1)
y = tan(ax + b)
The graph is continuous for x ∈ [−1, 1].

Find the value of a and the value of b, where a > 0 and 0 < b < 1.
The graph of y = tan (ax), where a ∈ R+ , has a vertical asymptote x = 3𝜋 and has exactly one x-intercept
MC
in the region (0, 3𝜋). The value of a is

1 1 1
A. B. C. D. 1 E. 2
6 3 2

LEARNING INTENTION
• apply trigonometric functions to practical situations.
2.7.1 Real-life scenarios

eles-5499
There are many real-life scenarios where a trigonometric function can be used to model the situation.
WORKED EXAMPLE 14 Trigonometric modelling
𝜋t
The depth of water, d metres, at the end of a pier at( time
) t hours after 6 am is modelled by
d(t) = sin + 2.5
6
a. State the period of the function.
b. State the maximum and minimum depths of the water.
c. Calculate is the depth at 7 am.
d. Sketch one cycle of the graph of the function.
e. The local council is interested in when the depth of water is at least 3.1 m. Determine for how long,
correct to the nearest minute, during a 12-hour period the water is at least 3.1 m deep.
THINK WRITE
Period =
2𝜋 2𝜋
a. 1. The period of a sine function is given by .
=
n n
𝜋
2𝜋
= 12 hours
6
2. Write the answer, including units.
Maximum depth = 2.5 + 1

= 3.5 m
b. The maximum and minimum depths take into
Minimum depth = 2.5 − 1

account the amplitude of the function and the upward
= 1.5 m
translation of the graph.
c. t = 0 is at 6 am; therefore, 7 am is equal to t = 1. d(1) = sin + 2.5

1𝜋
( )
𝜋
( 6)
= sin + 2.5
= 0.5 + 2.5
6
=3m
d. Use the information already gathered to sketch d(t)
Maximum = 3.5 m
the graph for one cycle, or 12 hours.
Minimum = 1.5 m
3.5
(12, 2.5)
2.5 (0, 2.5)
1.5
0 t
6 12
𝜋t
e. 1. Solve 3.1 = d (t). Make sure you include the 3.1 = sin + 2.5, 0 ≤ t ≤ 12
( )
t = 1.23, 4.77 hours

domain in your CAS entry, otherwise you will 6
obtain a general solution.
Time = 4.77 − 1.23
= 3.54
2. Find the difference between the times to find the
0.54 × 60 = 33 minutes
total time the water is above 3.1 m.
3. Convert the time to minutes. Multiply the hour
fraction by 60 to convert to minutes.
4. Write the answer. The depth will be at least 3.1 m for 3 hours
33 minutes.

2.7 Exercise

Technology active
( )The depth of water above the sea bed can be modelled by the function with equation d =
1. WE14 James is in a boat out at sea fishing. The weather makes a change for the worse and the water becomes
𝜋t
very choppy.
1.5 sin + 12.5, where d is the depth of water in metres and t is the time in hours since the change of
12
weather began.
b. State the maximum and minimum heights of the boat above the sea bed.
c. Calculate how far from the sea bed the boat was when the change of weather began.
d. Sketch one cycle of the graph of the function.
e. If the boat is h metres above the seabed for a continuous interval of 4 hours, calculate h correct to
1 decimal place.
f. James has heard on the radio that the cycle of weather should have passed within 12 hours, and when the
height of water above the sea bed is at a minimum after that, it will be safe to return to shore. If the weather
change occurred at 9:30 am, determine when James will be able to return to shore.
2. A very young girl is learning to skip. The graph showing this skipping
for one cycle is given.
The general equation for this graph is given by
h = a cos (n(t − 0.5)) + c,
where h is the height in millimetres of the girl’s feet above the ground
and t is the time in seconds the girl has been skipping.
h
(0.5, 100)
100
(0, 0) (1, 0)
t
a. Determine the values of the constants a, n and c, and hence restate the equation for one cycle of the
skipping.
b. Determine how soon after the beginning of the turn the girl’s feet are 40 mm off the ground. Give your
answer correct to 1 decimal place.
3. The height, h metres, above ground level of a chair on

a rotating Ferris wheel is modelled by the function
𝜋t
h = 5 − 3.5 cos
( )
30
where t is measured in seconds.
a. People can enter a chair when it is at its lowest
position, at the bottom of the rotation. They enter
the chair from a platform. Calculate how high the
platform is above ground level.
b. Find the highest point reached by the chair.
c. State how long 1 rotation of the wheel takes.
d. Determine the length of time during a rotation that
a chair is higher than 7 m off the ground. Give your
answer to 1 decimal place.
4. A young girl and boy are lifted onto a seesaw in a

playground. At this time the seesaw is horizontal
with respect to the ground.
Initially the girl’s end of the seesaw rises. Her
height above the ground, h metres, t seconds
h(t) = a sin(nt) + k.
after the seesaw starts to move is modelled by
The greatest height above the ground that the girl

reaches is 1.7 metres, and the least distance above
the ground that she reaches is 0.7 metres. It takes
2 seconds for her to seesaw between these heights.
a. Find the values of a, n and k.
above the ground for 0 ≤ t ≤ 6.

b. Draw the graph showing the height of the girl
c. Determine the length of time during the first 6 seconds of the motion of the seesaw that the girl’s height
above the ground is 1.45 metres or higher.
d. Sketch the graph showing the height of the boy above the ground during the first 6 seconds and state its
equation.
5. The water level(in a harbour,
) h metres below a level jetty, at time t hours after 7 am is given by
h = 3 − 2.5 sin (t − 1) .
1
2
a. Calculate how far below the jetty the water level in the harbour is at 7:30 am. Give your answer correct to
3 decimal places.
b. Determine the greatest and least distances below the jetty.
c. Sketch the graph of h versus t and hence determine the values of t at which the low and high tides first
occur. Give your answers correct to 2 decimal places.
d. A boat ties up to the jetty at high tide. State how much extra rope will have to be left so that the boat is still
afloat at low tide.

6. At a suburban shopping centre, one of the stores sells electronic goods such as digital cameras, laptop
computers and printers. The store had a one-day sale towards the end of the financial year. The doors opened
at 7:55 am and the cash registers opened at 8:00 am. The store closed its doors at 11:00 pm. The total number
of people queuing at the six cash registers at any time during the day once the cash registers opened could be
modelled by the equation
𝜋t 𝜋t
N(t) = 45 sin − 35 cos + 68, 0 ≤ t ≤ 15
( ) ( )
5 3
where N(t) is the total number of people queuing t hours after the cash registers opened at 8:00 am.
a. Many people ran into the store and quickly grabbed bargain items. Calculate how many people were
queuing when the cash registers opened.
b. Determine the quietest time of the day and how many people were in the queue at this time.
c. Determine how many people were in the queue at midday.
d. Determine the maximum number of people in the queue between 3:00 pm and 7:00 pm.
2.7 Exam questions

MC A clock has a minute hand that is 10 cm long and a clock face with a radius of 15 cm, as shown below.
tip of the minute hand
10 cm
h centimetres
15 cm
base of the clock face
At 12.00 noon, both hands of the clock point vertically upwards and the tip of the minute hand is at its maximum
distance above the base of the clock face.
The height, h centimetres, of the tip of the minute hand above the base of the clock face t minutes after 12.00
𝜋t 𝜋t
noon is given by
A. h (t) = 15 + 10 sin B. h (t) = 15 − 10 sin
( ) ( )
𝜋t 𝜋t
( 30 ) (30 )
C. h (t) = 15 + 10 sin D. h (t) = 15 + 10 cos
𝜋t
(60 ) 60
E. h (t) = 15 + 10 cos
30

Source: VCE 2016, Mathematical Methods Exam 2, Section A, Q8; @ VCAA.
MC The UV index, y, for a summer day in Melbourne is illustrated in the graph below, where t is the number of
hours after 6 am.
10
t
O 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
𝜋t 𝜋t
The graph is most likely
( to )be the graph of
A. y = 5 + 5 cos B. y = 5 − 5 cos
) (
𝜋t 𝜋t
(7) (7)
C. y = 5 + 5 cos D. y = 5 − 5 cos
𝜋t
( 14) 14
E. y = 5 + 5 sin
14
Source: VCE 2015, Mathematical Methods (CAS) Exam 1 Q5; @ VCAA.
On any given day, the depth of water in a river is modelled by the function
𝜋t
h (t) = 14 + 8 sin , 0 ≤ t ≤ 24
( )
12
where h is the depth of water, in metres, and t is the time, in hours, after 6 am.
b. Find the values of t for which h (t) = 10.

a. Find the minimum depth of the water in the river. (1 mark)
(2 marks)

2.8 Review
2.8.1 Summary
doc-####
2.8 Exercise
𝜋
1. Determine the exact values of the following.
a. sin − d. tan −
2𝜋 11𝜋
( ) ( ) ( )
b. cos (7𝜋) c. sin
3 6 6
2. Evaluate the following expressions, given that sin(𝜃) = 0.25 and 𝜃 is in the first quadrant.
𝜋
b. cos(3𝜋 + 𝜃) c. tan(𝜋 + 𝜃) −𝜃
( )
a. sin(−𝜃) d. sin
2
3. a. If cos(𝛼) = ≤ 𝛼 ≤ 2𝜋, evaluate the exact values of:

2 3𝜋
and
3 2
b. Hence, show that sin (𝛼) + cos (𝛼) = 1.

i. sin(𝛼) ii. tan(𝛼).
2 2
a. cos(2x) = −1, −2𝜋 ≤ x ≤ 2𝜋

4. Solve each of the following equations over the given domain.
b. 4 cos2 (𝜃) − 2 2 − 2 cos (𝜃) − 2 = 0, 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋

( √ ) √
√3 sin(2x) = − cos(2x), −𝜋 ≤ x ≤ 𝜋
d. 3 sin(𝜃) − 2 sin(𝜃) cos(𝜃) = 0, 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋
√
c.
𝜋
e. 2 sin 2 𝜃 + + 1 = 0, −𝜋 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋
( ( ))
𝜋
12
f. 2 cos x + = 2 over R
( ) √
5. a. State the period and amplitude of the graph of y = 3 sin(2 − 5x) + 6.

6
b. State the period and the equation of the first positive asymptote of the graph of y = 2 − 3 tan(3x).
6. a. Sketch the graph of f : [−𝜋, 𝜋] → R, f(x) = 2 sin(2x) + 1.

x 𝜋
b. Sketch the graph of f : [0, 4𝜋] → R, f(x) = 5 + 5 cos −
( )
.
2 4
7. MC Given that cos(𝜃) = 0.362 and 𝜃 is in the first quadrant, determine which of the following is not true.
A. cos(5𝜋 + 𝜃) = −0.362 B. cos(4𝜋 − 𝜃) = 0.362 C. cos(𝜋 + 𝜃) = −0.362

D. cos(−𝜃) = 0.362 E. cos(3𝜋 − 𝜃) = 0.362
The value of cos −

7𝜋
( )
8. MC is:
3
B. − C. −
√ √ √
1 3 1 2 3
A. D. E.
2 2 2 2 2
− 2 sin + 3 tan
13𝜋 5𝜋 4𝜋
( ) ( ) √ ( )
9. MC The exact value of cos is:
4 6 3
A. − √ B. 2 − √ C. 2 + √ D. 4 − √ E. 3 − +√
√
1 1 1 1 3 1
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 sin (𝜋 − 𝜃) sin 𝜋2 − 𝜃
2 − 2 cos2 (𝜃)
( )
10. MC When simplified, becomes:
1 − cos2 (𝜃)
sin (𝜃) cos (𝜃) 1 1
A. B. tan (𝜃) C. D. cos (𝜃) E.
tan(𝜃) sin (𝜃)
𝜋
Given that cos (𝜃) = 0.6402 and 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ , find the value of sin −𝜃
3𝜋
( )
11. MC correct to 4 decimal places.
B. −0.6402 C. −0.3598
2 2
A. 0.6402
D. 1.6402 E. None of the above
𝜋
If 2 cos 𝜃 − − 1 = 0 and 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋, then 𝜃 is equal to:
( )
12. MC
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
2
D. − E. − and −
5𝜋 5𝜋 2𝜋 5𝜋
A. and B. C. and
6 6 6 3 3 3 6 6
The general solution for 2 sin (x) − 3 = 0 is:

12n𝜋 + 𝜋 12n𝜋 + 5𝜋
√
13.
x= , where n ∈ Z
MC
A. and
𝜋
x = and , where n ∈ Z
6 6
5𝜋
B.
6n𝜋 + 𝜋 6n𝜋 + 2𝜋
x= , where n ∈ Z
6 6
C. and
𝜋
x = and , where n ∈ Z
3 3
2𝜋
D.
6n𝜋 − 𝜋 6n𝜋 + 4𝜋
x= , where n ∈ Z
3 3
E. and
3 3
A. y = − tan (x)
14. MC A possible equation for the graph shown is: y
B. y = 2 tan (x)
3
C. y = tan (2x)
2
𝜋
D. y = 2 tan x +
( ) 1
𝜋
2 0 x
E. y = tan 2 x −
π
– – 3π
π — π 5π
— 3π
— 7π
— 2π
–1
( ( ))
4 2 4 4 2 4
2 –2
–3
x=0 x=π x = 2π

𝜋x
If a tangent function has an equation y = 2 tan − 1, the equation of the first positive asymptote is:
( )
15. MC
A. x = 8 B. x = 4𝜋 C. x = 4 D. x = 2𝜋 E. x = 2
4
𝜋
The range of the function with the rule f(x) = 3 − 8 cos 4x − , 0 ≤ x ≤ 𝜋 is:
( )
16. MC
𝜋 13𝜋 𝜋 4𝜋
3
, , E. [−11, −5]
[ ] [ ]
A. B. C. [−1, 11] D. [−5, 11]
12 2 3 3
17. The temperature in degrees Celsius at Thredbo on a day in the middle of winter can be modelled by the
equation
𝜋t
T = 2 − 6 cos
( )
12
where t is the number of hours after 4:00 am.
b. Calculate the time(s) of the day at which the temperature is 0 °C. Give your answer(s) to the nearest
a. Calculate the minimum and maximum temperatures.
minute.
c. Determine when is the temperature at its maximum.
d. Calculate the temperature at 8:00 am.
𝜋 𝜋
On the same set of axes, sketch the graphs of y = − cos (2x) and y = 3 sin (2x) for x ∈ − ,
√ ][
18. a. .
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
b. Calculate the exact coordinates of the points of intersection of the two graphs.
Hence, state {x ∶ 3 sin(2x) + cos(2x) ≥ 0, − ≤ x ≤ }.
√
c.
𝜋 𝜋
( 2 )2
i. For the function defined by f(x) = 2 sin 2x −
( )
d. , calculate f (0) and f .
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
6 2
ii. Sketch the graph of y = f (x) for x ∈ − , and hence state {x ∶ 2 sin 2x − ≥ 0, − ≤ x ≤ }.
[ ] ( )
2 2 6 2 2
19. The depth of water, d metres, at the end of a pier at time t hours after 10 am is modelled by
𝜋t 𝜋
d(t) = 2 sin − + 2.5
( )
6 3
a. Calculate the maximum and minimum depths of the water.

b. State the period of the function.
c. Determine the depth at 1 pm.
d. If a particular boat needs a depth of at least 4.2 m in order to dock, determine the times, to the nearest
minute, during which the boat can dock.
T = a cos (n(x − h)) + k, where T °C is the temperature t hours after 8 am. The maximum daily temperature
20. For a particular incubated animal cage, the temperature can be modelled by a positive cosine curve,
was 28 °C and occurred at 2 pm and the minimum was 22 °C, occurring at 8 pm.
a. State the equation of the curve.
c. The creature that lives in the incubated cage sleeps when the temperature falls below 24 °C. Determine for
b. Calculate the temperature at 10 am.
how many hours a day, correct to 1 decimal place, the creature sleeps.
2.8 Exam questions
Consider the function g ∶ R → R, g (x) =2 sin (2x).

a. State the range of g. (1 mark)
c. Solve 2 sin (2x) = 3 for x ∈ R .

b. State the period of g.
√ (1 mark)
(3 marks)
a. Solve 1 − cos = cos for x ∈ [−2𝜋, 𝜋].

Source: VCE 2019, Mathematical
( ) Methods(Exam
) 1, Q4; © VCAA.
x x
(2 marks)
2 2
b. The function f ∶ [−2𝜋, 𝜋] → R, f (x) = cos

x
( )
is shown on the axes below.
2
y
x
−2π −π O π
−1
−2
Let g ∶ [−2𝜋, 𝜋] → R, g (x) = 1 − f (x) .

Sketch the graph of g on the axes above. Label all points of intersection of the graphs of f and g, and the
endpoints of g, with their coordinates. (2 marks)
Let f ∶ R → R, f (x) = 4 cos + 1.

2𝜋x
( )
MC
3
The period of this function is
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
E. 5
Let (tan (𝜃) − 1) sin (𝜃) − 3 cos (𝜃) sin (𝜃) + 3 cos (𝜃) = 0.
( √ )( √ )
b. Hence, find all possible solutions for (tan (𝜃) − 1) sin (𝜃) − 3 cos2 (𝜃) = 0,
a. State all possible values of tan (𝜃). (1 mark)
where 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋.
( 2 )
(2 marks)

Let f : R → R, f (x) = 2 sin (3x) − 3.

MC
A. period = and range = [−5, −1]

The period and range of this function are respectively
2𝜋
B. period = and range = [−2, 2]

3
2𝜋
𝜋
C. period = and range = [−1, 5]
3
D. period = 3𝜋 and range = [−1, 5]

3
E. period = 3𝜋 and range = [−2, 2]



Answers tan2 (x) + 1 = +

sin2 (x) cos2 (x)
16. a.
sin2 (x) + cos2 (x)

cos2 (x) cos2 (x)
Topic 2 Trigonometric functions =
cos2 (x)
=
2.2 Trigonometric symmetry properties 1
2.2 Exercise cos2 (x)
−1 b. − −√
b. 0.7814
√
3 1
b. 12 −
1. a. c.
√
2 3 3
2 17. a. 12 cm/s cm/s
e. − 3 f. −
1 √ 1 2
d. c. 12 cm/s
2 2
−√ − −1
18. a. 1.5 m b. 0.75 m c. 0.75 m
1 1
2. a. b. c.
3 2
2.2 Exam questions
d. − √ e. −
√
1 3 1 1. A
f.
2 2 2 2. B
3. E
c. − √ = −
√ √
3 1 1 3
3. a. b.
2 2 3 3 2.3 Trigonometric equations
− f. − √ = −
√ √
1 3 1 3 2.3 Exercise
𝜃=
d. e.
2 2 3 3 5𝜋 7𝜋
1. a. and
x = 120°, 300°, 480°, 660°

6 6
−1
4. a. 0 b. Undefined c. 0
𝜋 7𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 17𝜋 23𝜋
b.
𝜃= , , , , ,
d. 0 e. 1 f.
5. a. sin(𝜃) b. cos(𝜃) c. tan(𝜃) 2. a.
2𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
12 12 4 4 12 12
x=− ,− , ,
d. cos(𝜃) e. – sin(𝜃) f. – tan(𝜃)
( 3 + 1)
5𝜋
6. a. − − 2+2
b.
√
6 3 6 3
𝜃= ,
√ √
b. c. 2 3
3+2 2
2 5𝜋 7𝜋
−2
3. a.
𝜋 5𝜋
4 4
√
𝜃= ,
d. e. 0 f.
4
−0.4695 −0.5592 −0.2680
b.
𝜋 4𝜋 7𝜋 10𝜋 13𝜋 16𝜋

3 3
−0.4695 𝜃= , , , , ,
7. a. b. c.
−0.5318
d. e. 0.5592 f. 0.2680 c.
𝜋 5𝜋
9 9 9 9 9 9
−1.4825 𝜃= ,
8. a. 0.8829 b. c. 0.8290
d.
x = 120° and 240°

d.
b. −
1 4 4
x = 112.5°, 157.5°, 292.5°, 337.5°

9. a. sin(𝛼) c. – cos(𝛼) 4. a.
tan(𝛼)
b.
𝜃=− ,− , ,
1
d. e. sin(𝛼) f. cos(𝛼) 5. a.
tan(𝛼)
−0.4696 𝜋 𝜋 7𝜋 3𝜋
3 6 3 6
𝜃=− ,− ,− , , ,
−0.9848 −5.6729
10. a. 0.8829 b. c. 1.8803 3𝜋 7𝜋
b.
−0.6746 𝜋 3𝜋 7𝜋
d. e. 0.9848 f. 4 12 12 12 12 4
𝜃=− ,− , ,
−0.7547 −0.6561
11. a. 0.5592 b. 0.8290 c. 5𝜋
c.
−0.9511 𝜋 𝜋
d. e. 1.1503 f. 8 8 8 8
𝜃=− ,
−0.3089 −3.0792
12. a. b. 0.9511 c. 0.9511
𝜋
d.
−0.8572 −0.8572
3.0792 3 3
x = −𝜋, − , 0, , 𝜋
d. e. f.
3𝜋
−0.6008 −1.6645
13. a. b. 0.8572 c. 6. a.
0.8572 4 4
x=− ,
d. e. f.
− −
5𝜋 5𝜋
3 4 b.
𝜋 3𝜋
14. a. b. c. 1 6 6
x=− ,
5 3
d. −
7
c.
25 4 4
x= , , , , ,
5 5 12 4𝜋 5𝜋 10𝜋 11𝜋 16𝜋 17𝜋
d.
𝜃 = 0.73 and 2.41

15. a. b. c.
13 12 13 9 9 9 9 9 9
x = 73.40° and 286.60°

12 5 12 7. a.
d. e. f.
13 13 5 b.

𝜃 = 215.23°, 324.77°
3𝜋 𝜋
8. a. 2.5 The sine and cosine functions
b. x = − ,
𝜋
2.5 Exercise
9. 𝜃 = 0.314, 1.571, 2.827, 4.084, 5.341
2 2
10. x = 0.526, 1.179

1. a. Period , amplitude 6, range [−6, 6]
4
𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋
b. Period 8𝜋, amplitude 3, range [−1, 5]
𝜃= , , , and
3𝜋
11. 2𝜋
4 2 4 2 c. Period , amplitude 1, range [−1, 1]
3
𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 7𝜋
C
𝜃=
, , ,
12.
1
d. Period , amplitude 6, range [9, 21]
13. a. 3
4 4 4 4
b. 𝜃 = , , ,
2. a. y
(0, –1)
14. a. 𝛼 = −𝜋, 0, 𝜋
6 3 3 6 0 2π x
𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
π
– π
– 3π
— π 5π
— 3π
— 7π
—
𝛼=− ,− , ,
4 2 4 4 2 4 (2π, –1)
5𝜋
b.
𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋
6 3 6 3
c. 𝛼 = − ,− , ,
3𝜋 –5
Mean position = 5, amplitude = 8, period = 2,

y = 2 cos(4x) – 3
𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
4 4 4 4
d. 𝛼 = − ,− , , y = −8 sin(𝜋x) + 5
b.
2𝜋
3 3 3 3
3.
3x
2.3 Exam questions 3
y f (x) = 1 – 2 sin —
2( )
1. E (2π, 1)
1 (0, 1)
2. C
x=
5𝜋 7𝜋 0 π x
and –1 – 5π 13π –– 2π
17π
𝜋 5𝜋 13𝜋 17𝜋
3. 9 – ––
12 12 9 9 9
2.4 General solutions of trigonometric x-intercepts at x = , , , ; y-intercept = (0, 1)

9 9 9 9
equations 4. y
(6n + 1)𝜋 (3n + 1)2𝜋

6
2.4 Exercise
1. a. 𝜃= and ,n∈Z (0, 3 2)
(3π
— , 3 2)
(6n − 1)𝜋
3 3
b. 𝜃 = , n ∈ Z. Solutions within [−𝜋, 𝜋] are

2
𝜋 5𝜋 11𝜋
12
𝜃=− ,− , ,
7𝜋 0 x
π 7π 11π 5π 3π
6n𝜋 ± 2𝜋
. –
4
—
12
—
12
—
4
—
2
12 12 12 12
2. a. x = ,n∈Z
8n𝜋 + 𝜋 8n𝜋 + 3𝜋
3
b. x = , ,n∈Z
–6
12n𝜋 − 𝜋 12n𝜋 + 7𝜋
4 4 (
f (x) = –6 sin 3x – 3π )
x= ,x= , n ∈ Z;
—
4
3. 5. a.
12 12 y
x= , , ,
7𝜋 11𝜋 19𝜋 23𝜋 7
3n𝜋 − 𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
12 12 12 12
x= , n ∈ Z; x = − ,
y = –7 cos(4x)
4.
𝜃 = n𝜋, n ∈ Z
3 3 3
6n𝜋 − 𝜋
5.
6. 𝜃= ,n∈Z 0 x
12 π
– π
– 3π
–– π
– 5π
–– 3π
–– 7π
–– π
8 4 8 2 8 4 8
2.4 Exam questions
1. D
x= + 2𝜋n and x = (2n + 1) 𝜋, where n ∈ Z

2𝜋
2.
3 –7 (0, –7) (π, –7)
3. C
b. y ii. y y = sin(2x)
1
y = 5 – sin(x) (0, 0) (2π, 0)
6 0 x
π
– π
– 3π
— π 5π
— 3π
— 7π
— 2π
(0, 5)
(2π, 5) –1 4 2 4 4 2 4
4
{x ∶
<x< } ∪ {x ∶ <x< }
2𝜋 5𝜋 5𝜋 11𝜋
iii.
3 6 3 6
b. max = 5, x =
0 3π x 11𝜋
π
– π –– 2π
2 2 12
8. y (π, 4)
c. 4 y = cos(2x) – 3 cos(x)
y
1 cos(2x) + 3
y =– 3
1 2 2
3–
2 y1 = cos(2x)
) ( 7
–π, –
2 1
2–
)2π, –27( 1
2
–1
0 π
– π
– 3π
— π 5π
— 3π
— 7π
— 2π x
(0, –2)–2 4 2 4 4 2 4 (2π, –2)
–3
y2 = –3 cos(x)
–4
–π 0 2π x 9.
π
–– π
– π 3π y = (sin(x))2 y
2 –1 2 ––
2 1
(–π, 0) (π, 0)
d. y (0, 0) x
–π π π
– π
y = 2 – 4 sin(3x) ––
2 –1 2
6 y = sin(x)
10. a. y
4 6
y = sin(2x) – 4sin(x)
(0, 2)
2 (2π, 2) 4
y = – 4sin(x)
2
0 π x y = sin(2x)
5π 13π
— 17π
— 25π
— 29π
— (0, 0) (π, 0) (2π, 0)
— —
–2 18 18 18 18 18 18
0 π
– π
– 3π
— π 5π
— 3π
— 7π
— 2π x
4 2 4 4 2 4
–2
e. y –4
2 –6
(0, 2) (2π, 2)
b. y
( π
y = 2 sin x + –
4 )
x
0 π
– 3π
— 5π
— 7π
— 2π (2π, 2π)
4 4 4 4
–2
y = x + sin(x)
f. y
8 (0, 4)
π
(
y = –4 cos 3x – – + 4
2 )
y=x
(0, 0) y = sin(x) (2π, 0)

x
(– –π2 , 0) 0 π
–
6
π
–
2
5π
—
6
( 3π
– , 0)
2 0 π
– π 3π
— 2π
x
2 2
A
x= , , ,
6.
2𝜋 5𝜋 5𝜋 11𝜋
7. a. i.
3 6 3 6

2.5 Exam questions 4. a. y

B
x= ,
1.
2𝜋 4𝜋 y = –tan(2x)
2. a.
3 3
b. y
4 (0, 0)
(0, 3) (2π, 3)
3 0 π π 3π (π, 0) x
– – —
f (x) = 2cos(x) + 1 4 2 4
2
1
(2π3 , 0) (4π3 , 0) π 3π
0 x=– x=—
π 2π π 4π 5π 2π x 4 4
–1 3 3 3 3
(π, –1) b. y
–2
3. B ( π
y = 3 tan x + –
4 )
2.6 The tangent function (0, 3) (2π, 3)
𝜋 𝜋
2.6 Exercise
, asymptote x =
0 x
π 3π 5π 7π
— 2π
1. a. Period –
4
—
4
—
4 4
4 8
b. Period 7𝜋, asymptote x =

7𝜋
2
, asymptote x =
5𝜋 5𝜋
c. Period
4 8
d. Period , asymptote x =
π 5π
1 1 x =–
4
x=–
4
6 12 c. y
2. y x
y = tan —
3 + 3( (
6
x
y = 3 tan –
2 ()
3
(6π, 3)
0 x (0, 3)
–π π
–– π
– π
2 –3 2 x
0 2π 3π 5π 6π
–6
x = –π x=π
3. y
x = 3π
— x = 9π
—
2 2
d.
( π –5
y = 5 3 tan πx + –
2 )
y
y = –tan(2x – π)
3π
x = – –– π
x = –– π
x=– 3π
x = ––
4 4 4 4
–π 0 3π x
3π
– ––
π
π ––
–– π
– π
– –– π
4 2 4 4 2 4
4
x = –– 8
3 x =–
3
0 x
x = ––1 5
3 x =–
3
x=– 2
3
x = –2 x = –1 x = 0 x = 1 x = 2 x = 3
5. y 2.6 Exam questions

y = 3 tan(2πx) – 3
𝜋
1. B
b= , a=
7𝜋
2.
24 24
(– –78 , 3 ) 3. C
0
–1 3
–– 1 1
–– 1 1 3 1
x
–– 4 – – –
4 2 4 2 4 7,
(0, – 3) ( –
8
–3 ) 2.7 Exercise
1. a. 24 hours
3
x = –– 1
x = –– 1
x=– 3
x=– b. Maximum 14 metres, minimum 11 metres
4 4 4 4
c. 12.5 metres
6. d. d
π
y = 1 – tan x + –
6( ) πt
( )
d = 1.5 sin – + 12.5
y 12
5 14
(6, 14) (24, 12.5)
( 3
0, 1– –
3
) (2π, 1– –33 ) (0, 12.5)
0 π x 11
– π
– 13π
–– 4π
–– 2π (18, 11)
12 3 12 3
–5 π 4π
x=– x = –– t
3 3 0 6 12 18 24
y= 3 3 + 50
h= ≈ 13.8 m
1 3x
( )
√
7. tan
2 2 e.
4
𝜋
8. a. Mean position unaltered
h = 50 cos(2𝜋(t − 0.5)) + 50
f. 3:30 am the following day
b. 2. a.
y = – tan(2x) (other answers possible)

2
b. 0.3 seconds
𝜋
c.
± ±
( 2𝜋, 0), ( 𝜋, 0), (0, 0), − , −1 , − , −1 , 𝜋
3. a. 1.5 m b. 8.5 m c. 60 s d. 18.4 s
a = 0.5, n = , k = 1.2
5𝜋
( ) ( )
9. a.
) ( 4 ) ( 4 ) 4. a.
, −1 , , −1 , − ,1 , − ,1 ,
(
3𝜋
) (
7𝜋 7𝜋 3𝜋 2
𝜋
b. h
( 4 ) ( 4) 4 4
,1 , ,1 .
5𝜋 ( )
π
hgirl = 0.5 sin –
2 t + 1.2
𝜋
4 4
x = n𝜋, n ∈ Z or x = (2n + 1) , n ∈ Z
1.7
(0, 1.2) (6, 1.2)
b.
ii. −1
4 0.7
√
10. a. i. 3 iii. 1
0 t
2 4 6
b. y
(2π, 1)
π
hboy = –0.5 sin –( )
2 t + 1.2
(– –π2 , 1) 1
8
c. seconds
𝜋
3
d. hboy = −0.5 sin t + 1.2. The graph is sketched on

(–2π, 0) ( –π2 , 0) ( )
0 x 2
3π –π
–2π – –– π
–– π
– π 3π
–– 2π
2 2 2 2 the same axes in part b.
5. a. 3.619 m below the jetty
–1
b. 5.5 m and 0.5 m
π π
x=–
x = ––
𝜋
2 2
c. Not continuous at x = ±
2
d. Domain [−2𝜋, 2𝜋], range R

𝜋
𝜃 = 0, , 𝜋,
c.
11𝜋
d. , 2𝜋
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋
h
(
1
h = 3 – 2.5 sin – ( 6 6
𝜃=− , − , ,
(t – 1)
5.5 2
e.
𝜋
(24, 5.19) 2 6 2 6
x = 2n𝜋 − , x = 2n𝜋 + where n ∈ Z

(0, 4.20)
5𝜋
f.
12 12
2𝜋
5. a. Period , amplitude 3
𝜋 𝜋
5
Period , asymptote x =
0.5
0 t
First maximum (high tide) at t ≈ 10.42, first minimum

12 24 b.
3 6
(low tide) at t ≈ 4.14

6. a. f (x)
3
b. 1 person at 2.28 pm (t = 6, 46)

d. 5 m of extra rope f(x) = 2 sin(2x) + 1
6. a. 33
c. 112 d. 86 (π, 1)
(0, 1)
(–π, 1)
2.7 Exam questions
–π 0 x
1. E π
–1
2. B
t = 14, 22
3. a. 6m
b. (
– 5π , 0
12 ) (–π ,0
12 )( ) (
7π , 0
12
11π , 0
12 )
b. See the figure at the bottom of the page.*
2.8 Review
2.8 Exercise 7. E
Technology free: short answer 8. A
1. a. − b. −1 c. − d. − √
√
3 1 1 9. B
2 2 10. C
3
2. a. −0.25 b. −
√ √ 11. B
15 1 15
c. √ d. 12. A
4 15 4
13. C
3. a. i. sin(𝛼) = − ii. tan(𝛼) = −

14. D
√ √
5 5
15. E
3 2
16. D
b. sin (𝛼) + cos (𝛼) = − +

( √ )2 ( )
2
Maximum temperature 8 °C, minimum temperature

2 2 5 2 Technology active: extended response
−4 °C
3 3 17. a.
+ =
5 4
=1
9 9 b. 8:42 am and 11:18 pm
𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 d. −1 °C
c. 4:00 pm
4. a. x = − ,− , ,
3𝜋
𝜋 2𝜋 4𝜋 7𝜋
2 2 2 2
b. 𝜃 = , , ,
𝜋 5𝜋 11𝜋
4 3 3 4
c. x = − ,− ,
7𝜋
,
12 12 12 12
*6. b.
10
y
( ) π , 10
–
2 (4π, 5 + 5–
2
2
)
( 5
0, 5 + –
2
2
5
)
π
x ––
f (x) = 5 + 5 cos –
2 4 ( (
0 x
π
– π 3π
— 2π 5π
— 3π 7π
— 4π
2 2 2 2
Maximum depth = 4.5

Minimum depth = 0.5
18. a. y 19. a.
y = –cos(2x) b. 12 hours
3 c. 3.5 m
( )
π, 1
––
𝜋
2
( )
π, 1
– d. From 1:56 pm to 4:04 pm and 1:56 am to 4:04 am.
T = 3 cos (x − 6) + 25
2 ( )
0 x 20. a.
23.5 °C
–π –π π π 6
2 4 4 2
(0, –1) b.
y = 3 sin(2x) – 3
c. 9.4 hours
2.8 Exam questions
𝜋 b. 𝜋
1. a. [−2, 2]
− ,− ,
( √ ) ( √ )
3 5𝜋 3
x = 𝜋6 + k𝜋, 𝜋3 + k𝜋, k ∈ z
b. and
12 2 12 2
𝜋
c.
c. {x ∶ − ≤x≤ } 2. a. x = ,−
5𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
𝜋
12 12 3 3
d. i. f (0) = −1, f =1
b.
( )
(–2π, 2) y
2
2
ii. y (π, 1)
2
(
y = 2sin 2x – π
–
6 ) ( –2π , 1
3 2 ) 1
( )
– π, 1
2 –2π –π 0 π x
( ) ( )
π,0
12
π
2
,1
–1 ( 2π , 1
3 2 )
0 x –2
–π –π π π
2 4 4 2
tan 𝜃 = 1, ± 3
(0, –1) 3. C √
𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
( )
4. a.
𝜃= , ,
–2
b.
4 3 3
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
A
{x ∶ − ≤ x ≤ − } ∪ {x ∶ ≤x≤ }
5.
5𝜋
2 12 12 2

“c03CompositeFunctionsTransformationsAndInverses_PrintPDF” — 2022/7/2 — 13:50 — page 167 — #1
Composite functions,
transformations and
3 inverses
LEARNING SEQUENCE
3.1 Overview ................................................................................................................................................................. 168
3.2 Composite functions .......................................................................................................................................... 169
3.3 Transformations ....................................................................................................................................................174
3.4 Inverse graphs ...................................................................................................................................................... 182
3.5 Inverse functions ..................................................................................................................................................191
3.6 Literal equations ...................................................................................................................................................201
3.7 Review ..................................................................................................................................................................... 206

3.1 Overview
3.1.1 Introduction
Although functions themselves have been around for hundreds of years, it was mathematician Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz, in 1673, who was the first to use the term ‘function’ to describe these different mathematical
relationships. Around 1734, Leonhard Euler extended this further and introduced the notation for a function,
y = f(x). The modern definition of a function — a relation where every x element has a unique y element — was
provided in the 1830s by Nikolai Lobachevsky and Peter Dirichlet.
The notation for an inverse function (y = f −1 (x)) was first used by John Herschel in 1813. Inverse functions
are important because they ‘undo’ the effects of a given function. For example, if you type something into a
computer, such as a number, the computer converts this number to binary for internal storage, then converts
it back to the number again where it appears on the screen. Converting money from Australian dollars to US
dollars and vice versa also uses inverse functions.
KEY CONCEPTS
• graphs of the following functions: power functions, y = xn , n ∈ Q; exponential functions, y = ax ,
a ∈ R+ in particular y = ex ; logarithmic functions, y = loge (x) and y = log10 (x); and circular functions,
y = sin(x), y = cos(x) and y = tan(x) and their key features
• transformation from y = f(x) to y = Af (n (x + b)) + c, where A, n, b and c ∈ R, A, n ≠ 0, and the inverse
transformation
• the relation between the graph of an original function and the graph of a corresponding transformed
function (including families of transformed functions for a single transformation parameter)
• graphs of sum, difference, product and composite functions involving functions of the types specified
above (not including composite functions that result in reciprocal or quotient functions)
• functions and their inverses, including conditions for the existence of an inverse function, and use of
inverse functions to solve equations involving exponential, logarithmic, circular and power functions
• composition of functions, where f composite g, f ◦ g, is defined by ( f ◦ g) (x) = f (g (x)) given rg ⊆ df
• solution of literal equations and general solution of equations involving a single parameter.

3.2 Composite functions

LEARNING INTENTION
At the end of this subtopic you will be able to:
• determine the equations of composite functions
• determine if a composite function exists
• restrict the domain of the inner function, if needed, in order for a composite function to exist.
3.2.1 The composite function

Composition of two functions occurs when the output of one f (x) g( f (x))
x f g
function becomes the input for a second function. g º f (x)
Suppose f(x) = x2 and g(x) = 3x − 1.

The composite function f ◦ g(x) = f(g(x)) (pronounced ‘f of g g(x) f (g(x))
x g f
of x’) involves expressing f(x) in terms of g(x). f º g(x)
f ◦ g(x) = f(g(x)) = f(3x − 1)

= (3x − 1)2
= 9x2 − 6x + 1
The domain of f(g(x)) = dom g(x) = R.

On the other hand, the composite function g ◦ f(x) = g( f(x)) involves expressing g(x) in terms of f(x).
g ◦ f(x) = g( f(x)) = g(x2 )

= 3(x2 ) − 1
= 3x2 − 1
The domain of g( f(x)) = dom f(x) = R.

Note that the order of the composition will affect the result of the composition. This means that f(g(x)) will
generally not equal g( f(x)).
WORKED EXAMPLE 1 Composite functions

√
If f(x) = 3 − x, g(x) = 2x3 − 5 and h(x) = x + 4, determine:
a. g(h(x)) b. h ◦ f (x)
THINK WRITE
a. Determine g(h(x)) by substituting h(x) into g(x). g(h(x)) = g(x + 4)
= 2 (x + 4)3 − 5
b. 1. Rewrite h ◦ f(x) as h( f(x)). h ◦ f(x) = h( f(x))

(√ )
2. Determine h( f(x)) by substituting f(x) into h(x). =h 3−x
√
= 3−x+4
TOPIC 3 Composite functions, transformations and inverses 169

Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Composite functions (int-6417)
3.2.2 Existence of composite functions

When two functions are composed, the output of the first function (the inner function) becomes the input for
the second function (the outer function). This means that if the composition is possible, the range of the inner
function must be a subset of or equal to the domain of the outer function. It may be necessary to restrict the
domain of the inner function to ensure that its range lies completely within the domain of the outer function.
The domain of the inner function is always the domain of the composite function.
Existence of composite functions

For f (g (x)) to exist, ran g ⊆ dom f. The domain of g(x) = dom f (g (x)).
For g ( f (x)) to exist, ran f ⊆ dom g. The domain of f(x) = dom g( f(x)).
Looking again at the functions f(x) = x2 and g(x) = 3x − 1, we can investigate why they exist by listing the
domains and ranges.
Function Domain Range

f(x) R [0, ∞)
g(x) R R
For f(g(x)), the range of g is R, which is equal to the domain of f, R.
R⊆R
ran g ⊆ dom f
Therefore, f(g(x)) exists.
For g( f(x)), the range of f is [0, ∞), which is a subset of the domain of g, R.
[0, ∞) ⊆ R
ran f ⊆ dom g
Therefore, g( f(x)) exists.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2 Existence of composite functions

√
If f(x) = ex and g(x) = x − 2, investigate whether the composite functions f(g(x)) and g( f(x)) exist.
If they do, form the rule for the composite function and state the domain.
THINK WRITE
√
1. Construct a table to investigate the domains f(x) = ex and g(x) = x−2
and ranges of the two functions.
f(x) R (0, ∞)
g(x) [2, ∞) [0, ∞)
2. Investigate whether f(g(x)) exists by comparing [0, ∞) ⊆ R

the range of g to the domain of f. ran g ⊆ dom f
Therefore, f(g(x)) exists.
(√ )
3. Form the rule for f(g(x)) and state the domain. f(g(x)) = f x−2
√
= e x −2
Domain = dom g
= [2, ∞)
4. Investigate whether g( f(x)) exists. (0, ∞) ⊈ [2, ∞)

ran f ⊈ dom g
Therefore, g( f(x)) does not exist.

1. On a Calculator page, press 1. On the Main screen, select:
MENU, then select: • Action
1: Actions • Command
1: Define • Define
Complete the entry line as: Complete the entry line as:
Define f(x) = ex Define f(x) = ex
Complete the next entry Complete the next entry
line as: √ line as: √
Define g(x) = x − 2 Define g(x) = x − 2
2. Investigate whether f(g(x)) [0, ∞) ⊆ R 2. Investigate whether f(g(x)) [0, ∞) ⊆ R

and g( f(x)) exists. ran g ⊆ dom f. and g( f(x)) exists. ran dom f
Therefore, f(g(x)) exists. Therefore, f(g(x))
(0, ∞) ⊈ [2, ∞) exists.
ran f ⊈ dom g (0, ∞) ⊈ [2, ∞)
Therefore, g( f(x)) does not exist. ran f ⊈ dom g
Therefore, g( f(x)) does
not exist.
3. To find f(g(x)), complete 3. To find f(g(x)), complete
the next entry line as: the next entry line as:
f(g(x)) f(g(x))
√ √
x−2 x−2
4. The answer appears on the f(g(x)) = e 4. The answer appears on the f(g(x)) = e
screen. screen.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3 Restricting the domain

√
For the functions f(x) = 4 − x and g(x) = x − 1:
a. state why f(g(x)) is not defined
b. restrict the domain of g(x) to form a new function, h(x), such that f(h(x)) is defined
c. determine f(h(x)).
THINK WRITE
√
a. 1. Construct a table to investigate the domains a. f(x) = 4 − x and g(x) = x − 1
and ranges of the two functions.
f(x) (−∞, 4] [0, ∞)
g(x) R R
2. For f (g(x)) to be defined, the range of g must R ⊈ (−∞, 4]

be a subset of the domain of f. ran g ⊈ dom f
∴ f(g(x)) is not defined.
b. 1. For f(g(x)) to be defined, the range g must be b. We want ran g = dom f = (−∞, 4].
a subset of or equal to the domain
of y. The maximal range of g will be when
ran g = dom f.
2. Use the restriction of the range of g to solve x−1 ≤ 4
for the new domain of g. x≤5
3. Define h(x). h(x) = x − 1, x ∈ (−∞, 5]
√
c. Find f(h(x)) by substituting h(x) into f(x). c. f(h(x)) = 4 − (x − 1)
√
Make sure the domain is stated. = 5 − x, x ∈ (−∞, 5]
3.2 Exercise

Technology free
√
1. WE1 If f(x) = −x2 + 1, g(x) = 2x − 3 and h(x) = x, determine:
a. g(h(x)) b. f ◦ g(x)
1
2. If f(x) = , g(x) = (x − 3)2 and h(x) = 1 − x4 , determine:
x+2
a. g(h(x)) b. h ◦ f(x)
3. WE2 If f(x) = (x − 1)(x + 3) and g(x) = x2 , investigate whether the composite functions f(g(x)) and g( f(x))
exist. If they do, form the rule for the composite function and state the domain.
1
4. If f(x) = 2x − 1 and g(x) = , investigate whether the composite functions f(g(x)) and g( f(x)) exist, and if
x−2
they do, form the rule for the composite function.
√ 1
5. For the functions f(x) = x2 + 1, g(x) = x, and h(x) = , determine whether the following compositions are
x
defined or undefined. If the composite function exists, identify its domain.
a. f ◦ g(x) b. g( f(x)) c. h(g(x)) d. h ◦ f(x)
√ 1
6. For the functions f(x) = x2 , g(x) =x, and h(x) = − , determine whether the following compositions are
x
defined or undefined. If the composite function exists, state the rule and its domain.
a. f ◦ g(x) b. g( f(x)) c. h( f(x)) d. g(h(x))
√
7. The functions f and g are defined by f ∶ R → R, f (x) = x2 + 1 and g ∶ [−2, ∞) → R, g(x) = x + 2. Show that
f(g(x)) exists and find the rule for f(g(x)), stating its domain and range.
1 1
8. If f ∶ (0, ∞) → R, f(x) = and g ∶ R → R, g (x) = 2 :
x x
a. prove that g( f(x)) exists
b. determine g( f(x)) and state its domain and range
c. sketch the graph of y = g( f(x)).
√
9. WE3 For the functions f(x) = x + 3 and g(x) = 2x − 5:
a. state why f(g(x)) is not defined
b. restrict the domain of g to form a new function, h(x), such that f(h(x)) is defined
c. determine f(h(x)).
1
10. For the functions f(x) = x2 and g(x) = :
x−4
a. state why g( f(x)) is not defined
b. restrict the domain of f to form a new function, h(x), such that g(h(x)) is defined
c. determine g(h(x)).
Technology active
1 √
11. If g(x) = − 2 and f(x) = x:
2
(x − 3)
a. prove that f(g(x)) is not defined
b. restrict the domain of g to obtain a function g1 (x) such that f(g1 (x)) exists.
√ 1
12. For the equations f ∶ (−∞, 2] → R, f(x) = 2 − x and g ∶ R\[1] → R, g(x) = − + 2:
x−1
a. prove that g( f(x)) is not defined
b. restrict the domain of f to obtain a function f1 (x) such that g( f1 (x)) exists
c. determine g( f1 (x)).
√
13. For the equations f ∶ [4, ∞) → R, f(x) = x − 4 and g ∶ R → R, g (x) = x2 − 2:
a. prove that g( f(x)) is defined
b. determine the rule for g( f(x)) and state the domain
c. sketch the graph of y = g( f(x))
d. prove that f(g(x)) is not defined
e. restrict the domain of g to obtain a function g1 (x) such that f(g1 (x)) exists
f. determine f(g1 (x)).
√
14. If f ∶ [1, ∞) → R, f(x) = − x + k and g ∶ (−∞, 2] → R, g(x) = x2 + k, where k is a positive constant, calculate
the value(s) for k such that both f(g(x)) and g( f(x)) are defined.

3.2 Exam questions

Source: VCE 2020 Mathematical Methods Exam 2, Section A, Q1; © VCAA.
MC Let f and g be functions such that f(−1) = 4, f(2) = 5, g(−1) = 2, g(2) = 7 and g(4) = 6.
The value of g( f(−1)) is
A. 2 B. 4 C. 5 D. 6 E. 7

MC Let f and g be two functions such that f(x) = 2x and g(x + 2) = 3x + 1.
The function f(g(x)) is
A. 6x − 5 B. 6x + 1 C. 6x2 + 1 D. 6x − 10 E. 6x + 2

2
MC If f(x) = 4x and g(x) = 3x + 1, then f(g(a)) is equal to
2 2
A. 4(3a + 1) B. 36a2 + 4 C. (3a + 1) D. 3a + 1 E. 12a2 + 1
3.3 Transformations
LEARNING INTENTION
• sketch the graph resulting from a set of transformations
• determine the equation of a transformed function
• describe the transformations that have been applied to a function.
3.3.1 Dilations, reflections and translations

There are three commonly used transformations.
• Dilations:
The point (1, 2) when dilated by factor 2 parallel to the y-axis, or from the x-axis, becomes the point (1, 4).
1
The point (2, 7) when dilated by factor parallel to the x-axis, or from the y-axis, becomes the point (1, 7).
2
• Reflections:
When the point (1, 2) is reflected in the x-axis, it becomes the point (1, −2).
When the point (1, 2) is reflected in the y-axis, it becomes the point (−1, 2).
• Translations:
The point (2, 7) when translated 2 units in the positive x-direction becomes (4, 7).
The point (2, 7) when translated 4 units in the negative y-direction becomes (2, 3).
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Transformations of functions (int-2576)
The general rule for transformations

When a function of the form y = f(x) has a number of different transformations applied to it, the
general equation becomes
y = Af (n (x + b)) + c.
The following transformations have been applied to y = f(x):

• It has been dilated by a factor of |A| parallel to the y-axis or from the x-axis.
( )
Each y-value has been multiplied by |A|, so each point is now x, |A|y .
1
• It has been dilated by a factor of parallel to the x-axis or from the y-axis.
|n|
( )
1 x
Each x-value has been multiplied by , so each point is now ,y .
|n| |n|
• If A is negative, the graph has been reflected in the x-axis.
Each y-value has changed sign, so each point is now (x, −y).
• If n is negative, the graph has been reflected in the y-axis.
Each x-value has changed sign, so each point is now (−x, y).
• It has been translated b units parallel to the x-axis.
Each x-value has increased by b, so each point is now (x − b, y).
• It has been translated c units parallel to the y-axis.
Each y-value has increased by c, so each point is now (x, y + c).
As a general rule, when functions are written in the form y = Af (n(x + b)) + c, transformations should be read
from left to right, as the order is important. Sometimes there may be more than one way to describe the order of
transformations, but reading from left to right is a consistent and safe approach.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4 Key transformations
i. Describe the transformation that has been applied to the graph of y = x2 in each of the following
examples. Sketch both graphs on the one set of axes.
ii. Determine the image of the point (2, 4) after it has undergone each of the transformations.
b. y = (2x) d. y = (x + 1) e. y = (x − 2)2
2 2
a. y = 2x2 c. y = −x2 f. y = x2 − 2
THINK WRITE
a. i. Specify the transformation that has been a. y = x2 has been dilated by factor 2 parallel to
applied to y = x2 , then sketch both graphs on the y-axis or from the x-axis.
the one set of axes. y
8
y = x2
7
y = 2x2 6
5
4
3
2 (1, 2)
1 (1, 1)
x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
–1
ii. Each y-value is doubled for its corresponding (2, 4) → (2, 8)
x-value.

1
b. i. Specify the transformation that has been b. y = x2 has been dilated by factor parallel to
applied to y = x2 , then sketch both graphs on 2
the x-axis or from the y-axis.
the one set of axes. y
8
7 y = x2
6
y = (2x)2 5
4
3
2
(1–2 , 1)
1 (1, 1)
x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
–1
ii. Each x-value is halved for its corresponding (2, 4) → (1, 4)
y-value.
c. i. Specify the transformation that has been c. y = x2 has been reflected in the x-axis.
applied to y = x2 , then sketch both graphs on y
the one set of axes. 8
7 y = x2
6
5
4
3
2
1 (1, 1)
x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
–1
–2 (1, –1)
–3
–4 y = –x2
–5
–6
–7
–8
ii. All y-values change sign. (2, 4) → (2, −4)

d. i. Specify the transformation that has been d. y = x2 has been translated 1 unit to the left.
y = (x + 1)2 7 y = x2
6
5
4
3
(0, 1)
2
1 (1, 1)
x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
–1
ii. All x-values subtract 1 unit. (2, 4) → (1, 4)
e. i. Specify the transformation that has been e. y = x2 has been translated 2 units to the right.
2
applied to y = x , then sketch both graphs on y
the one set of axes. y = x2 8
7
6
5 (0, 4) y = (x – 2)2
4
3
2 (1, 1)
1 (3, 1)
x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
–1
ii. All x-values gain 2 units. (2, 4) → (4, 4)
f. i. Specify the transformation that has been f. y = x2 has been translated down 2 units.
7 y = x2
6
5
4 y = x2 – 2
3
2 (1, 1)
1
0 x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1
–1 1 2 3 4 5
(1, –1)
(0, –2)
ii. All y-values subtract 2 units. (2, 4) → (2, 2)

a. 1. On a Graphs page, a. 1. On a Graph & Table screen,
complete the entry line complete the entry line for
for function 1 as: y1 as:
f 1(x) = x2 y1 = x2
Complete the entry line complete the entry line for
f2(x) = x2 y2 = x2
2. Press MENU, then select: 2. Select:

1: Graph Trace • Trace
Select the graph of then type ‘2’, select OK and
function 1, then type ‘2’ press EXE.
and press ENTER twice.
Use the up/down arrows
to move to the graph of
function 2, then press
ENTER.

3. Click and drag the graph 3. Select:

of function 2 until its • Analysis
equation becomes • Modify
f2(x) = 2x2 . then set the Step value to 1
and select OK.
Highlight the ‘1’ in the
function entry line at the
bottom of the screen and press
EXE, then use the left/right
arrows modify the graph until
its equation becomes 2x2 .
4. The answer appears on The image of (2, 4) is (2, 8). 4. The image of (2, 4) can be The modified graph
the screen. read from the screen. goes through the point
(2, 8); hence, the image
of (2, 4) is (2, 8).
WORKED EXAMPLE 5 Describing transformations
1
The graph y = x2 is transformed so that its equation becomes y = (2x + 3)2 − 4. Define the
2
transformations that have been applied to y = x2 .
THINK WRITE
( ( ))2
1 3
1. Rewrite the equation with x by itself. y= 2 x+ −4
2 2
y = x2 has been:
2. Define the transformations, reading from left
1
1. dilated by factor parallel to the y-axis or from the
to right. 2
x-axis
Note: There are other ways of writing the 1
order of the transformations. However, the best 2. dilated by factor parallel to the x-axis or from the
2
method is to read the transformations from left y-axis
to right. 3 3
3. translated units to the left or units in the
2 2
negative x-direction
4. translated 4 units down or 4 units in the negative
y-direction.
3.3.2 Creating equations from transformations

Sometimes you may be asked to build up an equation from a series of transformations. In these cases, you must
apply the transformation in the order that it is mentioned.
WORKED EXAMPLE 6 Equations resulting from transformations

√
The graph of g(x) = x undergoes the following transformations:
• translation 2 units right
• dilation of factor 3 from the x-axis
1
• dilation of factor from the y-axis
2
• translation 1 unit down
• reflection in the x-axis.
Determine the rule of the image of the graph.
THINK WRITE
√ √
1. Translation 2 units right means to replace x x→ x−2
with x − 2 in the equation.
√ √
2. Dilation of factor 3 from the x-axis means x−2→3 x−2
multiply the equation by 3.
1 √ √
3. Dilation of factor from the y-axis means 3 x − 2 → 3 2x − 2
2
replace x with 2x in the equation.
√ √
4. Translation 1 unit down means to subtract 3 2x − 2 → 3 2x − 2 − 1
1 unit from the equation.
√ √
5. Reflection in the x-axis means to multiply the 3 2x − 2 − 1 → −3 2x − 2 + 1
equation through by –1.
√ √
6. Write the final answer. g(x) = x → h(x) = −3 2x − 2 + 1
Note: g(x) has not been used to denote the
transformed equation because
√ g(x) has already
been defined as g(x) = x.
3.3 Exercise

Technology free
1. WE4 i. Describe the transformation that has been applied to the graph of y = x3 in each of the following
examples. Sketch both graphs on the one set of axes.
ii. Determine the image of the point (−2, −8) after it has undergone each of the following transformations.
3
a. y = 3x3 b. y = (x + 2) c. y = −x3 d. y = x3 + 1
2. Describe the transformation that has been applied to the graph of y = sin(x) for x ∈ [0, 2𝜋] in each of the
following cases. In each case, sketch both graphs on the one set of axes.
( )
𝜋
a. y = 4 sin(x) b. y = sin(2x) c. y = sin x + d. y = sin(x) + 2
2

3. Describe and sketch the transformation that has been applied to the graph of y = cos(x) for x ∈ [0, 2𝜋] in
each of the following cases.
1
a. y = cos(x) b. y = cos(2x) c. y = − cos(x) d. y = cos(x) − 1
2
1
4. Describe and sketch the transformation that has been applied to the graph of f(x) = in each of the
x
following cases. Give the equations of any asymptotes in each case.
a. y = f(x − 2) b. y = −f(x) c. y = 3f(x) d. y = f(2x)
[ ]
𝜋
5. WE5 The graph of y = sin(x) is transformed so that its equation becomes y = −2 sin 2x − + 1. Define
2
the transformations that have been applied to y = sin(x).
( )
1 x+1
x
6. The graph of y = e is transformed so that its equation becomes y = e 2 − 2. Define the transformations
3
that have been applied to y = ex .
7. State the sequence of transformations that has been applied to the first function in order to achieve the
transformed function.
1 2 2 3 1 3
a. y = x2 → y = (x + 3) − b. y = x3 → y = −2(1 − x) + 1 c. y = →y= −1
3 3 x (2x + 6)
8. For the corresponding sequence of transformations in question 7, determine the image of the point:
( )
1
a. (–2, 4) b. (1, 1) c. 2, .
2
9. State the sequence of transformations that has been applied to the first function in order to obtain the second
function. [ ( )]
𝜋
a. y = cos(x) → y = 2 cos 2 x− +3 b. y = tan(x) → y = − tan(−2x) + 1
2
c. y = sin(x) → y = sin(3x − 𝜋) − 1
Technology active
10. WE6 MC The graph of g(x) = x2 undergoes the following transformations:
• reflection in the y-axis
• translation 4 units right
• dilation of factor 2 from the y-axis
• translation 3 units down
1
• dilation of factor from the x-axis.
3
( )2 ( )2
1 x−8 1 2 1 x−8
A. f(x) = −1 B. f(x) = − (2x − 4) − 3 C. f(x) = − −1
3 2 3 3 2
( )2 ( )2
x−8 1 x−4
D. f(x) = 3 −3 E. f(x) = −3
2 3 2
1
11. MC The graph of h(x) = undergoes the following transformations:
x
• dilation of factor 3 parallel to the x-axis
• translation 2 units up
• reflection in the y-axis
• translation 1 unit left
• reflection in the x-axis.
3 3 1
A. f(x) = +2 B. f(x) = − −2 C. f(x) = −2
x+1 1−x 3 (x + 1)
3 1
D. f(x) = −2 E. f(x) = +2
x+1 3x + 1
√
12. The graph of h(x) = 3 x undergoes the following transformations:
reflection in the y-axis, then a translation of 3 units in the positive x-direction, followed by a dilation of
factor 2 parallel to the x-axis.
1
13. The graph of h(x) = undergoes the following transformations:
x2
translation of 2 units left and 3 units down, then a reflection in the x-axis, followed by a dilation of factor 3
from the x-axis, and a reflection in the y-axis.
14. The graph of h(x) = 2x2 − 3 undergoes the following transformations:
1
reflection in the x-axis, then a dilation of factor from the y-axis, followed by a translation of 1 unit in the
3
positive x-direction and 2 units in the negative y-direction.
1
15. The graph of h(x) = undergoes the following transformations:
x+2
1
dilation of factor parallel to the x-axis, then a translation of 3 units down and 3 units left, then a reflection
2
in the y-axis, followed by a dilation of factor 2 from the x-axis.
2x − 5 3 1
16. Show that =2− and hence describe the transformations that have been applied to y = . Sketch
x−1 x−1 x
2x − 5
the graph of y = . State the domain and range and give the equations of any asymptotes.
x−1
17. State the transformations that have been applied to the first function in order to obtain the second function.
Hint: Remember dilations can affect translations.
√
5−x √
y=3− →y= x
2
y = −2(3x − 1)2 + 5 → y = (x + 2)2 − 1

3.3 Exam questions

MC The graph of the function f passes through the point (−2, 7).
( )
x
If h(x) = f + 5, then the graph of the function h must pass through the point
2
A. (−1, −12) B. (−1, 19) C. (−4, 12) D. (−4, −14) E. (3, 3.5)

√
MC The graph of a function f is obtained from the graph of the function g with rule g(x) = 2x − 5 by a
1
reflection in the x-axis followed by a dilation from the y-axis by a factor of .
2
√ f?
Which one of√the following is the rule for the function √
A. f(x) = √ 5 − 4x B. f(x) = √ x−5 C. f(x) = x + 5
D. f(x) = − 4x − 5 E. f(x) = − 4x − 10

√ √
MC The transformation that maps the graph of y = 8x3 + 1 onto the graph of y = x3 + 1 is a
A. dilation by a factor of 2 from the y-axis.
B. dilation by a factor of 2 from the x-axis.

1
C. dilation by a factor of from the x-axis.
2
D. dilation by a factor of 8 from the y-axis.
1
E. dilation by a factor of from the y-axis.
2
3.4 Inverse graphs

LEARNING INTENTION
• define an inverse
• state the conditions required for an inverse function
• sketch the graph of an inverse function.
Note: Relations are not specifically covered in the VCAA Mathematics Study Design. However, the content has
been included in this topic to help with understanding functions.
3.4.1 Inverses
The relation A = {(−1, 4), (0, 3), (1, 5)} is formed by the mapping
−1 → 4
0→3
1→5
The inverse relation is formed by the ‘undoing’ mapping:
4 → −1
3→0
5→1
The inverse of A is the relation {(4, −1), (3, 0), (5, 1)}.
The x- and y-coordinates of the points in relation A have been interchanged in its inverse. This causes the
domains and ranges to be interchanged also.
The domain of A = {−1, 0, 1} = the range of its inverse, and the range of A = {3, 4, 5} = the domain of its inverse.
Inverses
• For any relation, the inverse is obtained by interchanging the x- and y-coordinates of the
ordered pairs.
• Domains and ranges are interchanged between a pair of inverse relations.
Graphs of inverses
When finding the inverse of a relation graphically, we reflect the relation in the line y = x. Consider the equation
y = 2x + 1.
y
y = 2x + 1
y=x
(0, 1)
(–0.5, 0) (1, 0) Inverse

0 x
(–1, –1) (0, –0.5)
The line y = x acts as a mirror. The inverse is the same distance from the line as the original graph. The
coordinates of known points, such as the axial intercepts, are interchanged by this reflection through the mirror.
We can see that the line y = 2x + 1 cuts the y-axis at (0, 1) and the x-axis at (−0.5, 0), whereas the inverse graph
cuts the x-axis at (1, 0). When sketching a graph and its inverse, the line y = x should always be sketched. If
the graphs intersect, they will do so on the line y = x, since interchanging the coordinates of any point on y = x
would not cause any alteration to the coordinates.

WORKED EXAMPLE 7 Sketching inverses
a. Sketch the graph of y = x2 − 2x − 3.

b. On the same set of axes, sketch the graph of the inverse.
c. State the type of mapping for the parabola and its inverse, and whether the relations are functions.
d. Give the domain and range for each of the graphs.
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Determine where the given function cuts the a. y-intercept, x = 0∶
x- and y-axes. y = −3
x-intercept, y = 0∶
x2 − 2x − 3 = 0
(x − 3)(x + 1) = 0
x = 3 or x = −1
A turning point occurs when x = 1:
y = (1)2 − 2(1) − 3
= −4
∴ TP = (1, −4)
2. Sketch the graph of the parabola. y

Note: When sketching graphs and their
inverses, the scales on both axes need to be y = x2 – 2x – 3
relatively accurate so that distortions do not
occur. (–1, 0) (3, 0)
0 x
(0, –3)
(1, –4)
b. On the same set of axes, sketch the inverse by b. y

interchanging the coordinates of all important
y=x
points such as axial intercepts and the turning y = x2 – 2x – 3 (0, 3)
point.
(–4, 1)
(–1, 0) (3, 0)
0 (0, –1) x
(–3, 0)
(0, –3) Inverse
(1, –4)
c. Comment on the types of mapping for the two c. The parabola y = x2 − 2x − 3 is a many-to-
graphs. one mapping, so it is a function. However, the
inverse is a one-to-many mapping and as such
is not a function.
d. State the domains and ranges for both graphs. d. For y = x2 − 2x − 3:

Remember that the domain of the original graph Domain = R
becomes the range of the inverse and vice versa. Range = [−4, ∞)
For the inverse:
Domain = [−4, ∞)
Range = R

a. 1. On a Graphs page, a. 1. On a Graph & Table screen,
f 1(x) = x2 − 2x − 3 y1 = x2 − 2x − 3
Select the y = icon and change
the input format to x =.
Complete the entry line for
x2 as:
x2 = y1(y)
then press EXE.
Select the graph icon.
2. To find the x-intercepts, 2. To find the x-intercepts of y1,
1: Zero • G-Solve
of the x-intercept when Press EXE to mark the
prompted for the lower coordinates of the first
bound, then press ENTER. x-intercept on the graph, use
Move the cursor to the the left/right arrows to move to
right of the x-intercept the next x-intercept, then press
when prompted for the EXE.
ENTER. Repeat this
step to find the other
x-intercept.
3. To find the y-intercept, 3. To find the y-intercept of y1,
Type ‘0’, then press • y-Intercept
ENTER twice. then press EXE.

4. To find the minimum, 4. To find the minimum, select:

2: Minimum • Min
left of the minimum when
right of the minimum when
b. 1. To sketch the graph of the b. 1. To find the points of interest on
inverse, press MENU, then the inverse graph, select:
3: Graph Entry/Edit • Trace.
2: Relation Use the up/down arrows to
Complete the entry line as: move from the graph of y1 to
f 1(y) = x the graph of x2, then use the
then press ENTER. left/right arrows to locate the
x- and y-intercepts and
the turning point.
2. To find the points of

interest on the inverse
graph, press MENU, then
select:
5: Trace
1: Graph Trace
Use the up/down arrows to
move from the graph to the
inverse graph, then use the
left/right arrows to locate
the x- and y-intercepts and
the turning point.
3.4.2 Inverse functions

As we have seen in the previous examples, the inverses produced are not always functions. Any function that is
many-to-one will have an inverse that is one-to-many, and hence this inverse will not be a function.
Conditions for an inverse function

Only one-to-one functions will have an inverse that is also a function.
If we require the inverse of a many-to-one function to also be a function, the domain of the original graph must
be restricted in order to ensure its correspondence is one-to-one. Achieving the maximum possible domain is
always preferred, so many-to-one graphs are often restricted about the turning point or an asymptote.
WORKED EXAMPLE 8 Sketching inverse functions
a. Consider the graph of y = x2 − 2x − 3 from Worked example 7. The domain is restricted to

x ∈ (− ∞, a], where a is the largest possible value such that the inverse function exists. Determine
the value of a.
b. Sketch the restricted graph of y and its inverse on the same set of axes.
c. Give the domain and range for both graphs.
THINK WRITE
a. The turning point is (1, −4), so to maximise the a. The x-value of the turning point is 1, so a = 1.
domain, we restrict y about this point.
b. Sketch the graph of y = x2 − 2x − 3 for x ∈ b. For y = x2 − 2x − 3, x ∈ (−∞, 1]:

(−∞, 1]. Due to the restriction, there is only one x-intercept = (–1, 0),
x-intercept. Interchange the coordinates of the y-intercept = (0, –3) and TP = (1, –4).
x-intercept and turning point, and sketch the For the inverse,
graph of the inverse by reflecting the graph in x-intercept = (–3, 0),
the line y = x. y-intercept = (0, –1)
and sideways TP = (–4, 1).
y
y = x2 – 2x – 3
y=x
(–4, 1) (–1, 0)
(–3, 0) 0 (0, –1) x
(0, –3) Inverse
(1, –4)
c. State the domain and range for this function and c. For y = x2 − 2x − 3:
its inverse. Domain: x ∈ (−∞, 1]
Range: y ∈ (−4, ∞]
Inverse:
Domain: x ∈ (−4, ∞]
Range: y ∈ (−∞, 1]

3.4 Exercise

Technology free
1. WE7 a. Sketch the graph of y = (1 − x)(x + 5) and its inverse on the one set of axes. Show all axis intercepts
and turning point coordinates.
b. State the mapping for each graph and whether it is a function or a relation.
c. Give the domain and range for the function and its inverse.
√
2. a. Sketch the graph of y = x.
b. By reflecting this function in the line y = x, sketch the graph of the inverse relation.
c. State the type of mapping for y and its inverse and state whether the inverse is a relation or a function.
3. For each of the following relations, sketch the graph and its inverse on the same set of axes.
Include the line y = x.
a. y b. y
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
x –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
–1 –1
–2 –2
–3 –3
–4 –4
c. y d. y
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
x –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4x
–1 –1
–2 –2
–3 –3
–4 –4
1
4. a. Sketch the graph of y = − x − 1, showing all important features.
3
b. On the same set of axes, sketch the inverse function, again showing axis intercepts.
5. Identify which of the following functions are one-to-one functions.

a. f(x) = cos (x) b. g(x) = 1 − x3
1
c. h(x) = 4 − x2 d. k(x) = 2 + ,x≠3
x−3
Technology active
6. MC Identify which of the following functions has an inverse that is a function.
1 1
A. y = x2 − 1 B. y = C. y =
2 x−1
(x + 2)
D. y = x3 − x2 E. y = 10
7. MC Identify the function and inverse function pair.

A. y y=x B. y y=x C. y y=x
5 5 4
4 4 3
3 3 2
2 2 1
1 1 x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
x x –1
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 –2
–1 –1
–2 –2 –3
–3 –3 –4
D. y y=x E. y
2 4 y=x
3
1 2
1
0 x x
–2 –1 1 2 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
–1
–1 –2
–3
–2 –4
2
8. The graph of x = (y − 2) is shown in blue. The inverse relation is one of the other two graphs shown.
Choose whether option A or option B is the inverse, giving clear reasons for your decision.
y
4
3
A
x = (y – 2)2 2
1
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
–1
–2
B –3
–4
9. a. Use CAS to sketch the graph of y = 9x − x3 and its inverse on the one set of axes.
b. Determine the points of intersection of y and its inverse that occur along the line y = x, correct to
3 decimal places.
1
10. a. Use CAS to sketch the graph of y = 3 + √ , x ∈ R+ and its inverse on one set of axes.
x
b. Determine the points of intersection of y and its inverse, correct to 3 decimal places.

11. WE8 a. Consider the graph of y = (1 − x)(x + 5). The domain is restricted to x ∈ (−∞, a], where a is the
largest possible value such that the inverse function exists. Determine the value of a.
b. Sketch the restricted graph of y and its inverse on the same set of axes.
c. Give the domain and range for both graphs.
2
12. Consider the graph of y = −(x − 3) . State the largest positive domain for the given function so that its
inverse is a function. Sketch the restricted function with its inverse on the one set of axes.
13. a. Sketch the graph of y = (x + 4)(x − 2).
b. On the same set of axes, sketch the graph of the inverse relation.
c. State the type of mapping for the parabola and its inverse.
d. State whether the inverse a function. Give a reason for your answer.
e. Give the domain and range for each of the graphs.
f. Find the largest domain to which y could be restricted so that its inverse is a function.
14. a. Sketch the graph of y = x3 and its inverse on the same set of axes.
b. State the type of mapping for the graph and its inverse.
c. State whether the inverse is a function. Give a reason for your answer.
d. Give the domain and range for each of the graphs.
1
15. a. Sketch the graph of y = .
x2
b. On the same set of axes, sketch the inverse relation.
c. State the mapping for each graph and indicate whether the rule describes a function or a relation.
1
d. Restrict the domain of y = , where x consists of negative values only, so that its inverse is a function.
x2
State this domain.
e. Using this restricted domain for y, sketch the graph of y and its inverse on a new set of axes. State the
domain and range of each function.
16. Given y = 2x2 − 12x + 13 with a domain of (−∞, a], find the largest value of a so that the inverse of y is a
function.
3.4 Exam questions

MC Part of the graph of the function f is shown below. The same scale has been used on both axes.
The corresponding part of the graph of the inverse function f −1 is best represented by
A. y B. y C. y
x x x
D. y E. y
x x

( ( ))
𝜋
MC The function g: [−a, a] → R, g(x) = sin 2 x − has an inverse function.
6
The maximum possible value of a is
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
A. B. 1 C. D. E.
12 6 4 2
MC Select the rule that does not describe a function.
√ 1
A. y = x2 − 5 B. y = −5 C. x = −5 D. y = 5 − x2 E. y =
x−5
3.5 Inverse functions

LEARNING INTENTION
• determine the equation of an inverse function
• restrict the domain of the original function, so that the inverse is a function
• determine the point of intersection between a function and its inverse.
3.5.1 Finding the equation of an inverse

In the previous section, we saw that an inverse is graphed by reflecting the given function in the line y = x. We
follow the same procedure to determine the rule of an inverse. That is, the x and y variables are interchanged.

Consider the linear function f (x) = 2x + 1. As f is a one-to-one function, its inverse will also be a function. To
obtain the rule for the inverse function, the x and y variables are interchanged.
Inverse: Let y = f (x) , swap x and y.

x = 2y + 1
Rearrange the rule to make y the subject of the equation.

2y = x − 1
1
y = (x − 1)
2
The function f (x) = 2x + 1 has a domain of R and range of R.

1
The inverse function y = (x − 1) has a domain of R and range of R.
2
Notation for inverse functions
If the inverse of a function f is itself a function, then the inverse function is denoted by f −1 .
√
For example, the equation of the inverse of the square root function, f(x) = x, can be written as
f −1 (x) = x2 , x ≥ 0.
√
In mapping notation, if f ∶ [0, ∞) → R, f(x) = x, then the inverse function is f −1 ∶ [0, ∞) → R, f −1 (x) = x2 .
The domain of f −1 equals the range of f, and the range of f −1 equals the domain of f ; that is, df −1 = rf
and rf −1 = df .
Note that f −1 is a function notation and thus cannot be used for relations that are not functions.
1 1
Note also that the inverse function f −1 and the reciprocal function represent different functions: f −1 ≠ .
f f
WORKED EXAMPLE 9 Determining equations of inverses
Consider the function y = (x + 2)2 . Determine the rule for the inverse and indicate whether this inverse
is a function or a relation. Give the domain and range for both.
THINK WRITE
1. To obtain the inverse, interchange the x and y y = (x + 2)2
variables. Inverse: swap x and y.
x = (y + 2)2
2. Rearrange to make y the subject of the (y + 2)2 = x
equation. √
y+2 = ± x
√
y = ± x−2
3. Comment on whether the inverse is a function As y = (x + 2)2 is a many-to-one function, the inverse
or a relation. will be a one-to-many relation. Therefore, it is not a
function.
4. State the domain and range for both rules. + 2)2 has a domain of R and a range of [0, ∞).
y = (x√
y = ± x − 2 has a domain of [0, ∞) and a range of R.

1. On a Calculator page, 1. On the Main screen,
1: Actions • Action
1: Define • Command
Complete the entry line • Define
as: Complete the entry
Define f(x) = (x + 2)2 line as:
then press ENTER. Define f(x) = (x + 2)2
then press EXE.
2. Press MENU, then select: 2. Complete the next

3: Algebra entry line as:
1: Solve solve ( f(y) = x, y)
Complete the entry line then press EXE.
as:
solve( f(y) = x, y)
then press ENTER.
3. The answer appears on The inverse

√ function is 3. The answer appears on The inverse
√ function
the screen. y = ± x − 2 with domain [0, ∞) the screen. is y = ± x − 2 with
and range R. It is not a function. domain [0, ∞) and range
R. It is not a function.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Inverse functions (int-2575)
3.5.2 Restricting domains

In some cases, the domain will need to be included√ when we state the equation of the inverse.
√ For example, to
find the equation of the inverse of the function y = x, interchanging coordinates gives x = y. Expressing
√
x = y with y as the subject gives y = x2 . This rule is not unexpected since ‘square root’ and ‘squaring’ are
√
inverse operations. However, as the range of the function y = x is [0, ∞), this must be the domain of its
√
inverse. Hence, the equation of the inverse of y = x is y = x2 with the restriction that x ≥ 0.
Other examples involve restricting the domain of f so that the inverse is a function.

WORKED EXAMPLE 10 Equations of inverse functions
Consider the function f ∶ [0, ∞) → R, f(x) = x2 + 2. Fully define the inverse, f−1 .
THINK WRITE
1. Let y = f(x), then interchange the x and y variables. Let y = f(x).
Swap x and y.
Inverse: x = y2 + 2
2. Rearrange to make y the subject of the equation. y2 = x − 2
√
y = ± x−2
3. Use the domain of f(x) to determine the inverse. dom f = ran f −1

√
∴y = x−2
4. Determine the domain of f −1 . dom f −1 = ran f = [2, ∞]

√
5. Use the full function notation to define the inverse. f −1 ∶ [2, ∞) → R, f −1 (x) = x−2
3.5.3 The point of intersection of f(x) and f −1 (x)

The point where f(x) intersects with its inverse can be found by solving f(x) = f −1 (x). However, this can often be
a difficult equation to solve. As y = f(x) intersects with y = f −1 (x) along the line y = x, there is actually a three-
way point of intersection: f(x) = f −1 (x) = x. Therefore, it is preferable to solve either f(x) = x or f −1 (x) = x to find
the point of intersection.
WORKED EXAMPLE 11 Intersection of f(x) and f −1 (x) (1)
Consider the quadratic function defined by f(x) = 2 − x2 .

a. Form the rule for its inverse and explain why the inverse is not a function.
b. If the domain of f is restricted to (−∞, a), determine the maximum value of a so that the inverse
exists.
c. Sketch the graph of f(x) = 2 − x2 over this restricted domain and use this to sketch its inverse on the
same diagram.
d. Form the equation of the inverse, y = f−1 (x).
e. Determine the point at which the two graphs intersect.
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Interchange x and y coordinates to form the a. Let y = f(x).

rule for the inverse. Inverse: swap x and y.
x = 2 − y2
y2 = 2 − x
√
y = ± 2−x
2. Explain why the inverse is not a function. The quadratic function is many-to-one, so its
inverse has a one-to-many correspondence.
Therefore, the inverse is not a function.
b. To maximise the domain, restrict the graph about b. TP = (0, 2)

the turning point. Therefore, a = 0.
c. 1. Sketch the graph of the function for the c. f(x) = 2 − x2
restricted domain. y-intercept: (0, 2)
x-intercept: let y = 0.
2 − x2 = 0
x2 = 2
√
x=± 2
√
⇒x = − 2 since x ∈ (−∞, 0).
√
x-intercept: (− 2, 0)
Turning point: (0, 2)
y
(0, 2)
y = f (x)
(– 2, 0) 0 x
2. Deduce the key features of the inverse. Sketch For the inverse, √ (2, 0) is an open point on the
its graph and the line y = x on the same x-axis and (0, − 2) is the y-intercept.
diagram as the graph of the function. Its graph is the reflection of the graph of
f(x) = 2 − x2 , x ∈ (−∞, 0) in the line y = x.
y y=x
(0, 2)
2
y = f (x)
(2, 0)
(– 2, 0) 0 x
2
(0, – 2)
y = f –1(x)
d. Use the range of the inverse to help deduce its d. From part a, the inverse of f(x) = 2 − x2 is:
equation. Note: When you write the answer, the y2 = 2 − x
√
domain must also be included. ∴ y = ± 2−x
The range of the inverse must be (−∞, 0) (the
domain of the original graph), so the branch
with the negative square root is required.
Therefore,
√ the equation of the inverse is
y = − 2 −√x.
f −1 (x) = − 2 − x, domain = (−∞, 2)

e. Choose two of the three equations that contain e. The point of intersection lies on y = x.
the required point and solve this system of Solving x = f(x):
simultaneous equations. Note: As the graph and x = 2 − x2 , x ∈ (−∞, 0)
its inverse intersect along the line y = x, the x2 + x − 2 = 0
y-value of the coordinate will be the same as the (x + 2)(x − 1) = 0
x-value. x = −2, 1
Reject x = 1 since x ∈ (−∞, 0); therefore,
x = −2.
Therefore, the point of intersection is (–2, –2).
WORKED EXAMPLE 12 Intersection of f(x) and f −1 (x) (2)
Consider the function f ∶ (−∞, a] → R, f (x) = x2 − 6x + 4.

a. Determine the largest possible value of a so that f−1 exists.
−1
b. Determine f (x) and sketch both graphs on the same set of axes.
c. Calculate the point(s) of intersection between y = f (x) and y = f−1 (x).
THINK WRITE
a. 1. To find the largest possible value of a for a. Let y = f(x)
which f −1 exists, find the turning point. To ⇒ y = x2 − 6x + 4
do this, complete the square.
y = (x − 3)2 − 9 + 4
y = (x − 3)2 − 5
2. State the turning point. TP = (3, −5)

−1
3. The largest possible value of a for which f ∴a=3
exists is the x-value of the TP.
4. Rewrite the full function. f ∶ (−∞, 3] → R, f (x) = x2 − 6x + 4
b. 1. Interchange x- and y-coordinates in turning y = (x − 3)2 − 5
point form to form the rule for the inverse. Inverse: swap x and y.
x = (y − 3)2 − 5
x + 5 = (y − 3)2
√
± x+5 = y−3
√
3± x + 5 = y
√
2. Since f (x) has a restricted domain of (−∞, 3], f −1 (x) = 3 − x + 5 √
this implies that the ‘range’ of the inverse is f −1 : [−5, ∞) → R, f −1 (x) = 3 − x + 5
(−∞, 3] .
3. Sketch the graph of y = f (x) from the restricted f (x) = (x − 3)2 − 5
domain. y-intercept: (0, 4)
TP: (3, −5)
x-intercept:
0 = (x − 3)2 − 5
5 = (x − 3)2
√
± 5 = x−3
√
3± 5 = x
( √ )
Since x ≤ 3, the x-intercept is 3 − 5, 0 .
y
y = f (x)
(0, 4)
0 (3 – 5, 0) x
(3, –5)
4. Deduce the features in the inverse function. For the inverse, there is a closed point at
Sketch its graph on the same axes as the graph (−5, 3). There
( is a point (4, 0) on the x-axis
√ )
of y = f (x) and the line y = x. and a point 0, 3 − 5 on the y-axis.
x ∈ [−5, ∞] .
y
y = f (x)
(–5, 3) y = (x)
(0, 4)
y = f –1(x)
(0, 3 – 5 )
0 (4, 0) x
(3 – 5, 0)
(3, –5)
c. To determine the point(s) of intersection between f (x) = (x − 3)2 − 5

−1
y = f (x) and y = f (x), let f (x) = x as any point of Let f (x) = x.
intersection will lie on the line y = x. x2 − 6x + 4 = x
Rewrite the equation into general form and solve
x2 − 7x + 4 = 0
using the quadratic formula. √
− (−7) ± (−7)2 − 4 (1) (4)
x=
√ 2 (1)
7± 33
x=
2
√ √
7 + 33 7 + 33
Disregard x = as > 3.
2 2
√
7 − 33
When x = ,
2√
7 − 33
y=
2
Therefore, the point of intersection is
( √ √ )
7 − 33 7 − 33
, .
2 2

3.5.4 Composite functions with inverse functions
x f y f –1 x
Because each output of a one-to-one function is different for each input, it is possible to reverse the process and
turn the outputs back into the original inputs. The inverse is the function that results from reversing a one-to-one
function. Essentially, the inverse function is an ‘undoing’ function.
So, if we take the inverse function of the original function or evaluate the function of the inverse function, in
effect the two operations cancel each other out, leaving only x.
Therefore, the following applies.
Composite function properties

f( f−1 (x)) = x and f−1 ( f(x)) = x.
WORKED EXAMPLE 13 Composite functions with inverses
If f(x) = 3x )+ 1, verify that:

( −1 −1
a. f f (x) = x b. f ( f(x)) = x
THINK WRITE
a. 1. First determine the equation of f −1 (x) by Let y = 3x + 1.

interchanging x and y. Inverse: swap x and y.
x = 3y + 1
x − 1 = 3y
x−1
y=
3
−1 x−1
∴ f (x) =
3
( )
( −1 ) x−1
2. Substitute f −1 (x) into f(x) and evaluate. f f (x) = f
( 3 )
x−1
=3 +1
3
= x−1+1
=x
( )
3. State the answer. Therefore, f f −1 (x) = x.
b. 1. Substitute f(x) into f −1 (x) and evaluate. f −1 ( f(x)) = f −1 (3x + 1)

3x + 1 − 1
=
3
3x
=
3
=x
2. State the answer. Therefore, f −1 ( f(x)) = x.
3.5 Exercise

Technology free
1. WE9 Consider the function y = x3 . Determine the rule for the inverse and indicate whether this inverse is a
function or a relation. Give the domain and range for both.
1
2. Consider the function y = . Determine the rule for the inverse and indicate whether this inverse is a
x2
function or a relation. Give the domain and range for both.
3. For each of the following functions, determine the rule for the inverse and indicate whether this inverse is a
function or a relation. Give the domain and range for the inverse.
1 2
√
3
a. y = (x − 3) b. y = (x − 5) c. y = x+1−2
3
3
√ 1
d. y = (x − 1) e. y = x f. y = +2
(x − 1)2
1
4. WE10 Consider the function f ∶ (−∞, 2) → R, f(x) = − . Fully define the inverse, f −1 .
(x − 2)2
√
5. Consider the function f ∶ [3, ∞) → R, f(x) = x − 3. Fully define the inverse, f −1 .
6. WE11 Consider the quadratic function f(x) = (x + 1)2 defined on its maximal domain.
a. Form the rule for its inverse and explain why the inverse is not a function.
b. If the domain of f is restricted to [b, ∞), find the minimum value of b so that the inverse exists.
2
c. Sketch the graph of f(x) = (x + 1) over this restricted domain and use this to sketch its inverse on the
same diagram.
d. Form the equation of the inverse, y = f −1 (x).
e. Determine the point at which the two graphs intersect.
√
7. Calculate the point of intersection between f (x) = 2 x + 2 and its inverse.
8. WE12 Consider the function f ∶ (− ∞, a] → R, f(x) = x2 − 2x − 1.
a. Determine the largest possible value of a so that f −1 exists.
b. Determine f −1 (x) and sketch both graphs on the same set of axes.
c. Calculate the point(s) of intersection between y = f(x) and y = f −1 (x).
1
9. WE13 If f(x) = , x ≠ −2, verify that:
x+2
a. f( f −1 (x)) = x b. f −1 ( f(x)) = x.
10. If k(x) = x3 − 1, verify that:

a. k(k−1 (x)) = x b. k−1 (k(x)) = x.

11. Indicate whether each of the following functions has an inverse function. In each case, give a reason for your
decision. If the inverse is a function, write the rule for the inverse in function notation and sketch y = f(x) and
y = f −1 (x) on the one set of axes, including the point of intersection if it exists.
a. f ∶ R → R, f(x) = x4 b. f ∶ R → R, f(x) = 2x2 − 7x + 3
1 √
c. f ∶ R\ {3} → R, f(x) = +2 d. f ∶ [−2, ∞) → R, f(x) = x+2
2
(x − 3)
4x − 7
12. Given f(x) = , determine the rule for f −1 , then sketch y = f(x) and y = f −1 (x) on the same set of axes.
x−2
Include the point(s) of intersection on your graph.
Technology active
2
13. Given f(x) = (x + 2) , restrict the maximal domain of f to only negative x-values so that its inverse is also a
function. Write the inverse in function notation.
√
x2
14. Given that f(x) = 1 − , use CAS to view the graph and hence define two inverse functions, f −1 , using
4
function notation with maximal domains. Sketch each pair of functions on separate axes.
15. Given f(x) = x2 − 10x + 25 with a domain of [a, ∞), determine:

a. the smallest value of a so that f −1 exists b. f −1 (x).
x
16. Consider f ∶ [−2, 4) → R, f(x) = 1 − .
3
a. State the domain and determine the range of f.
b. Obtain the rule for f −1 and state its domain and range.
c. Sketch y = f (x) and y = f −1 (x) on the same diagram.
d. Calculate the coordinates of any point of intersection of the two graphs.
√
17. Consider f ∶ D → R, f(x) = 1 − 3x.
Determine D, the maximal domain of f.
a.
Obtain the rule for f −1 (x) and state its domain and range.
b.
Evaluate the point(s) of intersection between y = f(x) and y = f −1 (x).
c.
Sketch y = f(x) and y = f −1 (x) on the same set of axes.
d.
√
18. Consider the function f ∶ [1, ∞] → R, f(x) = x − 1.
a. Determine f −1 (x).
b. Sketch the graph of y = f −1 ( f(x)) over its maximal domain.
( ( ))
−1 x+2
c. Evaluate f f .
3
3.5 Exam questions

1
Let f: (2, ∞) → R, where f(x) = .
(x − 2)2
State the rule and domain of f −1 .
Source: VCE 2016, Mathematical Methods Exam 2, Section A Q5; © VCAA.
√
MC Which one of the following is the inverse function of [3, ∞) → R, g(x) = 2x − 6?
x2 + 6 2
A. g−1 : [3, ∞) → R, g−1 (x) = B. g−1 : [0, ∞) → R, g−1 (x) = (2x − 6)
√ 2
x x2 + 6
C. g−1 : [0, ∞) → R, g−1 (x) = +6 D. g−1 : [0, ∞) → R, g−1 (x) =
2 2
2
x + 6
E. g−1 : R → R, g−1 (x) =
2
1
MC The inverse function of f: (−2, ∞) → R, f(x) = √ is
x+2
1 1
A. f −1 : R+ → R f −1 (x) = 2 − 2 B. f −1 : R\ {0} → R f −1 (x) = −2
x x2
1
C. f −1 : R+ → R f −1 (x) = 2 + 2 D. f −1 : (−2, ∞) → R f −1 (x) = x2 + 2
x
1
E. f −1 : (2, ∞) → R f −1 (x) = 2
x −2
3.6 Literal equations

LEARNING INTENTION
• solve literal equations
• solve simultaneous literal equations.
3.6.1 Solutions of literal equations

Equations with several pronumerals are called literal equations. Rather than the solution having a numerical
answer, the solution will be expressed in terms of pronumerals, also called parameters.

WORKED EXAMPLE 14 Solving literal equations

p 2m 3y
a. mx + ny = kx − z b. − =
x m+x x
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Collect the x terms on the left-hand side. a. mx + ny = kx − z
mx − kx = −z − ny
2. Take out the common factor of x to leave only x(m − k) = −z − ny
one instance of x on the left-hand side.
−z − ny
3. Divide both sides by m − k. x=
m−k
z + ny
=−
m−k
z + ny
=
k−m
p 2m 3y
b. 1. Multiply both sides by the common b. − =
denominator of x(m + x). x m+x x
p(m + x) − 2mx = 3y(m + x)
2. Expand the brackets. pm + px − 2mx = 3my + 3xy

3. Collect the x terms on the left-hand side. px − 2mx − 3xy = 3my − pm
4. Take out the common factor of x to leave only x(p − 2m − 3y) = 3my − pm
one instance of x on the left-hand side.
3my − pm
5. Divide both sides by p − 2m − 3y. x=
p − 2m − 3y

a. 1. On a Calculator page, press a. 1. On the Main screen, complete
MENU, then select: the entry line as:
3: Algebra solve (m × x + n × y =
1: Solve k × x − z, x)
solve (m × x + n × y = Select the simplify icon.
k × x − z, x) Note: Be sure to include the
then press ENTER. multiplication operator between
Note: Be sure to include the variables in the terms
the multiplication operator mx, ny and kx.
between the variables in
the terms mx, ny and kx.
ny + z ny + z
2. The answer appears on the x = 2. The answer appears on the x=
screen. k−m screen. k−m
3.6.2 Simultaneous literal equations

These equations are solved by applying the methods of elimination and substitution. Once again, the solutions
will be in terms of parameters. As a rule, if you are solving for n pronumerals, you will need n equations to solve
for all the unknowns.
WORKED EXAMPLE 15 Solving simultaneous literal equations
Solve the pair of simultaneous equations for x and y.
mx − y = k
x + ny = 2d
THINK WRITE
1. Label the equations. mx − y = k [1]
x + ny = 2d [2]
2. Use the elimination method to solve these [2] × m:
equations. Multiply equation [2] by m so ⇒ mx + mny = 2dm [3]
that the coefficients of x are the same in both
equations, and label this equation [3].
3. Subtract [3] from [1] to eliminate the x terms. mx − y = k [1]
mx + mny = 2dm [3]
[1] − [3]:
− y − mny = k − 2dm
4. Take out the common factor of y to leave only y(−1 − mn) = k − 2dm
one instance of y on the left-hand side.
k − 2dm
5. Divide both sides by −1 − mn and simplify. y=
−1 − mn
k − 2dm
=−
1 + mn
( )
k − 2dm k − 2dm
6. Substitute y = − into [1]. mx − − =k
1 + mn 1 + mn
Note: Equation [2] could have also been k − 2dm
chosen. mx + =k
1 + mn
k − 2dm
mx = k −
1 + mn
k − 2dm
7. Simplify the right-hand side. mx = k −
1 + mn
k (1 + mn) k − 2dm
x= −
1 + mn 1 + mn
k + kmn − (k − 2dm)
x=
1 + mn
kmn + 2dm
x=
1 + mn
m (kn + 2d)
x=
1 + mn
m (kn + 2d)
8. Divide both sides by m. x=
m (1 + mn)
kn + 2d
x=
1 + mn


press MENU, then complete the entry line
select: as:
3: Algebra solve ({m × x - y = k, x + n
1: Solve × y = 2d}, {x, y})
Complete the entry line then press EXE.
as: Note: Be sure to include
solve (m × x − y = k and the multiplication operator
x + n × y = 2d, x, y) between the variables in the
then press ENTER. terms mx and ny.
Note: Be sure to include
the multiplication
operator between the
variables ·in the terms
mx and ny.
2d + kn 2dm − k 2d + kn 2dm − k
2. The answer appears on x= and y = 2. The answer appears on the x= and y =
the screen. mn + 1 mn + 1 screen. mn + 1 mn + 1
3.6 Exercise

Technology free
2p m 3c
a. my − nx = 4x + kz b. − =
x x−c x
x − my
2. Given that = 2, solve the equation for y.
px + y
3. Solve the following equations for x.
kx + dy mx + ny m 3k k 2d
a. = −2k b. =x+q c. −k= +m d. =
x + 3y p x x m+x m−x
√
4. Given that b ax + cd = 3, solve the equation for x.
5. WE15 Solve the pair of simultaneous equations for x and y.
x + y = 2k
mx + ny = d
Technology active
6. Solve the following pairs of simultaneous equations for x and y.
a. nx − my = k b. nx + my = m
nx + my = 2d mx + ny = n
7. Solve the following pairs of simultaneous equations for x and y.

x y
a. 2mx + ny = 3k b. + =2
mx + ny = −d 2a b
2x 4y
+ =8
b a
8. Solve the following system of simultaneous equations in terms of a.
2x − y + az = 4
(a + 2) x + y − z = 2
6x + (a + 1) y − 2z = 4
3.6 Exam questions

1 b
MC The solution to the equation = in terms of x is
x+a x
b ab ab a 1
A. 1 + B. C. D. E.
a 1−b 1+b 1−b a+b

MC mx + n = nx + m solved for x is
m+n m−n m
A. B. C. D. 0 E. 1
m−n m+n n

MC The solutions for the pair of simultaneous equations ax + by = r and ax − by = s in terms of x and y are
r+s −s + r r − by r − ax s + by s − ax
A. x = , y= B. x = , y= C. x = , y=
2a 2b a b a −b
r+s s+r r−s −s + r
D. x = , y= E. x = , y=
2a 2b 2a 2b

3.7 Review
3.7.1 Summary
doc-####
3.7 Exercise
√
1. Consider the equations f(x) = x + 2 and g(x) = 2x2 − 5. Determine if f(g(x)) or g( f(x)) exist. If they do exist,
state the rule for the composite function and state the domain and range.
x−1
2. A function has the rule y = , x ≠ 2.
x−2
x−1 m
a. Evaluate the values of m and n if is expressed in the form + n.
x−2 x−2
1 x−1
b. Describe the transformations that have been applied to y = to obtain y = , x ≠ 2.
x x−2
x−1
c. Sketch the graph of y = , x ≠ 2. State the domain and range, and give the equations of any
x−2
asymptotes.
d. Determine the rule for the inverse, and state its domain and range.
e. Specify whether the inverse is a function or a relation. Give reasons for your answer.
f. Sketch the graph of the inverse on the same set of axes as the original function. Include the points of
intersection on your graph
3. Indicate whether each of the following functions has an inverse function. In each case, give a reason for your
decision. If the inverse is a function, write the rule for the inverse function in function notation.
x3
a. f ∶ R → R, f(x) = b. f ∶ R → R, f(x) = 2x4
3
2
√
c. f ∶ R → R, f(x) = (3x − 1) d. f ∶ [3, ∞] → R, f(x) = x − 3
√
4. a. The graph of f(x) = x undergoes the following transformations:
reflection in the x-axis, then a dilation of factor 2 from the y-axis, followed by a translation of 3 units right
1
and 1 unit down, and a dilation of factor from the x-axis.
2
State the equation of the transformed function, g(x).
2
b. The graph of f(x) = (x − 2) undergoes the following transformations:
1
dilation of factor parallel to the x-axis, reflection in the x-axis, and a translation of 3 units in the
3
negative x-direction and 2 units in the positive y-direction.
State the equation of the transformed function, g(x).
√
2 3 5−x √
2
a. y = x → y = 3(2x − 5) + 1 b. y = − +1→ 3 x
2
5 − cd 2k
6. Given that = − , solve the equation for x.
x+2 x

7. MC If g(x) = 2x − 1 and h(x) = (x + 1)2 , then g (h(x)) is equal to:
2 2
A. 2x2 + 4x + 1 B. 4x2 C. 2x2 + 4x − 1 D. (2x − 1)(x + 1) E. 4(x + 1)
8. MC For the functions below, state which of the following compositions is not defined.
√
f(x) = x+1
g(x) = x2 − 1
h(x) = 2x + 1
A. g (h(x)) B. g ( f(x)) C. h ( f(x)) D. f (g(x)) E. h (g(x))

√
9. MC If g(x) =x − 1, then g (h(x)) would exist if:
1 2
A. h: R\ {0} → R, h(x) = +1 B. h: R → R, h(x) = (x − 1)
x2
2 1
C. h: [−1, ∞) → R, h(x) = − (x + 1) D. h: R\ {−1} → R, h(x) =
x+1
E. h: R → R, h(x) = x
10. MC The graph of y = f(x) has been transformed so that its equation becomes y = −f(3x + 1) − 2. The image
of the point (3, 5) is:

( ) ( ) ( )
26 2 4
A. , −7 B. (0, −7) C. , −7 D. (0, 3) E. − , 3
3 3 3
11. MC If the graph of y = sin(x) is reflected in the x-axis and dilated by a factor of 4 from the x-axis and by a
1
factor of from the y-axis, then the resulting equation will be:
3
( ) ( )
x x
A. y = 4 sin − B. y = −4 sin C. y = 4 sin (−3x)
3 3
1
D. y = − sin(3x) E. y = −4 sin(3x)
4
1
12. MC The graph of the function f(x) = x3 is transformed so that its new rule is f(x) = (2(x − 1))3 + 4. The
2
transformations that have been applied to f(x) = x3 are:
1
A. dilation by a factor of parallel to the y-axis, dilation by a factor of 2 parallel to the x-axis, a translation
2
of 1 unit in the negative x-direction and a translation of 4 units up.
1
B. dilation by a factor of parallel to the y-axis, dilation by a factor of 2 parallel to the x-axis, a translation
2
of 1 unit in the positive x-direction and a translation of 4 units up.
1 1
C. dilation by a factor of parallel to the y-axis, dilation by a factor of parallel to the x-axis, a translation
2 2
1 1
D. dilation by a factor of parallel to the y-axis, dilation by a factor of parallel to the x-axis, a translation
2 2
of 1 unit in the positive x-direction and a translation of 4 units up.
1
E. dilation by a factor of 2 parallel to the y-axis, dilation by a factor of parallel to the x-axis, a translation
2

13. MC The rule for the inverse of the graph shown would be: y
1 1
A. y = + 1 B. y =
x x+1
1 1
C. y = − 1 D. y =
x x−1
(0, 1)
1
E. y = −1
x−1 y=0
0 x
14. MC For the function f(x) = (x + 1)(x − 3) to have an inverse
function, its maximal domain:
A. must be restricted to [0, ∞)
B. must be restricted to [1, ∞)
C. must be restricted to [−4, ∞)
D. is R
E. must be restricted to (−∞, 0] x = –1
15. MC The inverse of the function defined by f ∶ [−1, ∞] → R, f(x) = (x + 1)2 would be:
√ √
A. f −1 ∶ [−1, ∞) → R, f −1 (x) = x − 1 B. f −1 ∶ [−1, ∞) → R, f −1 (x) = − x − 1
2
√
C. f −1 ∶ [−1, ∞) → R, f −1 (x) = (x + 1) D. f −1 ∶ [0, ∞) → R, f −1 (x) = x − 1
√
E. f −1 ∶ [0, ∞) → R, f −1 (x) = − x − 1
p n
16. MC Solve = for x.
2x + n 2x + p
n2 − p2 n+p −(n + p) n−p n+p
A. x = B. x = C. x = D. x = E. x =
2(p − n) 2 2 2 n−p
1
17. Consider the equations f: R → R, f(x) = x2 − 4 and g ∶ (2, ∞) → R, g(x) = .
x−2
Prove that f (g(x)) is defined.
a.
Determine the rule for f (g(x)) and state the domain and range.
b.
Prove that g ( f(x)) is not defined.
c.
Restrict the domain of f(x) to obtain a function f1 (x) such that g ( f1 (x)) exists.
d.
Determine g ( f1 (x)) and state the domain.
e.
√
18. Consider the function defined by the rule f ∶ D → R, f(x) = (3x − 6) − 1, where D is the maximal domain
for f.
a. Determine D. √
b. Describe the transformations that would have been applied to y = x in order to achieve y = f(x).
c. Define the rule for the inverse function f −1 and give its domain and range.
d. Sketch the graphs of y = f(x) and y = f −1 (x) on the same set of axes.
1
19. If f ∶ [3, ∞) → R, f(x) = x2 + k and g: [2, ∞) → R, g(x) = + k, where k is a positive constant, calculate the
x
value(s) of k such that both f (g(x)) and g ( f(x)) are defined.
2
20. Consider the function defined by f(x) = 2(x − 3) .
a. Sketch this graph, giving the domain and range of the function.
b. Determine the rule for the inverse.
c. Sketch this inverse on the same set of axes that you used for f(x) = 2(x − 3)2 .
d. Restrict the domain of f to the form of [a, ∞] so that the inverse is also a function.
e. State the rules for the restricted f and f −1 using function notation.
−1
f. Sketch the graphs
( −1 of) f and f on one set of axes.
g. Show that f f (x) = x.
3.7 Exam questions

MC Let f and g be functions such that f(2) = 5, f(3) = 4, g(2) = 5, g(3) = 2 and g(4) = 1.
The value of f(g(3)) is
A. 1 B. 2 C. 3 D. 4 E. 5

MC Part of the graph of y = f(x) is shown below.
x
O
The corresponding part of the graph of the inverse function y = f −1 (x) is best represented by
A. y B. y
x x
O O
C. y D. y
x x
O O
E. y
x
O


MC The point A (3, 2) lies on the graph of the function f. A transformation maps the graph of f to the graph of g,
1
where g (x) = f (x − 1) . The same transformation maps the point A to the point P.
2
The coordinates of the point P are
A. (2, 1) B. (2, 4) C. (4, 1) D. (4, 2) E. (4, 4)

1 1
Let f ∶ R\ { } → R, f (x) = .
3 3x − 1
a. Find the rule of f −1 . (2 marks)
b. State the domain of f −1 . (1 mark)
√
Let f ∶ [0, ∞) → R, f (x) = x + 1
a. State the range of f. (1 mark)
b. Let g: (−∞, c] → R, g (x) = x2 + 4x + 3, where c < 0.
i. Find the largest possible value of c such that the range of g is a subset of the domain of f. (2 marks)
ii. For the value of c found in part b.i., state the range of f (g (x)). (1 mark)
c. Let h: R → R, h (x) = x2 + 3.
State the range of f (h (x)). (1 mark)


Answers 11. a. ran g ⊆ dom f

(2, ∞) ⊈ [0, ∞)
Topic 3 Composite functions, Therefore, g( f(x)) is not defined.
[ ) ( ]
transformations and inverses b. g1 (x) =
1 1 1
− 2, x ∈ 3 − √ , 3 ∪ 3, 3 + √
(x − 3)2 2 2
3.2 Composite functions
12. a. ran f ⊈ dom g
3.2 Exercise [0, ∞) ⊈ R\ {1}
√
1. a. g (h(x)) = 2 x − 3 Therefore, g( f(x)) is not defined.
√ ]
f ◦ g(x) = − (2x − 3)2 + 1
b. b. f1 (x) = 2 − x, x ∈ (−∞, 2 \ {1}
( 4 )2 ]
2. a. g (h(x)) = x + 2 1
g( f1 (x)) = − √
c. + 2, x ∈ (−∞, 2 \{1}
1 2−x−1
b. h ◦ f(x) = 1 − 13. a. ran f ⊆ dom g
(x + 2)4
2 [0, ∞) ⊆ R
3. f(g(x)) = (x − 1)(x + 1)(x + 3), domain = R
Therefore, g( f(x)) is defined.
g( f(x)) = (x − 1)2 (x + 3)2 , domain = R
b. g( f(x)) = x − 6, domain = [4, ∞)
2 c.
4. f(g(x)) = − 1, domain = R\ {2} y
x−2
g( f(x)) does not exist.
y = g( f (x))
5. a. f ◦ g(x) is defined, domain = [0, ∞).
b. g( f(x)) is defined, domain = R.
(6, 0)
c. h(g(x)) is not defined.
x
d. h ◦ f(x) is defined, domain = R.
6. a. f ◦ g(x) is defined, f◦g(x) = x, domain = [0, ∞). (4, –2)
b. g( f(x)) is defined, g( f(x)) = |x|, domain = R.
( )
c. h f(x) is not defined.
d. g(h(x)) is not defined.
d. ran g ⊈ dom f
7. ran g ⊆ dom f [−, 2, ∞) ⊈ [4, ∞)
[0, ∞) ⊆ R Therefore, f(g(x)) is not defined.
Therefore, f(g(x)) is defined. ( √ ] [√ )
2
f(g(x)) = x + 3, where domain = [−2, ∞) and e. g1 (x) = x − 2, x ∈ −∞, − 6 ∪ 6, ∞
√
range = [1, ∞). f(g1 (x)) = x2 − 6.
8. a. ran f ⊆ dom g
( √ ) [√ ]
f. Domain = −∞, − 6 ∪ 6, ∞
(0, ∞) ⊆ R\ {0}
Therefore, g( f(x)) is defined. 14. k ∈ [1, 3]
2
b. g( f(x)) = x , domain x ∈ (0, ∞), range = (0, ∞)
c.
3.2 Exam questions
y
Note: Mark allocations are available with the fully worked
solutions online.
1. D
y = g( f (x))
2. D
(0, 0) x
3. A
3.3 Transformations
9. a. ran g ⊈ dom f
3.3 Exercise
R ⊈ [−3, ∞) 1. a. i. Dilated by factor 3 parallel to the y-axis or from the
b. h(x) = 2x − 5, x ∈ [1, ∞) x-axis
√
c. f(h(x)) = 2x − 2, x ∈ [1, ∞)
10. a. ran f ⊈ dom g
[0, ∞) ⊈ R\ {4}
b. h(x) = x2 , x ∈ R\{−2, 2}
1
c. g(h(x)) = , x ∈ R\{−2, 2}
x2 − 4

y 2. a. Dilated by factor 4 parallel to the y-axis or from the

2 x-axis
y
1 6
y = 3x3 y = x3
y = 4 sin(x)
4
0 x
–2 –1 1 2
2 y = sin(x)
–1
π 0 π π 3π 2π x
–2 –– – —
2 –2 2 2
ii. (−2, −8) → (−2, −24)
–4
b. i. Translated 2 units to the left or in the negative
x-direction –6
y
y = (x + 2)3 3 y = x3 1
b. Dilated by factor parallel to the x-axis or from the
2 2
y-axis
1 y
(–2, 0) 1.5
(0, 0)
0 x y = sin(2x)
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 1
–1
0.5
–2
0 3π 2π x
–3 –π
– π
– π
–
2 2 2
–0.5
(−2, −8) → (−4, −8)
ii.
c. i. Reflected in the x-axis –1
y = sin(x)
y
3 –1.5
2 𝜋
c. Translated units to the left or in the negative
2
y = –x3 1 y = x3 x-direction
y y = sin(x + π
–)
2
0 x
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 1
–1
0.5
–2
0 x
–3 –π
– π
– π 3π
–
2π
2 2 2
–0.5
ii. (−2, −8) → (−2, 8)
d. i. Translated up 1 unit or in the positive y-direction –1 y = sin(x)
y
3 d. Translated up 2 units or in the positive y-direction
y
2 4
(0, 1) y = sin(x) + 2
1 y = x3 2
y = x3 + 1 y = sin(x)
0 (0, 0) x 0 x
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 –π
– π
– π 3π 2π
2 –2 2 –
–1 2
–2
–3
ii. (−2, −8) → (−2, −7)
1 1
3. a. Dilated by factor parallel to the y-axis or from the b. Reflected in the x axis, y = − ; asymptotes x = 0, y = 0
2 x
x-axis y
y
1
y = –f (x)
(0, 0.5) (2π, 0.5)
0.5 y=0
0 x
0 x
π
–
π 3π 2π
2 –
–0.5 2
1
y = – cos(x)
2 x=0
–1
c. Dilated by factor 3 parallel to the y-axis or from the
1 3
b. Dilated by factor parallel to the x-axis or from the x-axis, y = ; asymptotes x = 0, y = 0
2 x
y-axis y
y (2π, 1)
1 (0, 1) y = 3 f (x)
y = cos(2x)
0.5
0 y=0 x
0 x
π
– π
– 3π
–
π 5π
– 3π
– 7π
– 2π
4 2 4 4 2 4
–0.5
x=0
–1
1
d. Dilated by factor parallel to the x-axis or from the
c. Reflected in the x-axis 2
y 1
1 y = –cos(x) y-axis, y = ; asymptotes x = 0, y = 0
2x
0.5 y
0 x y = f (2x)
π
– π 3π 2π
2 –
–0.5 2
0 y=0 x
–1 (0, –1) (2π, 1)
d. Translated down 1 unit or in the negative y-direction
y
0.5 x=0
(0, 0) (2π, 0) x 5. Reflected in the x-axis, dilated by factor 2 parallel to the
1
0 π π 3π 2π y-axis or from the x-axis, dilated by factor parallel to the
– – 2
2 2 𝜋
–0.5
x-axis or from the y-axis, translated units to the right or
4
–1 in the positive x-direction and translated up 1 unit or in the
positive y-direction
–1.5
1
6. Dilated by factor parallel to the y-axis or from the x-axis,
–2
y = cos(x) – 1 3
dilated by factor 2 parallel to the x-axis or from the y-axis,
4. a. Translated 2 units to the right or in the positive translated 1 unit to the left or in the negative x-direction and
1 translated down 2 units or in the negative y-direction
x-direction, y = ; asymptotes x = 2, y = 0
x−2 1
y 7. a. y = x2 has been dilated by factor parallel to the y-axis
3
or from the x-axis, translated 3 units to the left or in the
y = f (x – 2) 2
negative x-direction, and translated down units or in
3
the negative y-direction.
0 xy=0
b. y = x3 has been reflected in the x-axis, dilated by factor
2 parallel to the y-axis or from the x-axis, reflected in
the y-axis, translated 1 unit to the right or in the positive
x=2 x-direction, and translated 1 unit up or in the positive
y-direction.

1 positive y-direction. Domain = R\ {1} and range = R\ {2};

c. y= has been dilated by a factor of 3 parallel to the
x asymptotes x = 1 and y = 2
1
y-axis or from the x-axis, dilated by factor parallel to y
2
the x-axis or from the y-axis, translated 3 units to the left
or in the negative x-direction, and translated down 1 unit
or in the negative y-direction.
( )
2
8. a. (−2, 4) → −5, b. (1, 1) → (0, −1)
3 y=2
( )
1
c. 2, → (−2, 0)
2 0 x
9. a. y = cos (x) has been dilated by factor 2 parallel to the
1
y-axis or from the x-axis, dilated by factor parallel
2 x=1
𝜋
to the x-axis or from the y-axis, translated units to 17. Reflection in the x-axis, reflection in the y-axis, translation
2
the right or in the positive x-direction, and translated up 1
5 units right, dilation by factor parallel to the x-axis or
3 units up or in the positive y-direction. 2
from the y-axis, translation 3 units up.
b. y = tan (x) has been reflected in both axes, dilated by
1 1
factor parallel to the x-axis or from the y-axis, and 18. Reflection in the x-axis, dilation by factor parallel to the
2 2
translated up 1 unit or in the positive y-direction. y-axis or from the x-axis, dilation by factor 3 parallel to the
1 x-axis or from the y-axis, translation 3 units left, translation
c. y = sin (x) has been dilated by factor parallel to 3
3 units up.
𝜋 2
the x-axis or from the y-axis, translated units to the
3 3.3 Exam questions
right or in the positive x-direction, and translated down
1 unit or in the negative y-direction. Note: Mark allocations are available with the fully worked
10. A solutions online.
11. D 1. C
√ 2. D
3 x−6
12. f(x) = − 3. A
2
3 3.4 Inverse graphs
13. f(x) = − +9
(2 − x)2
3.4 Exercise
14. f(x) = −18(x − 1)2 + 1
1. a. y
1
15. f(x) = −6 (–2, 9)
4−x
y = (1 – x)(x + 5) y=x
2x − 5
16. y =
x−1
2(x − 1) − 3 (0, 5)
=
x−1
2 (x − 1) 3
= − (0, 1)
x−1 x−1
(–5, 0) (5, 0)
3
= 2− 0 (1, 0) x
x−1
1 2x − 5 (9, –2)
Relative to y = , y = has been reflected in the
x x−1
y-axis or the x-axis, dilated by factor 3 parallel to the (0, –5) Inverse
y-axis or from the x-axis, translated 1 unit to the right or
in the positive x-direction, and translated 2 units up or in the
b. y = (1 − x)(x + 5) is a many-to-one function.
The inverse is a one-to-many relation.
c. y = (1 − x)(x + 5): domain = R, range = (−∞, 9]
Inverse: domain = (−∞, 9], range = R
2. a. and b. d. y
y y=x
4
Inverse
Inverse 3
y=x 2
1
y= x
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
–1
(0, 0) –2
x –3
–4
√ 4. a. and b.
c. y = x is a one-to-one function. The inverse is a y
one-to-one function.
3. a. y y=x
6 y=x
5
4
3 (–1, 0)
2
Inverse 0 (0, –1) x
1 (–3, 0)
x (0, –3)
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 1x – 1
–1 y = ––
3
–2
Inverse
–3
–4
–5
–6 5. b, d
b.
6. C
y
6 y=x 7. C
5 8. A is the correct option, as the given function has a turning
4 point at (0, 2) and option A has a turning point at (2, 0).
3 9. a. y
2 y = 9x – x3
1 y=x
x
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
–1
–2
Inverse
–3 (0, 3)
–4
–5 (–3, 0)
–6 Inverse 0 (3, 0) x
c. y
(0, –3)
4
Inverse
3 y=x
2
1
b. (2.828, 2.828), (0, 0), (−2.828, −2.828)
x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
–1
–2
–3
–4

10. a. y 13. a. and b.

y
y= x
y=x
y = (x + 4)(x – 2)
1
y=3+–
x Inverse (0, 2)
y=3 (–8, 0)
Inverse (–4, 0) 0 (2, 0) x
(–9, –1)
0 x (0, –4)
(0, –8)
(–1, –9)
x=3 c. y = (x + 4)(x − 2): many-to-one

b. Point of intersection = (3.532, 3.532) Inverse: one-to-many
11. a. a = −2 d. The inverse is not a function, as a one-to-many
correspondence indicates a relation. Also, the inverse
b. y
(–2, 9)
can only be a function if the original graph is a
one-to-one function, and this graph is a many-to-one
y = (1 – x)(x + 5) function.
e. y: domain = R, range = [−9, ∞)
Inverse: domain = [−9, ∞), range = R
f. (−∞, −1] or [−1, ∞)
y=x 14. a. y
(–5, 0) y = x3 y=x
0 x
Inverse
(9, –2) (0, 0)
(0, –5) x
Inverse
c.y: domain (−∞, −2], range (−∞, 9]

Inverse: domain (− ∞, 9], range (−∞, −2]
12. Domain = [3, ∞)
y
b. y = x3 : one-to-one; inverse: one-to-one
c. The inverse of y is a function because y is a one-to-one
Inverse function.
3
d. y = x : domain = R, range = R
(0, 3) y=x
Inverse: domain = R, range = R
15. a. and b.
y
(3, 0) y=x
0 x
1
y = –2 (1, 1)
x
0 x
y = –(x – 3)2
Inverse
1 5. f −1 : [0, ∞) → R, f −1 (x) = x2 + 3
c. y= : many-to-one function
x2 −1 1
Inverse: one-to-many relation 6. f (x) = − 2
x
d. (−∞, 0) 1
−1
a. f( f (x)) =
1 1
e. y= : domain = (−∞, 0), range = (0, ∞) x −2+2
x2 1
Inverse: domain = (0, ∞), range = (−∞, 0) = 1
y
x
=x
y=x
1
b. f −1 ( f(x)) = 1
−2
x+2
1
y = –2
= x+2−2
x =x
√
3
x 7. k−1 (x) = x+1
0 (√ )3
−1 3
Inverse a. k(k (x)) = x+1 −1
= x+1−1
=x
√3
−1
b. k (k(x)) = x3 − 1 + 1
√3
= x3
16. a=3 =x
√
8. a. y= ± x − 1; the inverse is not a function as f(x) is not a
3.4 Exam questions one-to-one function.
Note: Mark allocations are available with the fully worked b. b = −1
solutions online. c.
y = (x + 1)2
1. C y
2. A y= x
3. C
(0, 1) Inverse
3.5 Inverse functions (1, 0)
(–1, 0)
0 x
3.5 Exercise (0, –1)
√
3
1. Inverse: y = x, one-to-one function.
Domain for both = R, range for both = R
1
2. Inverse: y = ± √ , one-to-many relation (therefore not a
x √
function) f −1 (x) = x − 1, domain = [0, ∞)
d.
e. No intersection
y: domain = R\ {0}, range = (0, ∞) √ √
Inverse: domain = (0, ∞), range = R\ {0} 9. (2 + 2 3, 2 + 2 3)
3. a. y = 3(x + 1); one-to-one function with domain = R and 10. a. a = 1

√
−1
range = R b. f (x) = − x + 2 + 1, x ∈ [−2, ∞)
√
b. y = 5± x; one-to-many relation with domain = [0, ∞) y = f(x)
y
and range = R y=x
3
c. y = (x + 2) − 1; one-to-one function with domain = R (– 2 +1 , 0)
and range = R
√ (–2, 1)
d. y = 1 + 3 x; one-to-one function with domain = R and
range = R (0, – 2 + 1)
2 0 x
e. y = x ; one-to-one function with domain = [0, ∞) and (–1, 0)
range = [0, ∞) (0, –1)
1 y = f –1(x)
y = 1± √
f. ; one-to-many relation with
x−2 (1, –2)
domain = (2, ∞) and range = R\ {1}
√
−1 −1 1 ( √ √ )
4. f : (−∞, 0) → R, f (x) = − − + 2 3− 13 3 − 13
x c. The point of intersection is , .
2 2

11. a. f (x) = x4 : many-to-one function; inverse: one-to-many y

relation
2
b. f(x) = 2x − 7x + 3: many-to-one function; inverse:
one-to-many relation y=x
y = f(x) (0, 1)
1
c. f(x) = + 2; many-to-one function; inverse:
(x − 3)2 (–2, 0) (1, 0)
one-to-many relation.
√ 0 x
d. f(x) = x + 2, x ∈ [−2, ∞): one-to-one function;
f −1 ∶ [0, ∞) → R, f −1 (x) = x2 − 2
y = f–1(x)
y
y=x
(0, –2)
(0, 2 )
(2, 2) 15. a. a=5
√
y = x+2 y = x2 – 2 b. f −1 (x) = 5 + x, x ∈ [0, ∞)
( ]
x
1 5
(–2, 0) 0 ( 2, 0) 16. a. Domain = [−2, 4), range = − ,
3 3
(0, –2) ( ]
−1 1 5
b. f (x) = −3(x − 1); domain = − , ,
3 3
range = [−2, 4)
c. y
−1 1
12. f (x) = 2 +
x−4
y y=x
y=x ( )1
– –, 4
3
(0, 3)
y = f –1(x)
y=4 ( )0, 7–
2
y = f(x) (3 + 2, 3 + 2)
y = f(x)
(0, 1) (3, 0)
0 x
y=2 (0, 7–4) (4, – –13 )
y = f –1(x) (3 – 2, 3 – 2)
(1, 0)
( )
5
– , –2
3
0 x
(7–2 , 0)
( )
(7–4 , 0) d. The point of intersection is
3 3
, .
4 4
x=2 ( ]
1
x=4 17. a. D = −∞,
3
( ]
1 x2 1
13. Restrict the domain to (−∞, −2]. b. f −1 (x) =
− ; domain = [0, ∞), range = −∞,
√ 3 3 3
f −1 ∶ [0, ∞) → R, f −1 (x) = − x − 2 ( √ √ )
14. Two possible domains are [–2, 0] and [0, 2]. Both have a −3 + 13 −3 + 13
c. The point of intersection is , .
range of [0, 1]. √ 2 2
f −1 (x) ∶ [0, 1] → R, f −1 (x) = √
−2 1 − x2 or d. y
f −1 (x): [0, 1] → R, f −1 (x) = 2 1 − x2 . y = f(x) y=x
y
(0, 2) y = f –1(x) (–3———13, –3
+ —
2
——— 13
+ —
2
) (0, 1)
(0, 1)
(0, –31) (1, 0)
y = f(x) 0 1 x
( )
–, 0
3
x y = f –1(x)
0
(1, 0) (2, 0)
y=x
18. a. f −1 (x) = x2 + 1, x ∈ [0, ∞) 3.6 Exam questions

−1
b. f ( f(x)) = x; domain = [1, ∞) Note: Mark allocations are available with the fully worked
y solutions online.
1. B
y= x
2. E
3. A
3.7 Review
1
(1, 1)
3.7 Exercise
0 x
1 1. f(g(x)) does not exist; g( f(x)) exists.
g( f(x)) = 2x − 1. The domain is [−2, ∞) and the range is
x+2 [−5, ∞).
c.
3 2. a. m = 1 and n = 1
b. Translation of 2 units right and 1 unit up
3.5 Exam questions
1
Note: Mark allocations are available with the fully worked c. y= + 1; domain = R\ {2} and range = R\ {1}
solutions online. x−2
1 Asymptotes: x = 2 and y = 1
−1
1. f (x) = 2 + √ , dom = (0, ∞) y
x
2. D
y=–1 +1
3. A x–2
3.6 Literal equations

3.6 Exercise y=1
(0, 0.5) (1, 0)
my − kz x
1. a. x = 0
n+4
2pc − 3c2
x=
b.
2p − m − 3c
( )
x 1 − 2p x=2
2. y =
m+2
1
y (6k + d) d. y= + 2, domain = R\ {1} and range = R\ {2}
3. a. x = − x−1
3k
pq − ny e. The inverse is a one-to-one function.
b. x = f.
m−p y y=–1 +1
x–2
m − 3k y=x
c. x= y=–1 +2
m+k x–1 3+ 5 3+ 5
–, –
km − 2dm 2 2
d. x =
2d + k
9 − 6cd + c2 d2 y=2
4. x= (0, 1)
ab2
(0.5, 0) y=1
d − 2kn 2km − d
5. x= , y= (0, 0.5)
m−n m−n
0 x
k + 2d 2d − k 3 – 5, 3 – 5 (1, 0)
6. a. x = , y= 2 2
2n 2m
b. x = 0, y = 1
3k + d 2d + 3k
7. a. x = , y=−
m n
4ab 2ab
b. x = , y=
a+b a+b x=1 x=2
2(a + 2) 4(a + 2) 4 √
8. x= , y= , z= 3. a.One-to-one inverse function: f −1 : R → R, f −1 (x) =
3
3x
a(a + 4) a(a + 4) a
b. Not a function, as it is a one-to-many mapping

Not a function, as it is a one-to-many mapping 1

c. c. f −1 : [−1, ∞] → R, f −1 (x) = (x + 1)2 + 2 with
d. One-to-one inverse function: 3
range = [2, ∞)
f −1 : [0, ∞) → R, f −1 (x) = x2 + 3
√ d.
1 x−3 1 y 1 (x + 1)2 + 2
y=–
4. a. g(x) = − − 3
2 2 2
y=x
b. g(x) = −(3x + 7)2 + 2
5. a. Dilation of factor 3 from the x-axis or parallel to the
1
y-axis, dilation of factor from the y-axis or parallel to
2
5
the x-axis, and translation of units right and 1 unit up
2
( ) 7
0, –
3
y = 3x – 6 – 1
b. Translation down 1 unit, reflection in the x-axis and

1 (–1, 2)
y-axis, translation 5 units right, and dilation of factor
2 ( ) 7,0
–
3
from the y-axis or parallel to the x-axis 0 x
4k
6. x = (2, –1)
cd − 2k − 5
Technology active: multiple choice 19. k≥3
7. A 20. a. and c. The domain of f is R and the range of f is [0, ∞).
y
8. D (0, 18) y = 2(x – 3)2
9. A
10. C
11. E
12. D
13. C x
y=3± –
2
14. B
15. D (0, 3)
16. C
(18, 0)
( ) 0 (3, 0) x
17. a. For f g (x) to exist, the range of the inner function, g(x),
must be a subset of or equal to the domain of the outer √
x
function, f(x). b. y = 3 ± ; domain = [0, ∞) and range = R
2
(0, ∞) ⊆ R d. [3, ∞).
ran g ⊆ dom f
( ) e. f: [3, ∞) → R, f(x) = 2 (x√− 3)2
Therefore, f g (x) is defined. x
f −1 : [0, ∞) → R, f (x) = +3
( ) 1 2
b. f g (x) = −4
(x − 2)2 f. y
Domain = (2, ∞), range = (−4, ∞) y = 2(x – 3)2
( )
c. For g f (x) to exist the range of the inner function, f(x)
must be a subset of or equal to the domain of the outer y=x
function, g(x).
[−4, ∞] ⊄ (2, ∞)
ran f ⊄ dom g x
( ) y=3+ –
Therefore, g f (x) is not defined.
( √ ) (√ ) ( )
9,–
– 9
2 2
2
d. f1 : −∞, − 6 ∪ 6, ∞ → R, f(x) = x2 − 4 (0, 3)

( ) 1
e. g f1 (x) = 2
x −6 0 x
( √ ) (√ ) (3, 0)
Domain = −∞, − 6 ∪ 6, ∞
(√ )2
( ) x
18. a. D = [2, ∞) g. f f −1 (x) = 2 +3−3
2
b. One possible answer is: (√ )2
1 x
Dilated by a factor of parallel to the x-axis or from the =2
3 2
y-axis, translated 2 units to the right or in the positive x
x-direction and translated 1 unit down or in the negative = 2×
2
y-direction =x
3.7 Exam questions

solutions online.
1. E
2. E
3. C
x+1
4. a.
3x
b. Domain of f −1 = range of f = R\{0}
5. a. Range of f = [1, ∞)
b. i. c = −3
ii. Range of f(g(x)) = [1, ∞)
c. Range of f(h(x)) = [2, ∞)

“c04ExponentialAndLogarithmicFunctions_PrintPDF” — 2022/7/6 — 0:35 — page 223 — #1
Exponential and
4 logarithmic functions
LEARNING SEQUENCE
4.1 Overview ................................................................................................................................................................. 224
4.2 Logarithm laws and equations ....................................................................................................................... 225
4.3 Logarithmic scales .............................................................................................................................................. 234
4.4 Indicial equations .................................................................................................................................................238
4.5 Logarithmic graphs ............................................................................................................................................. 242
4.6 Exponential graphs ............................................................................................................................................. 250
4.7 Applications ........................................................................................................................................................... 262
4.8 Review ..................................................................................................................................................................... 270

4.1 Overview
4.1.1 Introduction
Exponential functions are used to describe
situations where a quantity grows or
decays at a particular rate that is directly
proportional to the value of the function.
Examples of this occur around us every
day, for example the growth of bacteria
on food or the spread of a virus (such as
COVID-19).
Exponential functions can have any
base; however, the one of most interest
is when the base is e. e is a mathematical
constant, equal to 2.718 281 828… Swiss
mathematician Jacob Bernoulli first
discovered the value in 1683 while studying
compound interest, but it was another Swiss mathematician, Leonhard Euler, who gave the value the symbol we
still use today. Consequently, the constant e is also called Euler’s number.
Exponential functions naturally occur in many aspects of life, such as calculating compound interest, and are
frequently used in scientific research. In chemistry, the rate at which radioactive substances decay — that is,
how long it takes for an element to decay by 50% (its half-life) — is described by exponential functions. This
value is constant, no matter how much of the element is present at the beginning. For example, one of the
main radioactive materials released in the Chernobyl disaster is caesium-137, which has a half-life of 30 years,
meaning that 100 g of caesium-137 will decay to 50 g after 30 years. It will take another 30 years for the 50 g to
become 25 g, and so on. Therefore, it is estimated that the land around the reactor that exploded at Chernobyl
may not be safe for humans to live on for another 300 years.
KEY CONCEPTS
• graphs of the following functions: power functions, y = xn , n ∈ Q; exponential functions, y = ax , a ∈ R+ ,

in particular y = ex ; logarithmic functions, y = loge (x) and y = log10 (x); and circular functions,
y = sin (x) , y = cos (x) and y = tan (x) and their key features
• modelling of practical situations using polynomial, power, circular, exponential and logarithmic
functions, simple transformation and combinations of these functions, including simple piecewise
(hybrid) functions
• functions and their inverses, including conditions for the existence of an inverse function, and use of
inverse functions to solve equations involving exponential, logarithmic, circular and power functions.
4.2 Logarithm laws and equations

LEARNING INTENTION
• recognise and apply index and logarithm laws
• use algebraic and logarithmic properties to simplify and solve equations involving logarithms
• verify the solutions to an equation involving logarithms over its implied domain.
4.2.1 Introduction to logarithms

Logarithm is another name for the exponent or index. Consider the following indicial equations.
Exponent or index Exponent or index
Base number 102 = 100 Base number ex = y
Written as logarithms, they become:
log10 100 = 2 Exponent or index loge(y) = x Exponent or index
Base number Base number
Euler’s number, e
The number e is known as Euler’s number after the eminent Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler, who first
used the symbol. Euler’s number is defined as lim 1 + ≈ 2.718 281 828 45 … Like 𝜋, e is an irrational
( )n
1
number of great importance in mathematics. Most calculators have keys for both 𝜋 and e (the latter is not to be
n→∞ n
confused with the key for the letter e).

The expression loge (x) or ln(x) is called the natural or Napierian logarithm, and can be found on your calculator
as ‘ln’. The expression log10 (x) is the standard logarithm, which traditionally is written as log(x) and can be
found on your calculator as log.
The logarithms have laws that have been developed from the indicial laws.
4.2.2 Laws of logarithms

Law 1. am × an = am+n ⇔ loga (m) + loga (n) = loga (mn)
Let x = loga (m) and y = loga (n).

To prove this law:
So ax = m and ay = n.
Now am × an = am+n
or mn = ax+y .
loga (mn) = x + y
By applying the definition of a logarithm to this statement, we get
or loga (mn) = loga (m) + loga (n).
TOPIC 4 Exponential and logarithmic functions 225

a ÷a =a ⇔ loga (m) − loga (n) = loga

( )
m n m−n m
Law 2.
n
Let x = loga (m) and y = loga (n).

To prove this law:
So ax = m and ay = n.
Now y = ax−y
ax
or = ax−y .
a
m
n
By converting the equation into logarithm form, we get
=x−y
( )
m
loga
n
= loga (m) − loga (n).

( )
m
or loga
n
Note: Before the first or second law can be applied, each logarithmic term must have a
coefficient of 1.
Law 3. (am )n = amn ⇔ loga (mn ) = n loga (m)
Let x = loga (m).

To prove this law:
So ax = m.
Now (ax )n = mn
or anx = mn .
loga (mn ) = nx
By converting the equation into logarithm form, we have
or loga (mn ) = n loga (m).

Applying these laws, we can also see that:
Law 4. As a0 = 1, then by the definition of a logarithm, loga (1) = 0.
Law 5. As a1 = a, then by the definition of a logarithm, loga (a) = 1.
Law 6. ax > 0, therefore, loga (0) is undefined, and loga (x) is only defined for x > 0 and a ∈ R+ \ {1}.
a loga (m) = m.
Another important fact related to the definition of a logarithm is
Let y = a loga (m) .

This can be proved as follows:
loga (y) = loga (m).

Converting index form to logarithm form, we have
Therefore, y = m.
Consequently, a loga m = m.
( )
Logarithm laws
1. loga (m) + loga (n) = loga (mn)

In summary, the logarithm laws are:
2. loga (m) − loga (n) = loga

( )
m
3. loga (mn ) = n loga (m)

n
4. loga (1) = 0
5. loga (a) = 1
7. loga (x) is defined for x > 0 and a ∈ R+ \ {1}

6. loga (0) is undefined
8. aloga (m) = m.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1 Simplifying expressions using the index and logarithm laws
a. log4 (64) + log4 (16) − log4 (256) b. 2 log3 (7) − 2 log3 (21)
Simplify the following.
(√ )
log3 (16) 4 1
c. d. log5
log3 (64) 625
a. log4 (64) + log4 (16) − log4 (256)

THINK WRITE
= log4 (43 ) + log4 (42 ) − log4 (44 )

a. 1. Express all the numbers in base 4 and,
loga (mn ) = n loga (m). = 3 log4 (4) + 2 log4 (4) − 4 log4 (4)
where possible, apply the log law
2. Apply loga (a) = 1 and simplify. =3×1+2×1−4×1

=1
b. 1. Apply the law n loga (m) = loga (mn ). b. 2 log3 (7) − 2 log3 (21)
= log3 (72 ) − log3 (212 )
2. Apply the law loga (m) − loga (n) = loga = log3

( ) ( )
m 72
n 212
= log3
and simplify. ( )2
7
21
= 2 log3
( )
1
3
to 3−1 and apply loga (a) = 1. = 2 log3 (3−1 )

1
= −2 log3 (3)
3. Convert
3
= −2

c. 1. Apply the law n loga (m) = loga (mn ).

log3 (16)
c.
Note: The 16 and 64 cannot be cancelled, log3 (64)
=
as when they are with the log function, they log3 (24 )
represent single numbers. Therefore, the log3 (26 )
16 and 64 cannot be separated from their
=
logarithm components. 4 log3 (2)
6 log3 (2)
=
4
2. Cancel the logs as they are identical.
6
=
2
3
(√ )
4 1
d. 1. Convert the surd into a fractional power and d. log5
simplify. 625
= log5 ⎜ 4 ⎟
⎛( ) 14 ⎞
1
⎜ 5 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
= log5 (5−4 ) 4
( 1
)
= log5 (5−1 )
2. Apply the laws n loga (m) = loga (mn ) and = − log5 (5)
loga (a) = 1. = −1
loga (x) is only defined for x > 0 and a ∈ R+ \ {1}, always check the validity of your solution.
Solving logarithmic equations involves the use of the logarithm laws as well as converting to index form. As
Values for which a logarithmic function is defined

• loga (x) is defined for x > 0 where a ∈ R+ {1}.
• loga ( f(x)) is only defined where f(x) > 0 where a ∈ R+ \ {1}.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2 Solving equations using the index and logarithm laws
a. log4 (64) = x b. log2 (3x) + 3 = log2 (x + 2)

c. (log2 (x)) = 3 − 2 log2 (x) d. loge (2x) + loge (x + 2) = loge (6)

2
a. log4 (64) = x
THINK WRITE
4x = 64
a. 1. Convert the equation into index form.
4x = 43
∴x=3
2. Convert 64 to base 4 and evaluate.
b. 1. Rewrite 3 in log form, given log2 (2) = 1. log2 (3x) + 3 = log2 (x + 2)

log2 (3x) + 3 log2 (2) = log2 (x + 2)
b.
2. Apply the law loga (mn ) = n loga (m). log2 (3x) + log2 (23 ) = log2 (x + 2)
log2 (3x × 8) = log2 (x + 2)

loga (mn) = loga (m) + loga (n).
3. Simplify the left-hand side by applying
24x = x + 2
23x = 2
4. Equate the logs and simplify.
x=
2
23
c. (log2 (x))2 = 3 − 2 log2 (x)

equation. Let a = log2 (x) and rewrite the Let a = log2 (x).
c. 1. Identify the quadratic form of the log
a2 = 3 − 2a
equation in terms of a.
a2 + 2a − 3 = 0
(a − 1)(a + 3) = 0
2. Solve the quadratic.
a = 1, −3
3. Substitute in a = log2 (x) and solve for x. log2 (x) = 1 log2 (x) = −3
x=2 1
∴ x = 2−3
∴ x = 2,
1
8
d. loge (2x) + loge (x + 2) = loge (6)
loga (mn) = loga (m) + loga (n). loge (2x(x + 2)) = loge (6)
d. 1. Simplify the left-hand side by applying
2x(x + 2) = 6
2x + 4x − 6 = 0
2. Equate the logs and solve for x.
x2 + 2x − 3 = 0
2
(x − 1) (x + 3) = 0
x = 1, −3
x = −3 is not valid, as x > 0.

x=1
3. Check the validity of both solutions.


d. 1. On a Calculator page, press d. 1. On the Main screen,
solve (ln(2x) + ln(x + 2) =

MENU, then select: complete the entry line as:
3: Algebra
1: Solve ln(6), x)
solve (ln(2x) + ln(x + 2) =

ln(6), x)
then press ENTER.
2. The answer appears on the x = 1. 2. The answer appears on the x = 1.

screen. screen.
4.2.3 Change of base rule

The definition of a logarithm, together with the logarithmic law n loga (m) = loga (mn ), is important when looking
at the change of base rule.
y = loga (m).
ay = m.
Suppose
By definition,
Take the logarithm to the same base of both sides.
logb (ay ) = logb (m)

y logb (a) = logb (m)
y=
logb (m)
logb (a)
Therefore, the change of base rule is as follows.
Change of base
loga (m) =
logb (m)
logb (a)
Note: The change of base rule is required to evaluate a logarithm that is not in base 10 or base e on a scientific
calculator. Thus, it is an important rule in science subjects.
It also follows that if we start with m = aloga (x) , taking the logarithm of both sides gives:
logb (m) = logb aloga x

( )
( )
logb (m) = loga (x) logb (a)
= loga (x)
logb (m)
logb (a)
Applying the change of base rule loga (m) = loga (x),
m=x
giving the result x = aloga (x) .
Applying the change of base rule

• y = aloga (y)
• y = eln(y)
WORKED EXAMPLE 3 Using the change of base rule to evaluate logarithms
a. Evaluate the following, correct to 4 decimal places.

i. log7 (5) ii. log 1 (11)
b. If p = log5 (x), find the following in terms of p.

3
i. x ii. logx (81)
a. i. log7 (5) = 0.8271

THINK WRITE
ii. log 1 (11) = −2.1827

a. i. Input the logarithm into your calculator.
ii. Input the logarithm into your calculator.
b. i. p = log5 (x)
3
x = 5p
b. i. Rewrite the logarithm in index form to find an expression
for x.
ii. 1. Rewrite logx (81) using loga (mn ) = n loga (m). ii. logx (81)
= logx (92 )
= 2 logx (9)
=2
log9 (9)
2. Apply the change of base rule so that x is no longer
a base. log9 (x)
=2
Note: Although 9 has been chosen as the base in 1
this working, a different value could be applied, log9 (x)
giving a different final answer.
=2
1
loga (mn ) = n loga (m).
3. Replace x with 5p and apply the law
log9 (5p )
=
2
p log9 (5)


a. i. 1. On a Calculator page, a. i. 1. Onthe Main screen,
complete the entry complete the entry
line as: line as:
log 1 (11) log 1 (11)
3 3
2. Press MENU, then
select:
2: Number
1: Convert to decimal
then press Enter.
3. The answer appears on log 1 (11) = −2.1827 2. The answer appears on log 1 (11) = −2.1827
the screen. 3 the screen. 3
4.2 Exercise

Technology free
a. 63 = 216 b. 28 = 256 c. 34 = 81
1. Express each of the following in logarithmic form.
d. 10−4 = 0.0001 e. 5−3 = 0.008 f. 71 = 7
2. WE1 Simplify the following.
(√ )
log4 25 7 1
c. d. log2
log4 625 128
a. 7 log4 (x) − 9 log4 (x) + 2 log4 (x) b. log7 (2x − 1) + log7 (2x − 1)
c. log10 (x − 1) − 2 log10 (x − 1)
2
3
(√ ) ( )
6 1 16
c. log4 d. log4
64 256
√
log5 (32) 6 log2 ( 3 x)
e. f.
3 log5 (16) log2 (x5 )
a. log3 (x − 4) + log3 (x − 4) b. loge (2x + 3) − 2 loge (2x + 3)

c. log5 (x2 ) + log5 (x3 ) − 5 log5 (x) d. log4 (5x + 1) + log4 (5x + 1) − log4 (5x + 1)
2 3
3 2
a. log5 (125) = x b. log4 (x − 1) + 2 = log4 (x + 4)

c. 3 (log2 (x))2 − 2 = 5 log2 (x) d. loge (4x) + loge (x − 3) = loge (7)
a. log3 (x) = 5 b. log3 (x − 2) − log3 (5 − x) = 2

8. Calculate the value of x in each of the following equations.
a. log3 (81) = x =x c. logx (121) = 2 d. log2 (−x) = 7

( )
1
b. log6
216
a. loge (2x − 1) = −3 =3
( )
1
b. loge
c. log3 (4x − 1) = 3 d. log10 (x) − log10 (3) = log10 (5)

x
e. 3 log10 (x) + 2 = 5 log10 (x) f. log10 (x2 ) − log10 (x + 2) = log10 (x + 3)
a. 2 loge (x) − loge (2x − 3) = loge (x − 2) b. log10 (2x) − log10 (x − 1) = 1

c. log3 (x) + 2 log3 (4) − log3 (2) = log3 (10) d. (log10 (x)) (log10 (x2 )) − 5 log10 (x) + 3 = 0
e. (loge x) = loge (x) + 2 f. log6 (x − 3) + log6 (x + 2) = 1
2
11. Rewrite the following in terms of base 10.

a. log5 (9) b. log 1 (12)
2
Technology active
12. WE3 a. Evaluate the following, correct to 4 decimal places.
i. log7 (12)
( )
1
ii. log3
b. If z = log3 (x), find the following in terms of z.

4
i. 2x
ii. logx (27)
13. Evaluate the following, correct to 4 decimal places.

( )
1
a. log3 (7) b. log2
14. If n = log5 (x), find the following in terms of n.

121
a. 5x b. log5 (5x2 ) c. logx (625)
a. e2x − 3 = loge (2x + 1) b. x2 − 1 = loge (x)

15. Solve the following for x, correct to 3 decimal places.
16. Find x, correct to 4 decimal places, if (3 log3 (x)) (5 log3 (x)) = 11 log3 (x) − 2.
a. log10 (y) = 2 log10 (2) − 3 log10 (x) b. log4 (y) = −2 + 2 log4 (x)
17. Express y in terms of x for the following equations.
18. Express y in terms of x for the following equations.
a. log9 (3xy) = 1.5 + 2 = log8 (2)

( )
2x
b. log8
19. Solve the equation 8 logx (4) = log2 (x) for x.

y

20. a. Find the value of x in terms of m for which 3 logm (x) = 3 + logm 27, where m > 0 and x > 0.
( )
b. If log10 (m) = x and log10 (n) = y, show that log10 =2+ − 5x.
100n2 3y
√
m5 n 2
21. Solve the following for x to 4 decimal places.
a. 13 + log9 0.2x >7 2log4 5x = 9

( 3
) ( )3
( )
b.
22. Let f ∶ R → R, f (x) = e2x + 2.
b. Sketch the graph of y = f f −1 (x) for its maximal domain.

a. Determine the rule and the domain of the inverse function.
( )
c. Determine f −f −1 (2x) in the form

bx + c
( ) ax
where a, b and c are real constants.
4.2 Exam questions
Solve the equation 2 log2 (x + 5) − log2 (x + 9) = 1.

Given that log2 (n + 1) = x, the values of n for which x is a positive integer are
A. n = 2k , k ∈ Z+ B. n = 2k − 1, k ∈ Z+ C. n = 2k−1 , k ∈ Z+
MC
D. n = 2k − 1, k ∈ Z+ E. n = 2k, k ∈ Z +
The expression logx (y) + logy (z), where x, y and z are all real numbers greater than 1, is equal to
A. − − + C. − −
MC
1 1 1 1 1 1
B.
logy (x) logz (y) logx (y) logy (z) logx (y) logy (z)
− E. logy (x) + logz (y)

1 1
D.
logy (x) logz (y)
4.3 Logarithmic scales

LEARNING INTENTION
• use index laws and logarithm laws
• apply index laws and logarithm laws in non-routine contexts involving logarithms, requiring
problem-solving and modelling to analyse these applications.
4.3.1 Problem solving with logarithmic scales

Logarithmic scales are used in the calculation of many scientific and mathematical quantities, such as the
loudness of sound, the strength (magnitude) of an earthquake, octaves in music, pH in chemistry and the
intensity of the brightness of stars.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4 Application of a logarithmic scale
Loudness, in decibels (dB), is related to the intensity, I, of the sound by the equation
L = 10 log10
( )
I
I0
where I0 is equal to 10−12 watts per square metre (W/m2 ). (This value is the lowest intensity of sound
that can be heard by human ears.)
An ordinary conversation has a loudness of 60 dB. Calculate the intensity in W/m2 .
THINK WRITE
1. Substitute L = 60 and simplify. L = 10 log10

( )
I
I0
60 = 10 log10
( )
I
10−12
60 = 10 log10 (1012 I)
6 = log10 (1012 I)
106 = 1012 I
I = 10−6 W/m2
2. Convert the logarithm to index form and solve for I.
WORKED EXAMPLE 5 Impact of a change in a logarithmic scale
Using the same formula as in Worked example 4, if the intensity is doubled, determine the change in
the loudness, correct to 2 decimal places.
THINK WRITE
L1 = 10 log10
( )
I1
10−12
1. Determine an equation for L1 .
= 10 log10
( )
= 10 log10 (1012 ) + 10 log10 (I1 )

1012 I1
= 120 log10 (10) + 10 log10 (I1 )

= 120 + 10 log10 (I1 )
2. The intensity has doubled; therefore, I2 = 2I1 . L2 = 10 log10

( )
2I1
10−12
= 10 log10 (2 × 1012 I1 )
Determine an equation for L2 .
= 10 log10 (2) + 10 log10 (1012 ) + 10 log10 (I1 )

= 3.010 + 120 log10 (10) + 10 log10 (I1 )
= 3.01 + 120 + 10 log10 (I1 )
3. Replace 120 + 10 log10 (I1 ) with L1 . = 3.01 + L1
4. Answer the question. Doubling the intensity increases the loudness by
3.01 dB.

4.3 Exercise

Technology free
1. WE4 The loudness, L, of a jet taking off about 30 metres
( away
is known to be 130 dB. Using the formula L = 10 log10
)
I
,
I0
where I is the intensity measured in W/m2 and I0 is equal to
10−12 W/m2 , calculate the intensity in W/m2 for this situation.
2. Your eardrum can be ruptured if it is exposed to a noise

which has an(intensity of 104 W/m2 . Using the formula
L = 10 log10
)
I
, where I is the intensity measured in W/m2 and
I0 is equal to 10−12 W/m2 , calculate the loudness, L, in decibels
I0
that would cause your eardrum to be ruptured.
Questions 3–5 relate to the following information.

Chemists define the acidity or alkalinity of a substance according to the formula
pH = − log10 [H+ ]
where [H+ ] is the hydrogen ion concentration measured in moles/litre.
Solutions with a pH less than 7 are acidic, whereas solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic. Solutions with a
pH of 7, such as pure water, are neutral.
3. Lemon juice has a hydrogen ion concentration of 0.001 moles/litre. Find the pH and determine whether
lemon juice is acidic or basic.
4. Find the hydrogen ion concentration for each of the following.
a. Battery acid has a pH of zero. b. Tomato juice has a pH of 4.
c. Sea water has a pH of 8. d. Soap has a pH of 12.
Technology active
5. Hair conditioner works on hair in the following way. Hair
is composed of the protein called keratin, which has a high
percentage of amino acids. These acids are negatively charged.
Shampoo is also negatively charged. When shampoo removes
dirt, it removes natural oils and positive charges from the hair.
Positively charged surfactants in hair conditioner are attracted to
the negative charges in the hair, so the surfactants can replace the
natural oils.
a. A brand of hair conditioner has a hydrogen ion concentration
of 0.000 015 8 moles/litre. Calculate the pH of the hair
conditioner.
b. A brand of shampoo has a hydrogen ion concentration of 0.000 002 75 moles/litre. Calculate the pH of the
shampoo.
6. The moment magnitude scale measures the magnitude, M,

of an earthquake in terms of energy released, E, in joules,
according to the formula
M = 0.67 log10
( )
E
K
where K is the minimum amount of energy used as a basis

of comparison.
a. An earthquake that measures 5.5 on the moment
magnitude scale releases 1013 joules of energy. Determine
the value of K, correct to the nearest integer.
b. An earthquake of magnitude 9.0 occurred in Japan in 2011, releasing about 1017 joules of energy. Find the
value of K correct to 2 decimal places.
c. Two earthquakes, about 10 kilometres apart, occurred in Iran on 11 August 2012. One measured 6.3 on the
moment magnitude scale, and the other one was 6.4 on the same scale. Compare the energy released, in
joules, by the two earthquakes.
7. WE5 Determine how many decibels louder to the human
ear a 20 W/m2 amplifier is compared to(a 500

) W/m
2
amplifier. Use the formula L = 10 log10

I
, where
I0
I0 = 10−12 W/m2 . Give your answer correct to 2 decimal

L is measured in dB, I is measured in W/m2 and
places.
8. The number of atoms of a radioactive substance present after t years is given by
N(t) = N0 e−mt .
a. The half-life is the time taken for the number of atoms to be reduced to 50% of the initial number of atoms.
loge (2)
Show that the half-life is given by .
m
b. Radioactive carbon-14 has a half-life of 5750 years. The percentage of carbon-14 present in the remains of
plants and animals is used to determine how old the remains are. Determine the age of a skeleton that has
lost 70% of its carbon-14 atoms. Give your answer correct to the nearest year.
9. A basic observable quantity for a star is its brightness.
The apparent magnitudes, m1 and m2 , for two stars are
related to the corresponding brightnesses, b1 and b2 , by
the equation
m2 − m1 = 2.5 log10 .
( )
b1
b2
an apparent magnitude of −1.5 and a brightness of −30.3.

The star Sirius is the brightest star in the night sky. It has
The planet Venus has an apparent magnitude of −4.4.

Calculate the brightness of Venus, correct to 2 decimal
places.
4.3 Exam questions
Octaves in music can be measured in cents, n. The frequencies of two notes, f1 and f2 , are related by the equation
n = 1200 log10 .
( )
f2
f1
Middle C on the piano has a frequency of 256 hertz; the C an octave higher has a frequency of 512 hertz.
Calculate the number of cents between these two Cs.
Prolonged exposure to sounds above 85 decibels can cause hearing damage or loss. A gunshot from a .22 rifle
has an intensity of about (2.5 × 1013 )I0 .

Calculate the loudness, in decibels, of the gunshot sound and state if ear protection should be worn when a
person goes to a rifle range for practice shooting. Use the formula L = 10 log10
( )
I
, where I0 is equal to
10−12 W/m2 , and give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
I0
Early in the 20th century, San Francisco had an earthquake that measured 8.3 on the magnitude scale. In the
same year, another earthquake was recorded in South America that was four times stronger than the one in
San Francisco. Using the equation M = 0.67 log10
( )
E E
, where M is the magnitude of the earthquake and
K K
is the ratio between the largest and smallest waves, calculate the magnitude of the earthquake in South America,
correct to 1 decimal place.
4.4 Indicial equations

LEARNING INTENTION
• simplify and solve indicial equations.
4.4.1 Solving indicial equations

When we solve an equation such as 3x = 81, the technique is to convert both sides of the equation to the same
base. For example, 3x = 34 ; therefore, x = 4.
When we solve an equation such as x3 = 27, we write both sides of the equation with the same index. In this
case, x3 = 33 ; therefore, x = 3.
If an equation such as 52x = 2 is to be solved, then we must use logarithms, as the sides of the equation cannot be
converted to the same base or index. To remove x from the power, we take the logarithm of both sides.
log5 (52x ) = log5 (2)

2x = log5 (2)
x = log5 (2)
1
2
Note: If ax = b, a solution for x exists only if b > 0.
Index laws
am × an = am + n
am ÷ an = am − n
•
(am )n = amn
•
(ab)m = am bm
•
•
= m,b≠0
( )m
a am
•
• a0 = 1, a ≠ 0
b b
• a−m = ,a≠0
1
am
• am = m a
1 √
• a m = m an
n √
Also remember that ax > 0 for all x.
WORKED EXAMPLE 6 Solving indical equations
× 163−x = 256 b. 7x−3 − 3 = 0

Solve the following equations for x, giving your answers in exact form.
c. (5x − 25)(5x + 1) = 0 d. 3 − 9(3 ) + 14 = 0

3x
a. 4
2x x
43x × 163−x = 256

THINK WRITE
a. 1. Convert the numbers to the same base. a.
43x × (42 ) = 44
3−x
43x × 46−2x = 44
4x+6 = 44
2. Simplify and add the indices on the left-hand
side of the equation.
x+6 = 4
x = −2
3. As the bases are the same, equate the indices
and solve the equation.
7x−3 − 3 = 0
7x−3 = 3
b. 1. Rearrange the equation. b.
log7 (7x−3 ) = log7 (3)

x − 3 = log7 (3)
2. Take the logarithm of both sides to base 7 and
simplify.
3. Solve the equation. x = log7 (3) + 3

c. (5x − 25)(5x + 1) = 0
5x − 25 = 0 5x + 1 = 0
c. 1. Apply the Null Factor Law to solve each
5x = 25 5x = −1
bracket. or

2. Convert 25 to base 5. 5x > 0, so there is no 5x = 52

real solution for 5 = −1.
x
x=2
d. 1. Let a = 3x and substitute into the equation to d. 32x − 9(3x ) + 14 = 0
Let a = 3x .
a2 − 9a + 14 = 0
create a quadratic to solve.
(a − 7)(a − 2) = 0
a−7 = 0 a−2 = 0
2. Factorise the left-hand side.
a=7 a=2
3. Apply the Null Factor Law to solve each or
3x = 7 3x = 2
bracket for a.
log3 (3x ) = log3 (7) log3 (3x ) = log3 (2)

4. Substitute back in for a.
x = log3 (7) x = log3 (2)

5. Take the logarithm of both sides to base 3 and
simplify.

MENU, then select: complete the entry
3: Algebra line as:
3 − 9 (3x ) + 14 = 0, x
1: Solve solve
( 2x )
3 − 9 (3x ) + 14 = 0, x
solve
( 2x ) then press EXE.
then press ENTER.
x= or x = appears on the x = or x =
ln(2) ln(7) ln(2) ln(7)
2. The answer appears on the 2. The answer
screen. ln(3) ln(3) screen. ln(3) ln(3)
4.4 Exercise

Technology free
a. 32x+1 × 272−x = 81 b. 102x−1 − 5 = 0

1. WE6 Solve the following equations for x, giving your answers in exact form.
c. (4x − 16)(4x + 3) = 0 d. 2(102x ) − 7(10x ) + 3 = 0
a. 2x+3 − =0 b. 22x − 9 = 0
1
c. 3e2x − 5ex − 2 = 0 d. e2x − 5ex = 0

64
a. 72x−1 = 5 b. (3x − 9)(3x − 1) = 0

c. 25x − 5x − 6 = 0 d. 6(92x ) − 19(9x ) + 10 = 0
a. 16 × 22x+3 = 8−2x b. 2 × 3x+1 = 4 c. 2(5x ) − 12 = − x d. 4x+1 = 31−x

10
5
a. 2(2x−1 − 3) + 4 = 0 b. 2(51−2x ) − 3 = 7
a. ex−2 − 2 = 7 b. e 4 + 1 = 3 c. e2x = 3ex d. ex + 2 = 4

x 2
a. e2x = ex + 12 b. ex = 12 − 32e−x c. e2x − 4 = 2ex d. ex − 12 = − x

5
8. Solve (log3 (4m))2 = 25n2 for m.

e
9. a. Simplify x−1 − b. Solve 23−4x × 3−4x+3 × 6x = 1 for x.

1 − 1+x−1
1 2
a. em−kx = 2n, where k ∈ R \ {0} and n ∈ R+ b. 8mx × 42n = 16, where m ∈ R \ {0}
c. 2emx = 5 + 4e−mn , where m ∈ R \ {0}
Technology active
a. 2x < 0.3 b. (0.4) < 2.

11. Solve the following for x, correct to 3 decimal places.
x
12. If y = m(10) , y = 20 when x = 2 and y = 200 when x = 4, determine the values of the constants m and n.
nx
13. If y = ae−kx , y = 3.033 when x = 2 and y = 1.1157 when x = 6, determine the values of the constants a and k.
Give answers correct to 2 decimal places.
14. The compound interest formula A = Pert is an indicial equation, where A is the amount of interest, P is the
invested for 5 years, the interest earned is $12 840.25, but if this same amount is invested for 7 years, the
principal, r is the annual interest rate and t is the number of years. If a principal amount of money, P, is
interest earned is $14 190.66. Determine the integer rate of interest and the principal amount of money
invested, to the nearest dollar.
4.4 Exam questions
If y = ab−4x + 2, where a > 0, then x is equal to

b − loga (y − 2) b − loga (y + 2) C. b − loga (y + 2)

MC
( )
1( ) 1( ) 1
A. B.
4 4 4
− loga (y − 2) b + 2 − loga (y)

b 1( )
D. E.
4 4

Solve 3et = 5 + 8e−t for t.

Source: VCE 2015, Mathematical Methods (CAS) Exam 1, Q7b; © VCAA.
Solve the equation 23x−3 = 82−x for x.

4.5 Logarithmic graphs

LEARNING INTENTION
• identify key features and properties of the graph of a logarithm and draw the graphs of these, clearly
• sketch by hand graphs of y = log (x) and y = log (x) and simple transformations of these
identifying their key features and properties, including any vertical asymptotes
e 10
• describe the effect of transformations on the graphs of a logarithm.
4.5.1 The graph of y = loga (x)

The graph of the logarithmic function f ∶ R+ → R, f(x) = loga (x), a > 1 has the following characteristics.
Graphing y = loga (x)

For f(x) = loga (x), a > 1:
y
4 x=0
• the domain is (0, ∞) 3

y = log2(x)
• the range is R 2
• the graph is an increasing function y = log3(x)
• as x → 0, y → −∞, so the line x = 0 is an asymptote

• the graph cuts the x-axis at (1, 0) 1 y = log10(x)
• as a increases, the graph rises more steeply for x ∈ (0, 1) and is

(1, 0)
x
flatter for x ∈ (1, ∞).

0
–1 1 2 3 4
–1
–2
–3
–4
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Logarithmic graphs (int-6418)
4.5.2 Transformations
Dilations: graphs of the form y = n loga (x) and y = loga (mx)
The graph of y = n loga (x) is the basic graph of y = loga (x) dilated by factor n from the x axis or parallel to the
y-axis. The graph of y = loga (mx) is the basic graph of y = loga (x) dilated by factor from the x axis or parallel
1
to the y-axis. The line x = 0 or the y-axis remains the vertical asymptote, and the domain remains (0, ∞).
m
y y
y = 3 log a (x)
y = 2 log a (x)
y = loga (mx)
( 1
m,0
–– )
(1, 0) y = log a (x)
0 x 0 x
x≠0
x=0
Reflections: graphs of the form y = − loga (x) and y = loga (−x)

The graph of y = − loga (x) is the basic graph of y = loga (x) reflected in the x-axis. The line x = 0 or the y-axis
remains the vertical asymptote, and the domain remains (0, ∞).
= loga (x−1 ) = − loga (x).

( )
1
It is worth noting that the graph of loga
The graph of y = loga (−x) is the basic graph of y = loga (x) reflected in the y-axis. The line x = 0 or the y-axis
x
remains the vertical asymptote, but the domain changes to (−∞, 0).
y y
y = –loga (x)
y = loga (–x)
(1, 0) (–1, 0)
0 x 0 x
x=0 x=0
Translations: graphs of the form y = loga (x) + k and y = loga (x − h)

For k > 0, the graph of y = loga (x) + k is the basic graph of y = loga (x) translated k units in the positive direction
of the y-axis (i.e. vertically upwards). Thus, the line x = 0 or the y-axis remains the vertical asymptote, and the
domain remains (0, ∞).
For h > 0, the graph of y = loga (x − h) is the basic graph of y = loga (x) translated h units in the positive direction
of the x-axis (i.e. horizontally right). Thus, the line x = 0 or the y-axis is no longer the vertical asymptote. The
vertical asymptote is x = h and the domain is (h, ∞).
y y
y = loga (x) + k
(a, 1 + k) y = loga (x – h)
0 x 0 x
(1 + h, 0)
x=0 x=h

For k < 0, the graph will be translated in the negative direction of the y-axis. For example, if k = −5, the graph is
translated 5 units down.
For h < 0, the graph will be translated in the negative direction of the x-axis. For example, if h = −2, the graph is
translated 2 units to the left.
Transformations of the graph of y = loga (x)

The graph of y = n loga (m(x − h)) + k is obtained from the graph of y = loga (x) by:
• reflecting in the x-axis if n < 0

• dilating by a factor of n from the x-axis
1
• dilating by a factor of from the y-axis
• reflecting in the y-axis if m < 0
m
• for h > 0, translating h units in the positive direction of the x-axis (h units right)
• for k > 0, translating k units in the positive direction of the y-axis (k units up).
• an asymptote at x = h
The graph will have:
• a domain of (h, ∞) for m > 0 or (−∞, h) for m < 0
• one x-intercept, obtained by letting y = 0

• a range of R
• either one or no y-intercept. The relative position of the asymptote and x-intercept will determine
whether there is an y-intercept.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7 Sketching transformed logarithmic functions
Sketch the graphs of the following, showing all important characteristics. State the domain and range
a. y = loge (x − 2) b. y = loge (x + 1) + 2
for each graph.
c. y = loge (2x) d. y = −loge ( − x)

1
4
a. 1. The basic graph of y = loge (x) has been translated a. y = loge (x − 2)

THINK WRITE
2 units to the right, so x = 2 is the vertical asymptote. The domain is (2, ∞).
x-intercept, y = 0:
The range is R.
loge (x − 2) = 0
2. Find the x-intercept.
e0 = x − 2
1 = x−2
x=3
3. Determine another point through which the graph When x = 4, y = loge (2).
passes. The point is (4, loge (2)).

Note: When sketching the line, it must always y = loge(x – 2)
appear to be moving closer to the asymptote but not
touching it. (3, 0) (4, loge(2))
0 x
b. 1. The basic graph of y = loge (x) has been translated up b. y = loge (x + 1) + 2

x=2
2 units and 1 unit to the left, so x = −1 is the vertical The domain is (−1, ∞).
The graph cuts the x-axis where y = 0.

asymptote. The range is R.
loge (x + 1) + 2 = 0
loge (x + 1) = −2
e−2 = x + 1
x = e−2 − 1
The graph cuts the y-axis where x = 0.
y = loge (1) + 2
3. Find the y-intercept.
=2
y = loge(x + 1) + 2
(0, 2)
(e–2 – 1, 0)
0 x
x = –1
c. 1. The basic graph of y = loge (x) has been dilated by c. y =

1
loge (2x)
The domain is (0, ∞).
1 1 4
factor from the x-axis and by factor from the
y-axis. The vertical asymptote remains x = 0.
4 2 The range is R.
2. Find the x-intercept. x-intercept, y = 0:

loge (2x) = 0
1
loge (2x) = 0
4
e0 = 2x
1 = 2x
x=
1
2

3. Determine another point through which the graph When x = 1, y = loge (2).
passes. The point is (1, loge (2)).
1
y = – loge (2x)
4
(1, loge(2))
x
0
( )
1– , 0
2
x=0
d. 1. The basic graph of y = loge (x) has been reflected in d. y = − loge (−x)
both axes. The vertical asymptote remains x = 0. The domain is (−∞, 0).
x-intercept, y = 0:
The range is R.
− loge (−x) = 0
loge (−x) = 0
e0 = −x
x = −1
When x = −2, y = − loge (2).

The point is (−2, − loge (2)).
3. Determine another point through which the graph
passes.
y = –loge (–x)
(–1, 0)
0 x
(–2, –loge (2))

x=0

d. 1. On a Graphs page, d. 1. On a Graph & Table
complete the entry line screen, complete the entry
f 1(x) = − ln(−x) y1 = − ln(−x)

for function 1 as: line for y1 as:

Select the Graph icon.
2. To findthe x-intercept, 2. To findthe x intercept,

1: Zero • G-Solve
of the x-intercept when then press EXE.
right of the x-intercept
ENTER.
3. To finda second point, 3. To finda second point,

1: Graph Trace • Trace
Type ‘−2’, then press Type ‘−2’, then select OK
ENTER twice. and press EXE.
Note: The calculator will Note: The calculator will
give decimal coordinates, give decimal coordinates,
not exact values. not exact values.
4.5.3 Determining the rule of a logarithmic function

The situation may arise where you are given the graph of a translated logarithmic function and you are required
to find the rule. Information that could be provided to you is the equation of the asymptote, the intercepts
and/or other points on the graph. As a rule, the number of pieces of information is equivalent to the number of
unknowns in the equation.
WORKED EXAMPLE 8 Determining the rule of a logarithm
The rule for the function shown is of the form y = loge (x − a) + b. Determine the values of the
constants a and b.
y
(e2 – 3, 0)
0 x
x = –3

The vertical asymptote is x = −3; therefore,

THINK WRITE
a must be −3.
1. The vertical asymptote corresponds to the
So y = loge (x + 3) + b.
value of a.
The graph cuts the x-axis at (e2 − 3, 0).

0 = loge (e2 − 3 + 3) + b
2. Substitute in the x-intercept to find b.
−b = loge (e2 )
−b = 2
b = −2
So y = loge (x + 3) − 2.
3. Write the answer. a = −3, b = −2.
4.5 Exercise

Technology free
a. y = loge (x) + 3 b. y = loge (x) − 5 c. y = loge (x) + 0.5

1. Sketch the following graphs, clearly showing any axis intercepts and asymptotes.
a. y = loge (x − 4) b. y = loge (x + 2) c. y = loge (x + 0.5)

a. y = b. y = 3 loge (x) c. y = 6 loge (x)

1
loge (x)
4
a. y = loge (3x) b. y = loge c. y = loge (4x)

( )
x
4
5. WE7 Sketch the graphs of the following functions, showing all important characteristics. State the domain
a. y = loge (x + 4) b. y = loge (x) + 2 c. y = 4 loge (x) d. y = − loge (x − 4)

and range for each graph.
a. y = log3 (x + 2) − 3 b. y = 3 log5 (2 − x)
6. Sketch the graphs of the following functions, showing all important characteristics.
c. y = 2 log10 (x + 1) d. y = log2 −
( )
x
2
a. y = 1 − 2 loge (x − 1) b. y = loge (2x + 4) c. y = loge +1

( )
1 x
2 4
8. WE8 The rule for the function shown is y = loge (x − m) + n. Determine the values of the constants m and n.
y
(e + 2, 3)
0 x
x=2
9. The graph of a logarithmic function of the form y = a loge (x − h) + k is shown below. Determine the values
of a, h and k.
y
0 (1, 0) x
(0, –2)
x = –1
10. MC The logarithmic function with the rule of the form y = p loge (x − q) passes through the points (0, 0) and
Technology active
(1, −0.35). The values of the constants p and q are:

A. p = − , q=1 B. p = 0, q = −1 C. p = − , q = −1
7 20
20 loge (2) 7 loge (2)
D. p = − , q = −1 E. p = , q=1
7 7
20 loge (2) 20 loge (2)
11. The equation y = a loge (bx) relates x to y. The table below shows values for x and y.
x 1 2 3
y loge (2) 0 w
a. Determine the integer values of the constants a and b.

b. Determine the value of w correct to 4 decimal places.
12. The graph of y = m log2 (nx) passes through the points (−2, 3) and − ,
) (
1 1
. Show that the values of m and
n are 1.25 and −2 5 respectively.

2 2
7

4.5 Exam questions
The graph of the equation y = f (x) is shown.

y
x=0
y = f (x)
(1, 0)
0 x
a. y = f (−x)
b. y = f (x − 1)
(1 mark)
(1 mark)
c. y = f
( )
x
(1 mark)
2
Question 2 (1 mark) TECH-ACTIVE y
MC The graph of the function f is shown. The rule for f is most
A. f (x) = 1 + loge (x)

likely to be:
B. f (x) = loge (x) − 1

C. f (x) = 1 − loge (x)
(0, 0)
x
D. f (x) = loge (x + 1)
0
x = –1
E. f (x) = − loge (x + 1)
If the equation of the graph shown is y = loge (ax + b), then

Question 3 (1 mark) TECH-ACTIVE 2 x=1
a = 1 and b = −1
MC
a = 1 and b = 1
1
A.
a = −1 and b = −1
B.
a = −1 and b = 1
C. 0 x
–2 –1 1 2
a = −1 and b = 0
D. –1
E.
–2
4.6 Exponential graphs

LEARNING INTENTION
• identify key features and properties of the graph of an exponential and draw the graphs of these, clearly
identifying their key features and properties, including any vertical asymptotes
• sketch by hand graphs of y = ex and y = ax using key points −1, , (0, 1) and (1, a)
( )
1
a
• describe the effect of transformations on the graphs of an exponential
• determine the rule of the inverse of an exponential function and give its domain and range.
4.6.1 The graph of y = ax

Exponential functions are those of the form f ∶ R → R, f(x) = ax , where
y
the base a ∈ R+ \ {1}.

y = 3x
y = 2x
The index law a0 = 1 explains why the graph of y = ax must contain the
point (0, 1). The graph of y = 2x would also contain the point (1, 2),
whereas the graph of y = 3x would contain the point (1, 3).
(–1, 1–2) (1, 2)
( 1
–1, –)
This can be seen in the diagram comparing the graphs of y = 2x and
As the base becomes larger, exponential functions increase more quickly. 3 (0, 1) y=0
y = 3x .
0 x
The index law a−x = x explains why for negative values of x the graphs
1
of y = 2x and y = 3x approach the x-axis but always lie above the x-axis.
a y
graph of the form y = ax .

The x-axis is a horizontal asymptote for both of their graphs and for any y = 2–x
Exponential functions of the form f ∶ R → R, f(x) = a−x , where a ∈

R+ \ {1}, have base . This is again explained by index laws, as
1 (–1, 2)
(0, 1) 1, –
1
( )
a−x = x = . However, it is often preferable to write y = 2−x rather
( )x a 2
1 1
a a 0 y=0 x
than y =
( )x
1
.
2
The graph of y = 2−x or

( )x
1
must contain the point (0, 1), and other points on this graph include (−1, 2)
( ) 2
1
and 1, .
The graph of y = 2x illustrates a ‘growth’ form, whereas the graph of y = 2−x takes a ‘decay’ form. The two
2
graphs are reflections of each other in the y-axis.
WORKED EXAMPLE 9 Sketching reflections of an exponential function
Consider the function f(x) = −5x .
b. On the same set of axes, sketch the graphs of y = 5 , y = −5 and y = 5 .

−x
a. Evaluate f(2).
c. Express y = 5 in an equivalent form.

x x
−x
a. f(x) = −5x
THINK WRITE
Note: −52 ≠ (−5) f(2) = −52

a. Calculate the required value.
2
= −25
b. y = 5x contains the points (0, 1) and (1, 5).
y = −5x contains the points (0, −1) and (1, −5).
b. 1. Identify points on each curve.
y = 5−x contains the points (0, 1) and (−1, 5).

2. Sketch the graphs on the same axes. y = 5–x y y = 5x

Note: When sketching the line, it must always
(–1, 5) (1, 5)
appear to be moving closer to the asymptote
but not touching it.
(0, 1)
y=0
0 (0, –1) x
(1, –5)
y = –5x
c. Since 5 =
( )x
−x 1
c. Write an equivalent form for the given rule. , an alternative form for the
5
rule is y = or y = 0.2x .
( )x
1
5
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Exponential functions (int-5959)
4.6.2 The exponential function y = ex

Remember that e = 2.718 281...
As 2 < e < 3, the graph of y = ex lies between those of y = 2x and y = 3x , and has much the same shape.
The graph of y = ex y
Key features: y = ex
• There is a horizontal asymptote at y = 0.

• The points (0, 1) and (1, e) lie on the graph. (1, e)
• The domain is R.
(0, 1)
y=0
• As x → ∞, y → ∞, and as x → −∞, y → 0+ .
• The function has one-to-one correspondence. 0 x
population growth, usually involve the exponential function y = ex . Exponential decay models usually involve
The graph shows an ‘exponential growth’ shape. Mathematical models of such phenomena, for example
the function y = e−x .

The graph of y = e−x is shown.
The graph of y = e−x y
Key features: y = e–x
• There is a horizontal asymptote at y = 0.

• The points (0, 1) and (−1, e) lie on the graph.
(–1, e)
(0, 1)
• The domain is R.
y=0 x
• As x → −∞, y → ∞, and as x → ∞, y → 0+ .
0
• The graph is a reflection of y = ex in the y-axis.
Sketching the graph of y = aenx + k
does for a hyperbola or truncus. The graph of y = ex + k has a horizontal asymptote with equation y = k. If k < 0,
A vertical translation affects the position of the horizontal asymptote of an exponential graph in the same way it
then y = ex + k will cut through the x-axis and its x-intercept will need to be calculated.
To sketch the graph of an exponential function:
• identify the equation of its asymptote
• calculate its y-intercept
• calculate its x-intercept if there is one.
If the function has no x-intercept, it may be necessary to obtain the coordinates of another point on its graph.
The graph of y = aenx + k
• There is a horizontal asymptote at y = k.

Key features:
• There is one y-intercept, obtained by letting x = 0.

• There is either one or no x-intercept. The relative position of the asymptote and y-intercept will
• If a > 0, the range is (k, ∞).

determine whether there is an x-intercept.
• If a < 0, the range is (−∞, k).
The values of a and n in the equation y = aenx + k are related to dilation factors, and their signs will affect the
orientation of the graph. The possibilities are shown in the following table.
y=k y=k
y=k y=k
a > 0, n > 0 a > 0, n < 0 a < 0, n > 0 a < 0, n < 0

Dilation
factors
As x → −∞, y → k+ As x → ∞, y → k+ As x → −∞, y → k− As x → ∞, y → k−
Graph
behavior
Sketching the graph of y = aen(x −h) + k

Under a horizontal translation of h units, the point (0, 1) on y = ex is translated to the point (h, 1) on the graph of
y = ex−h . The y-intercept is no longer (0, 1), so it will need to be calculated.
By letting x = h for the horizontal translation, the index for the exponential will be zero. This simplifies the
For the graph of y = aen(x −h) + k when x = h, y = ae0 + k ⇒ y = a + k.

calculation to obtain another point on the graph.

WORKED EXAMPLE 10 Sketching transformed exponential functions
Sketch the following graphs and state the domain and range of each graph.
a. y = 2ex + 1 b. y = 3 − 3e 2 c. y = − ex+1
− 1
x
y = 2ex + 1
THINK WRITE
The asymptote is y = 1.
a. 1. State the equation of the asymptote.
y = 2e0 + 1
y = 2+1
y=3
3. Calculate any x-intercepts. As the y-intercept is above the positive asymptote,

there is no x-intercept.
4. Locate another point if necessary and sketch Growth shape
the graph. y
y = 2ex + 1
(0, 3)
y=1
0 x
5. State the domain and range. The domain is R and the range is (1, ∞).
y = 3 − 3e− 2
x
b. 1. State the equation of the asymptote.
y = 3 − 3e0
y=0
If x = −2, then y = 3 − 3e < 0.

3. Calculate any x-intercepts. (0, 0) is also the x-intercept.
4. Locate another point if necessary and sketch
the graph. y
y=3
x
––
2
y = 3 – 3e
(0, 0) x
5. State the domain and range. The domain is R and the range is (−∞, 3).
y = − ex+1
1
c. 1. State the equation of the asymptote.
4
2. Calculate the y-intercept. y-intercept: let x = 0.

y = − e0+1
1
4
=− e
1
0, − .
4 ( )
e
The y-intercept is
4
3. Calculate any x-intercepts. There are no x-intercepts as the x-axis is an

asymptote.
4. Locate another point if necessary and sketch Let x = −1.

y = − e0
the graph. 1
4
=− e
1
Another point on the graph is −1, − .

4 ( )
1
4
y
0 x
(–1, – –14 ) 1 ex + 1
y = ––
4
( e
0, – –
4 )
5. State the domain and range. The domain is R and the range is R− .
4.6.3 Determining the equation of an exponential function

The form of the equation is usually specified along with the given information needed to determine the equation.
This is necessary because it could be difficult to decide whether the base is e or some other value. The number
of pieces of information given will also need to match the number of parameters or unknown constants in the
equation.
The asymptote is a key piece of information to obtain. If a graph is given, the equation of the asymptote will
be apparent. Insert this value into the equation and then substitute coordinates of known points on the graph.
Simultaneous equations may be required to calculate all the parameters in the equation.

WORKED EXAMPLE 11 Determining the rule of a exponential graph
a. The diagram shows the graph of y = aex + b. Determine the values of a and b.
y
y=3
(–1, 3 – –4e )
0 x
(0, –1)
b. The graph of y = a × 10
kx
contains the points (2, 30) and (4, 300). Form its equation.
a. y = aex + b
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Insert the equation of the asymptote into the
This means b = 3.
equation of the graph.
The equation becomes y = aex + 3.

2. Use a known point on the graph to fully The graph passes)through the
point −1, 3 −
(
determine the equation. 4
.
Note: It is possible to get)the correct equation
using either −1, 3 −
( e
4
or the y-intercept
(0, −1)
Substitute this point into the equation.
3 − = ae−1 + 3
e
4
− =
e
4 a
a = −4
e e
The equation is y = −4ex + 3.

a = −4, b = 3
b. y = a × 10kx
3. State the values required.
(2, 30) ⇒ 30 = a × 102k

b. 1. Substitute the given points in the equation.
(4, 300) ⇒ 300 = a × 104k
a × 102k = 30
a × 10 = 300
2. Solve the simultaneous equations. [1]
4k
[2]
a✁ × 104k 300
Divide equation [2] by equation [1]:
=
a✁ × 102k
= 101
30
102k = 10
4k−2k
10
2k = 1
k=
1
Substitute k =
2
1
in equation [1]:
a × 101 = 30
2
a=3
The equation is y = 3 × 10 2 .
x
3. State the equation.

a. 1. Ona Lists and Spreadsheet a. 1. On a Statistics screen,
page, label the first column relabel list 1 as x and
x and the third column y. list 3 as y. Enter the
Enter the x-coordinates x-coordinates of the
of the two known points two known points in
in the first column and the first column and
the corresponding the corresponding
y-coordinates in the y-coordinates in the
third column. third column.
2. Label the second column 2. Relabel list 2as expx.

expx. Select the function, Select the function entry
entry line for expx and line for expx at the bottom
complete the entry line of the list and complete the
as ex , then press ENTER. entry line as ex , then press
Select Variable Reference EXE.
for x when prompted, then
select OK.
3. PressMENU then select: 3. Select:

6: Statistics • Calc
1: Stat Calculations • Regression
(mx + b)…
3: Linear Regression • Linear Reg
Complete the fields as:
Complete the fields as: XList: main\expx
X List: expx YList: main\y
Y List: y then select OK.
1st Result Column: d[]
then select OK.
y = mx + b, where m = −4, y = ax + b, where a = −4,

4. The answer appears on The answer is of the form 4. The answer appears on The answer is of the form
x = ex , and b = 3. The x = ex , and b = 3. The

the screen. the screen.
equation is y = −4ex + 3. equation is y = −4ex + 3.

4.6.4 Inverse functions

The exponential function is the inverse of the logarithmic function and vice versa.
Consider the exponential function y = ex . To achieve the inverse, the x and y variables are interchanged.
Therefore, y = ex becomes x = ey . If we make y the subject of the equation, we have y = loge (x).
This can also be shown graphically.
y y = ex
y=x
y = loge (x) = ln (x)

(0, 1)
y=0
0 (1, 0) x
x=0
Rule y = ex y = loge (x) = ln(x)
(0, ∞)
Type of mapping One-to-one One-to-one
(0, ∞)
Domain R
Range R
4.6 Exercise

1. WE9 Consider the function f(x) = −10x .

Technology free
b. On the same set of axes, sketch the graphs of y = 10x , y = −10x and y = 10−x .
a. Evaluate f(2).
c. Express y = 10−x in an equivalent form.
a. y = −2ex − 3 b. y = 4e−3x − 4 c. y = 5ex−2

2. WE10 Sketch the following graphs and state the domain and range of each graph.
as x → ∞.
3. Sketch the graph of each of the following exponential functions and state their long-term behaviour
( )−x
a. y = × 10x b. y = 3 × 4 c. y = −5 × 3 d. y = −
−x −
4 x 2
2
5 3
4. For each of the following functions, sketch the graph, state the range and identify the exact position of any
a. y = ex − 3 b. y = −2e2x − 1 c. y = e +3
intercepts the graph makes with the coordinate axes.
1 −4x
− x +1
2
d. y = 4 − e2x e. y = 4e2x−6 + 2 f. y = 1 − e 2
5. a. Sketch the graph of y = 2e1−3x − 4, labelling any intercepts with the coordinate axes with their exact
b. Sketch the graph of y = 3 × 2x − 24 and state its domain and range.

coordinates.
6. WE11 a. The diagram shows the graph of y = aex + b. Determine the y
b. The graph of y = a × 10kx contains the points (4, −20) and (8, −200).
values of a and b.
Form its equation. y=2
7. MC The graph of y = a × ekx contains the points (2, 36) and (3, 108).
(0, 0)
Technology active x
a = 2, k = loge (3)
The exact values of a and k are:
a = 4, k = 3
A.
a = 4, k = loge (3)
B.
a = 6, k = loge (3)
C.
a = 6, k = 3
D.
8. a. The graph shown is of the function f(x) = aex + b. Determine the values of a and b, and write the function
E.
as a mapping.
y
y = 11
(0, 0) x
b. The graph shown has an equation of the form y = Aenx + k. Determine its equation.
y
(–1, 4 + e2)
f (x)
(0, 5)
y=4
0 x

c. The graph of y = 2x−b + c contains the points (0, −5) and (3, 9).
i. Calculate the values of b and c.
d. The graph of y = Aex−2 + B contains the point (2, 10). As x → −∞, y → −2.
ii. State the range of the graph.
i. Calculate the values of A and B.
−1
( ( ))
6
ii. The graph passes through the point a, 2 . Determine the value of a.
e
9. For each of the following functions, state the domain and range. Define the inverse function, f −1 , and state
a. f(x) = 2 loge (3x + 3)

the domain and range in each case.
b. f(x) = loge (2(x − 1)) + 2

c. f(x) = 2 loge (1 − x) − 2
10. For each of the following functions, sketch the graphs of f and f −1 on the same set of axes. Give the
a. f(x) = 2 loge (3x + 3)

coordinates of any points of intersection, correct to 2 decimal places.
b. f(x) = loge (2(x − 1)) + 2

c. f(x) = 2 loge (1 − x) − 2
11. For the functions defined by f(x) = 2x and g(x) = 2−x , sketch the graph of the difference function
y = ( f − g)(x) and state its domain, range and rule.
12. Use addition of ordinates to sketch the graph of y = e−x + ex .
4.6 Exam questions
Let f ∶ R+ → R, f (x) = k log2 (x) , k ∈ R.

Given that f −1 (1) = 8, the value of k is

MC
1
A. 0 B. C. 3 D. 8 E. 12
3
Part of the graph of y = f (x), where f ∶ R → R, f (x) = 3 − ex , is shown below.

MC
x
O
Which one of the following could be the graph of y = f −1 (x), where f −1 is the inverse of f?
A. y B. y
x x
O 3 O 3
C. y D. y
x x
O –3 O
–3
E. y
x
O 3
Consider the function f ∶ R → R where f (x) = 2 − e−x .

MC
Select the false statement from the following.
C. The line y = 2 is a horizontal asymptote.

A. The range is (−∞, 2). B. The domain is R. ( )
D. The graph crosses the x-axis at loge (2), 0 .
E. The graph crosses the y-axis at (0, 1).

4.7 Applications
LEARNING INTENTION
• apply these concepts in non-routine contexts involving exponentials, requiring problem-solving and
modelling to analyse these applications
• know from the context of a question when it is appropriate to give an exact or approximate answer
using technology
• use technology to solve and sketch application problems.
4.7.1 Applications of exponential models

Logarithmic and exponential functions can be used to model many real-life situations directly.
For some exponential models that are functions of time, the behaviour or limiting value as t → ∞ may be of
interest.
WORKED EXAMPLE 12 Applications of exponential growth
compounded continuously, then A = Pert , where A is the accumulated dollars.

If P dollars is invested into an account that earns interest at a rate of r for t years and the interest is
A deposit of $6000 is invested at the Western Bank, and $9000 is invested at the Common Bank at
the same time. Western offers compound interest continuously at a nominal rate of 6% per annum,
whereas the Common Bank offers compound interest continuously at a nominal rate of 5% per
annum.
Determine how many years it will take for the two investments to be the same. Give your answer to
the nearest month.
A = Pert
THINK WRITE
Western Bank: A = 6000e0.06t

1. Write the compound interest equation for each of the
Common Bank: A = 9000e0.05t

two investments.
2. Equate the two equations and solve for t. 6000e0.06t = 9000e0.05t
=
Note: If a question does not specify the number of e0.06t 9000
decimal places to round to, an exact value must be e0.05t 6000
e0.01t =
given. 3
2
0.01t = loge
( )
3
2
t = 100 loge
( )
3
3. Use CAS technology to find the decimal answer.
t = 40.547 years
2
0.547 × 12 ~ 7
t = 40 years and 7 months
4. Convert the decimal to a whole number of months.
Do this by multiplying the decimal 0.547 by 12.
WORKED EXAMPLE 13 Application of population growth
The population of foxes on the outskirts of a city is starting to
of foxes is given by N(t) = 480 − 320e−0.3t , t ≥ 0, where N is the

increase. Data collected suggests that a model for the number
number of foxes t years after the observations began.

a. State how many foxes were present at the start of the
observations.
b. Calculate how many the population of foxes had grown by at
the end of the first year of observations.
c. Determine when the model predicts the number of foxes would
double its initial population.
d. Sketch the graph of N versus t.
e. Explain why this model does not predict the population of
foxes will grow to 600.
a. N(t) = 480 − 320e−0.3t

THINK WRITE
When t = 0,
a. Calculate the initial number.
N(0) = 480 − 320e0

= 480 − 320
= 160
There were 160 foxes present initially.
b. When t = 1,
N(1) = 480 − 320e−0.3
b. 1. Calculate the number after 1 year.
≈ 242.94
Note: There cannot be a fraction of a fox,
so give an integer answer.
After the first year, approximately 243 foxes
were present.
2. Express the change over the first year in Over the first year the population grew from
context. 160 to 243, an increase of 83 foxes.
c. Let N = 2 × 160 = 320.

320 = 480 − 320e−0.3t
c. 1. Calculate the required value of t.
Note: An algebraic method requiring
320e−0.3t = 160
logarithms has been used here. CAS
e−0.3t =
technology could also be used to solve
1
the equation.
2
−0.3t = log e
( )
1
2
t=
( )
1 1
log e
t ≈ 2.31
0.3 2
2. Answer the question. 0.31 × 12 ≈ 4

The population doubles after 2 years and
4 months.

d. N(t) = 480 − 320e−0.3t

The horizontal asymptote is N = 480.
d. Sketch the graph.

N N = 480
480
N = 480 – 320e – 0.3t

(0, 160)
0 t
shows that as t → ∞, N → 480. Hence, N can

e. Give an explanation for the claim. e. The presence of an asymptote on the graph
never reach 600. The population will never

exceed 480 according to this model.
TI | THINK WRITE/DISPALY CASIO | THINK WRITE/DISPALY

a. 1. If using a function a. a. 1. If using a function a.
more than once in more than once in
an application, it is an application, it is
a good idea to first a good idea to first
define the function. define the function. In
On a Calculator page, Main, select:
press MENU, then • Interactive
select: • Define
1: Actions
1: Define Initially there were 160 foxes.
Initially there were 160 foxes.
t = 0. Substitute in 0 t = 0. Substitute in 0
2. The initial mean is 2. The initial mean is
and round the answer and round the answer

to the nearest whole to the nearest whole
number. number.
is t = 1. Substitute in 1 is t = 1.
b. After one year the mean b. After one year there were 243 b. After one year the mean b. After one year there were
foxes. 243 foxes.
and round to the nearest Substitute in 1 and
whole number. round to the nearest
whole number.
foxes: n (t) = 2 × 160. foxes: n (t) = 2 × 160.

c. 1. Double the number of c. c. 1. Double the number of c. The population doubles in
2 years and 4 months.
On a Calculator page, In Main, select:
press MENU, then • Action
select: • Advanced
3: Algebra • Solve
1: Solve
The population doubles in

2 years and 4 months.
2. Multiply the decimal 2. Multiply the decimal
to convert to months, to convert to months,
rounding the answer rounding the answer
up. up.
d. 1. Press ctrl, then doc to d. d. 1. On a Graph & Table d.

add a graphs page. screen, complete the
y1 = n (x) |x ≥ 0
entry line for y1 as:
then press EXE.

Select the Graph
icon.
f 1 (x) = n (x) |x ≥ 0
2. Enter the function as: 2. Change the window
to fit the graph using
3. Change the window the icon with four
to fit the graph. We arrows. We already
already know that know that the graph
the graph passes passes through
through (0, 160) and (0, 160) and
(2.31, 320), which (2.31, 320), which
helps change the helps change the
window settings. window settings.
This can be done by
double-clicking the
values at the end of
each axis.
e. The graph will not e. e. The graph will not e.
n (t) = 480. n (t) = 480.

pass the asymptote of pass the asymptote of
Another way to see Another way to see

this is to use limits. this is to use limits.
On a Calculator page, In Main, bring up the
press MENU, then keyboard.
select: In Math2, select the
As t → ∞, n (t) → 480, so n (t) The ∞ button can be

4: Calculus limit icon.
4: Limit
This can tell us what will not grow to 600. found in the Trig menu
approaches as t → ∞. As t → ∞, n (t) → 480, so

value the function on the keyboard.
This can tell us what
approaches as t → ∞.
value the function n (t) will not grow to 600.

4.7 Exercise

1. WE12 A deposit of $4200 is invested at the Western Bank, and $5500 is invested at the Common Bank at
Technology active
the same time. Western Bank offers compound interest continuously at a nominal rate of 5% per annum,
whereas the Common bank offers compound interest continuously at a nominal rate of 4.5% per annum.
Determine how many years it will take for the two investments to be the same. Give your answer to the
nearest year.
2. If $1000 is invested for 10 years at 5% per annum interest compounded continuously, find how much money
will have accumulated after the 10 years.
3. a. An investment triples in 15 years. Determine the interest rate that this investment earns if it is
b. An investment of $2000 earns 4.5% per annum interest compounded continuously. Find how long it will
compounded continuously. Give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
take for the investment to have grown to $9000. Give your answer to the nearest month.
modelled by n(t) = loge (t + e2 ), t ≥ 0.

4. The number of parts per million, n, of a fungal bloom in a stream t hours after it was detected can be
a. Calculate how many parts per million were detected initially.

b. Calculate how many parts of fungal bloom are in the stream after 12 hours. Give your answer to 2 decimal
places.
c. Calculate how long it will take before there are 4 parts per million of the fungal bloom. Give your answer
5. WE13 The population of possums in an inner city suburb is starting to increase.
in the suburb given by P(t) = 83 − 65e−0.2t , t ≥ 0, where P is the number of

Observations of the numbers present suggest a model for the number of possums
possums observed and t is the time in months since observations began.

a. State how many possums were present at the start of the observations.
b. Calculate how many possums the population had grown by at the end of the first
month of observations.
c. Determine when the model predicts the number of possums would double its
initial population.
d. Sketch the graph of P versus t.
e. Explain why this model does not predict the population of possums will grow
to 100.
6. Let P(t) = 200kt + 1000 represent the number of bacteria present

in a petri dish after t hours. Suppose the number of bacteria trebles
every 8 hours. Determine the value of the constant k correct to
4 decimal places.
7. An epidemiologist studying the progression of a flu epidemic

decides that the function
P(t) = (1 − e−kt ), k > 0

3
4
will be a good model for the proportion of the earth’s population that will contract the flu after t months. If
1
after 3 months of the earth’s population has the flu, determine the value of the constant k, correct to
1500
4 decimal places.
8. Carbon-14 dating works by measuring the amount of carbon-14, a radioactive element, that is present in a
fossil. All living things have a constant level of carbon-14 in them. Once an organism dies, the carbon-14 in
its body starts to decay according to the rule
Q = Q0 e−0.000 124t
where t is the time in years since death, Q0 is the amount of carbon-14 in milligrams present at death and Q
is the quantity of carbon-14 in milligrams present after t years.
a. If it is known that a particular fossil initially had 100 milligrams of carbon-14, calculate how much
carbon-14, in milligrams, will be present after 1000 years. Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
b. Calculate how long it will take before the amount of carbon-14 in the fossil is halved. Give your answer
correct to the nearest year.
9. Glottochronology is a method of dating a language at a particular stage, based on the theory that over a long
period of time linguistic changes take place at a fairly constant rate. Suppose a particular language originally
given by W(t) = W0 (0.805)t .

has W0 basic words and that at time t, measured in millennia, the number, W(t), of basic words in use is
a. Calculate the percentage of basic words lost after ten millennia.

b. Calculate the length of time it would take for the number of basic words lost to be one-third of the
original number of basic words. Give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
10. Andrew believes that his fitness level can be modelled by the
F (t) = 10 + 2 loge (t + 2)
function
where F(t) is his fitness level and t is the time in weeks since he
started training.
a. State Andrew’s level of fitness before he started training.
b. Calculate Andrew’s level of fitness after 4 weeks of training.
c. Calculate how long it will take for Andrew’s level of fitness to
reach 15.
11. In 1947 a cave with beautiful prehistoric paintings was discovered in Lascaux, France. Some charcoal found
in the cave contained 20% of the carbon-14 that would be expected in living trees. Determine the age of the
paintings to the nearest whole number if
Q = Q0 e−0.000 124t
where Q0 is the amount of carbon-14 originally and t is the time in years since the death of the prehistoric
material. Give your answer correct to the nearest year.
12. The sales revenue, R dollars, that a manufacturer receives for selling x units of a certain product can be
modelled by the function
R(x) = 800 loge 2 + .

( )
x
250

machinery for production is $300, so the total cost in dollars, C, of production is

Furthermore, each unit costs the manufacturer 2 dollars to produce, and the initial cost of adjusting the
C(x) = 300 + 2x.
b. Determine the number of units that need to be produced and sold to break even, that is, P(x) = 0. Give
a. Write the profit, P(x) dollars, obtained by the production and sale of x units.
your answer correct to the nearest integer.

13. The value of a certain number of shares, $V, can be modelled by the equation
V = kemt
where t is the time in months. The original value of the shares was $10 000, and after one year the value of
the shares was $13 500.
a. Calculate the values of the constants k and m, giving answers correct to 3 decimal places where
appropriate.
b. Determine the value of the shares to the nearest dollar after 18 months.
c. After t months, the shares are sold for 1.375 times their value at the time. Find an equation relating the
profit made, P, over the time the shares were owned.
d. If the shares were kept for 2 years, calculate the profit made on selling the shares at that time.
14. The population, P, of trout at a trout farm is declining due to

deaths of a large number of fish from fungal infections.
The population is modelled by the function
P = a loge (t) + c
where t represents the time in weeks since the infection

started. The population of trout was 10 000 after 1 week and
6000 after 4 weeks.
a. Calculate the values of the constants a and c. Give your
answers correct to 1 decimal place where appropriate.
b. Determine the number of trout, correct to the nearest whole trout, after 8 weeks.
c. If the infection remains untreated, determine how long it will take for the population of trout to be fewer
than 1000. Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
15. The mass, M grams, of a radioactive element, is modelled by the rule
M = a − loge (t + b)
where t is the time in years. The initial mass is 7.8948 grams, and after 80 years the mass is 7.3070 grams.
a. Determine the equation of the mass remaining after t years. Give a correct to 1 decimal place and b as an
integer.
b. Calculate the mass remaining after 90 years.
4.7 Exam questions

In a controlled experiment, Juan took some c
medicine at 8 pm. The concentration of medicine in
his blood was then measured at regular intervals.
modelled by the function c(t) = te 2 , t ≥ 0, where

5 − 3t
The concentration of medicine in Juan’s blood is 0.5
2
c is the concentration of medicine in his blood, in
milligrams per litre, t hours after 8 pm. Part of the
graph of the function c is shown below.
a. What was the maximum value of the
concentration of medicine in Juan’s blood, in
milligrams per litre, correct to two decimal t
O
places? (1 mark)
b. Find the value of t, in hours, correct to two decimal places, when the concentration of medicine in Juan’s
blood first reached 0.5 milligrams per litre. (1 mark)
c. Find the length of time that the concentration of medicine in Juan’s blood was above 0.5 milligrams per
litre. Express the answer in hours, correct to two decimal places. (2 marks)
In her chemistry class, Hei is preparing a special solution for an experiment that she has to complete. The
concentration of the solution can be modelled by the rule
C = A loge (kt)
where C is the concentration in moles per litre (M) and t represents the time of mixing in seconds. The
concentration of the solution after 30 seconds of mixing is 4 M, and the concentration of the solution after
2 seconds of mixing was 0.1 M.
a. Calculate the values of the constants A and k, giving your answers correct to 3 decimal places. (2 marks)
b. Determine the concentration of the solution after 15 seconds of mixing. (1 mark)
c. Determine how long it will take, in minutes and seconds, for the concentration of the solution to reach
10 M. (1 mark)
temperature of the cooling mug of coffee is given by T = 20 + 75e−0.062t , where T is the temperature of the
Manoj pours himself a mug of coffee but gets distracted by a phone call before he can drink the coffee. The
coffee t minutes after it was initially poured into the mug.

a. Calculate the initial temperature of the coffee when it was first poured. (1 mark)
c. Determine how long it will take for the coffee to reach a temperature of 65 °C. Give your answer correct
b. Determine the temperature to which the coffee will cool if left unattended. (1 mark)
d. Manoj returns to the coffee when it has reached 65 °C and decides to reheat the coffee in a microwave.
to 2 decimal places. (1 mark)
The temperature of the coffee in this warming stage is T = A + Be−0.05t . Given that the temperature of the
reheated coffee cannot exceed 85 °C, calculate the values of A and B. (2 marks)
e. Sketch a graph showing the temperature of the coffee during its cooling and warming stages. (2 marks)

4.8 Review
4.8.1 Summary
doc-37033
4.8 Exercise
i. 2 loge (x) − loge (x − 1) = loge (x − 4)

1. a. Solve the following equations for x.
ii. 2 loge (x + 2) − loge (x) = loge 3(x − 1)

iii. 2 log4 (x) = 3 − log4 (x5 )
( )2
i. log2 (y) = 2 log2 (x) − 3

b. Express y in terms of x for the following equations, giving any restrictions for x.
ii. log3 (9x) − log3 (x4 y) = 2

( )
c. If log4 (p) = x and log4 (q) = y, show that log4 = 3 − 3x +
64q2 3y
√ .
p3 q 2
concentration of the hydrogen ion, H+ in moles/litre, and is calculated according to the formula
2. The pH of a substance is a value that defines the acidity or alkalinity of that substance. It depends on the
[ ]
pH = − log10 H+ .
[ ]
Solutions with a pH less than 7 are acidic, solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic, and solutions with a
pH of 7 are neutral.
a. For each of the following, find the pH and state whether the solution is acidic, basic or neutral.
ii. Ammonia has a hydrogen ion concentration of 10−11 moles/litre.

i. Vinegar has a hydrogen ion concentration of 0.01 moles/litre.
b. Determine the hydrogen ion concentration for each of the following.

i. Apples have a pH of 3.
ii. Sodium hydroxide has a pH of 14.
a. e2x − 8ex + 15 = 0 b. 2e2x − 35 = 9ex c. 2x + 18 × 2−x = 11

a. 3kx × 92m = 27, where k ∈ R \ {0} and m ∈ R b. 3ekx − 4 = 6e−kx , where k ∈ R \ {0}
5. Sketch the graphs of each of the following, showing any axis intercepts and the asymptote(s). State the
a. y = loge (x − 1) + 3 b. y = loge (x + 3) − 1
domain and range in each case.
c. y = 2 loge (−x) d. y = − loge (x − 4)
6. Sketch each of the following over the implied domain and state the range.
a. y = 6 × 2x−1 − 12 b. y =
e +5
1 ( 3−x )
2
7. The loudness(of plant
) machinery at a manufacturing business is modelled by the equation
L = 10 log10 , where L is the loudness in decibels (dB), I is the intensity in watt/m2 and I0 = 10−12
I
I0
watt/m2 .
a. If the loudness of the plant machinery at this business is known to be 90 dB, calculate the intensity for
b. Calculate the loudness of the plant machinery if the intensity is 10−6 watt/m2 .
this situation.
8. MC Simplifying 3 loge (5) + 2 loge (2) − loge (20) gives:

( ) ( )
19 1
A. loge B. loge (109) C. loge (480) D. 2 loge (5) E. 6 loge
20 2
9. MC The table below gives values for x and y that relate to the equation y = a loge (bx). Calculate the exact
values of a, b and m.
−3 loge (2)
x 1 2 3
y 0 m
A. a = −3, b = 2, m = loge B. a = −3, b = , m = loge

( ) ( )
9 1 27
4 2 4
C. a = −3, b = , m = 3 loge D. a = 3, b = , m = loge

( ) ( )
1 3 1 3
2 2 2 2
E. a = 3, b = , m = 3 loge
( )
1 3
2 2
10. MC If 5 log10 (x) − log10 (x2 ) = 1 + log10 (y), then x is equal to:
√
√ 10 10
A. y B. 10y C. 3 10y D. E. 3
y y
The exact solution of the equation 32x+1 − 4 × 3x + 1 = 0 is:

A. x = 0, x = −1 B. x = 0, x = 1 C. x = −1, x = 1
11. MC
D. x = , x=1 E. x = , x = −1
1 1
3 3
12. MC e(3 loge (x)−loge (3x)) is equal to:
D. x3 − 3x
( )
1 x2
A. 3 loge B. 0 C. 1 E.
3 3
13. MC The expression logn (m) + logm (p) + logp (n) is equal to:
+ + + +
1 1 1 1 1 1
A. B.
logn (m) logm (p) logp (n) logm (n) logp (m) logn (p)
C. − − − + +
1 1 1 1 1 1
D.
logn (m) logm (p) logp (n) logm (m) logp (p) logn (n)
+ +
1 1 1
E.
logn (mp) logp (mn) logm (np)

14. MC The function h has the rule h(x) = a loge (x − m) + k, where m and k are positive constants and a is a
B. R\ {m} C. R\ {n} E. (m, ∞)

negative constant. The maximal domain of h is:
A. R+ D. (m, n)
15. MC If 7e = 3, then x equals:

ax
( ) (3)
3 3 loge 7
loge (3) a loge (3)
A. loge a B. a loge C. D. E.
7 7 a a loge (7) loge (7)
B. loge (12) + x E. loge (4) + 3x

16. MC loge (4e3x ) is equal to:
A. 12x C. loge (e12x ) D. 3x loge (4)
17. MC A possible equation for the graph shown is:

y
y=2
(0, 1)
0 x
A. y = 2 − ex B. y = 2 − e−x C. y = 2 + ex D. y = 2 + e−x E. y = e−x − 2
18. a. The graph of the function f ∶ (−5, ∞) → R, f(x) = loge (x + 5) + 1 is shown.

y = loge(x + 5) + 1
(0, loge(5) + 1)
(e–1 – 5, 0)
0 x
x = –5
i. Determine the rule and domain of f −1 , the inverse function of f.

ii. On the same set of axes, sketch the graph of f −1 . Label the axis intercepts with their exact values.
iii. Determine the coordinates of the point(s) of intersection correct to 3 decimal places.
b. The graph below has the rule g(x) = loge (x − h) + k, where h and k are constants.
y
y = g(x)
(0, 0) x
x = –2
ii. Show that k = − loge (2).

i. State the value of h.
x−h
iii. Hence, rewrite the rule in the form g(x) = loge
( )
, where c is a constant.
c
19. Carbon-14 dating measures the amount of radioactive
carbon-14 in fossils. This can be modelled by the
relationship
Q = Q0 e−0.000124t
where Q is the amount, in milligrams, of carbon-14

currently present in the fossil of an organism, t is the
time in years since the organism’s death, and Q0 is the
initial amount, in milligrams, of carbon-14 present.
a. A fossil shell initially has 150 milligrams of carbon-14 present. Calculate how much carbon-14 will be
present after 2000 years. Give your answer correct to 3 decimal places.
b. Determine the number of years it will take for the carbon-14 in the shell to be halved. Give your answer
correct to the nearest year.
Q0
c. Suppose the amount of carbon-14 in the shell is . Determine an equation relating n to t. Hence, find
n
Q0
how long it will be before the amount of carbon-14 in the fossil shell is . Give your answer to the
10
nearest year.
20. The population of quokkas in a small corner of south-
western Western Australia is currently described as
vulnerable. The once-plentiful population of quokkas
was drastically reduced after dingoes, foxes and wild
pigs found their way to Australia.
Conservation efforts and dingo, fox and wild pig
control programs have seen quokka populations
recovering in some areas. In the Northern Jarrah
forest, one of the areas where these conservation
practices occur, there were known to be about 150
quokkas in 2008. Conservationists produced a model
for the increase in population, which was given by
P = a loge (t) + b
where t is the time in years since 2007 and a and b are constants. There were estimated to be about 6000
quokkas present in the forest in 2013.
a. Determine the values of a and b. Give your answers correct to the nearest integer.
b. Calculate the number of quokkas that is expected to be present in 2020. Give your answer correct to the
nearest integer.
c. Given that quokkas have a life expectancy of about 10 years, the model for the actual population is
revised to
PR = P − 0.25P = 0.75P
where PR is the revised population.

i. Determine the equation relating PR to t, the number of years since 2007.
ii. Calculate the revised population prediction for 2020. Give your answer correct to the nearest integer.
4.8 Exam questions
The graph of y = loge (x) + loge (2x), where x > 0, is identical, over the same domain, to the graph of
MC
A. y = 2 loge
( )
1
x
B. y = 2 loge (2x)
2
C. y = loge 2x2
( )
D. y = loge (3x)
E. y = loge (4x)
A kettle was filled with water and the water heated to 98 °C. The kettle was then switched off at 1 pm and the
water began to cool. By 3 pm, the temperature of the water was 58 °C. The temperature, T °C, of the water
t hours after 1 pm is modelled by the rule T = Ae−kt + 18.
a. Calculate the value of A and k. (2 marks)
b. Calculate the temperature of the water at 11 pm. Give your answer to 1 decimal place. (1 mark)
d. Find the time after which the temperature of the water will be less than 22 °C.
c. Sketch the graph of T versus t. (2 marks)
(1 mark)
e. Explain what happens to the temperature in the long term. (1 mark)
experiment finds the growth of the population of bacteria is modelled by the rule N = 22 × 2t , where N is the
A biologist conducts an experiment to determine conditions that affect the growth of bacteria. Her initial
number of bacteria present after t days.

a. Calculate how long it will take for the number of bacteria to reach 2816. (1 mark)
b. Explain what will happen to the number of bacteria in the long term according to this model. (1 mark)
c. The biologist changes the conditions of her experiment and starts with a new batch of bacteria. She finds
rule N =
that under the changed conditions the growth of the population of bacteria is modelled by the
1 + 2e−0.2t
66
.
i. Show that in both of her experiments the biologist used the same initial number of bacteria. (2 marks)
ii. Explain what will happen to the number of bacteria in the long term according to her second
model. (1 mark)
In some parts of the world there have been measles (rubella) epidemics. For one such epidemic in Wales, the
number of people in the population infected was modelled by the rule
P(t) = Aekt
where t was the number of days after the epidemic began. At the beginning of the epidemic, 200 cases were
reported to authorities, but 30 days later there were 1000 cases.
a. Calculate the values of the constants A and k. Give k correct to 4 decimal places. (2 marks)
b. Calculate the expected number of cases after 60 days. Give your answer correct to the nearest
integer. (1 mark)
c. Calculate how long it would have taken for the number of cases to reach 6000. Give your answer correct
to 1 decimal place. (1 mark)
d. Thirty-eight thousand young people in Wales were at risk of contracting measles because they had not
been immunised against rubella. If the epidemic went unchecked, find how long would it have taken for
all these young people to be infected. Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place. (1 mark)
Find all values of x for the equation e2x − 3ex + 2 = 0.




x = 3m
Answers log10 (m) = x, so 10x = m, and log10 (n) = y, so 10y = n.
20. a.
b.
( )
= log10 ⎜
Topic 4 Exponential and 100n2
⎛
100(10y )2 ⎟
⎞
log10 √
logarithmic functions m5 n ⎜ x 5 y 1⎟
102 × 102y
(⎝ (10 ) (10 ) 2)⎠
= log10
4.2 Logarithm laws and equations
105x × 10
y
4.2 Exercise
log6 (216) = 3 log2 (256) = 8 ×
2
= log10 ⎜
3y
⎛ 2 ⎞
log3 (81) = 4 log10 (0.0001) = −4
1. a. b. 10 10 2
⎟
e. log5 (0.008) = −3 f. log7 (7) = 1

c. d. ⎜ 105x ⎟
⎝( )⎠
= log10 10 2
2+ −5x
3y
−5 −1
1
= 2+ − 5x log10 (10)
2. a. 4 b. c. d. ( )
2 3y
b. 3 log7 (2x − 1)
0 2
= 2+ − 5x
3. a.
3y
c. log10 (x − 1)
21. a. x < 4.0956
2
−5 − −2
x = 0.8653
1 5 2
4. a. 7 b. c. d. e. f.
(x) = loge (x − 2)
2 12 5 b.
3 log3 (x − 4) loge (2x + 3)

−1 1
d. 2 log4 (5x + 1)
5. a. b. 22. a. f
The domain of f −1 (x) is the range of f (x), which

2
is [2, ∞).
c. 0
3, 4
4 − 7
1
6. a. 3 b. c. 2 d.
3 2 b. y
5
47
7. a. 243 b. 4
−3 −128
10 3
8. a. 4 b. c. 11 d. 2
9. a. (e + 1)
1 −3
e−3
1
b. c. 7
2
f. −
x
–1 0 1 2 3 4 5
6 –1
4x − 3
d. 15 e. 10
5
2x − 2
5 5 c.
10. a. 6, 1 b. c.
4 4
x = 10, 10 2 x = e2 ,
3 1 4.2 Exam questions
d. e. f. 4
e Note: Mark allocations are available with the fully worked
1. x = −1 only
log10 (9) log10 (12) solutions online.
11. a. b. ( )
log10 (5) log10 12
−1.2619
2. B
12. a. i. 1.2770 ii. 3. D
b. i. 2 × 3
z 3
ii.
4.3 Logarithmic scales
−6.9189
z
13. a. 1.7712 b.
4.3 Exercise
n+1
1 + 2n
4
14. a. 5 b. c. 1. 10 W/m2
x = −0.463, 0.675
n
2. 160 dB
b. x = 0.451, 1
15. a.
3. Lemon is acidic with a pH of 3.
−8 −12
4. a. 1 mole/litre b. 0.0001 moles/litre
16. 1.5518, 1.4422
17. a. y = y=
c. 10 moles/litre d. 10 moles/litre
4 x2
b. 5. a. 4.8, acidic b. 5.56, acidic
x3 16
y= y = 64x
6. a. 61 808 J
9
18. a. b. b. 3691.17 J
x
c. The magnitude 6.4 earthquake is 1.41 times stronger than
1 the magnitude 6.3 earthquake.
19. 16,
16
− loge (2n), k ∈ R \{0} and n ∈ R+

m 1
0.5N0 = N0 e−mt
7. The 500 W/m2 amplifier is 13.98 dB louder. 10. a.
4 − 4n
k k
, m ∈ R \{0}
8. a.
= e−mt
1 b.
3m
57 + 5
2
= −mt
(√ )
, m ∈ R \{0}
( )
1 1
loge c. loge
loge (2−1 ) = −mt

2
x < −1.737 x > −0.756
m 4
− loge (2) = −mt

11. a. b.
12. m = 2 and n =
1
loge (2) = mt
13. a = 5, k = 0.25
2
t= 14. P = $10 000, r = 5%

loge (2)
m
9. −437.97
b. 9988 years
4.4 Exam questions
4.3 Exam questions solutions online.
1. A
2. t = loge
Note: Mark allocations are available with the fully worked ( )
8
solutions online.
1. 361 cents 3
x=
2. 133.98 dB, so protection should be worn. 3
3.
3. The magnitude of the South American earthquake was 8.7. 2
4.4 Indicial equations 4.5 Logarithmic graphs
4.4 Exercise 4.5 Exercise
log10 (5) +
1 1 1. a. y
1. a. 3 b.
y = loge (x) + 3
2 2
( )
1
c. 2 d. log10 (3), log10 (1, 3)
2
−9
1
2. a. b. log2 (9)
2
c. loge (2) d. loge (5)
log7 (5) +
1 1 0 (e–3, 0) x
3. a. b. 0, 2
2 2
( ) ( )
2 5 x=0
c. log5 (3) d. log9 or log9
3 2 b.
4. a. − log3 (2) − 1
y y = loge (x) – 5
7
b.
8
( )
loge 34
c. 0, 1 d.
loge (12)
0 (e5, 0) x
2 loge (3) + 2
5. a. 1 b. 0
d. −
6. a. b. 4 loge (2)
√ √
c. loge (3) loge (2), loge (2)
7. a. 2 loge (2) x=0
b. 2 loge (2), 3 loge (2)
5+1
(√ )
c. loge
d. loge 6 − 31 , loge 31 + 6
( √ ) (√ )
4 4 × 35n
35n 1
8. ,
−x−1
1
9. a. b. 1 or 3
x

y=
c.
1
y 3. a. loge (x)
4
y
y = loge (x) + 0.5
1 log (x)
y=–
(1, 0) 4 e
(1, 0.5)
0 x
x
0
(e , 0)
1
––
2
y = 3 loge (x)
x=0
b.
y
y = 3loge (x)
x=0
2. a. y y = loge (x – 4)
(10, loge (6))
(1, 0)
0 x
(5, 0)
0 x
y = 6 loge (x)
x=0
c.
x=4 y
b. y
y = loge (x + 2) y = 6 loge (x)
(0, loge (2))
(–1, 0) (1, 0)
0 x 0 x
y = loge (3x)
x=0
x = –2 4. a.
c. y y
y = loge (x + 0.5)
y = loge (3x)
(0.5, 0) x
0
0 x (–13 , 0)
(0, loge (0.5))
x=0
x = – 0.5
b. y = loge
( )
x c. y
4
y y = 4 loge (x)
x
y = loge –
4 () 0
(2, 4 loge (2))
(1, 0) x
(4, 0)
0 x
Domain = (0, ∞), range = R

x=0
y = loge (4x)
x=0
c.
d. y
y
y = –loge (x – 4)
y = loge (4x)
(5, 0)
0 x x
(0.25, 0) 0
(6, –loge (2))
x=0

5. a. y x=4
y = loge (x + 4)
6. a. y
(–3, 0) (0, loge (4))
y = log3 (x + 2) –3
0 x
(25, 0)
0 x
(0, log3 (2) –3)
Domain = (−4, ∞), range = R

x = –4
b. y x = –2
b. y
y = loge (x) + 2
y = 3log5 (2 – x)
(1, 2)
(0, 3log5 (2))
0 (e–2, 0) x (1, 0)
0 x

x=0
x=2

c. y 8. m = 2, n = 2
9. a = , h = −1, k = −2
2
y = 2log10 (x + 1)
loge (2)
D
a = −1, b = −0.4055
10.
(1, 2log10 (2)) 1
x 11. a. b.
2
(−2, 3) ⇒ 3 = m log2 (−2n)
(0, 0)
12. [1]
− , ⇒ = m log2 −
( ) ( )
1 1 1 n
[2]
2 2 2 2
x = –1 [1] – [2] :
3− = m log2 (−2n) − m log2 −

d. y ( )
1 n
2 2
= m log2 (−2n) − log2 −

( ( ))
( )
x
y = log2 – –
2
5 n
−2n
2 2
= m log2
(–2, 0) ( ( ))
−2
0 x n
= m log2 (4)
(–1, –1)
= m log2 22
= 2m
x=0
7. a. y = 1 − 2 loge (x − 1) m=
5
4
y
Substitute m =
5
into [1]:
4
3=
y = 1 – 2 loge (x – 1) 5
log2 (−2n)
4
= log2 (−2n)
(e0.5 + 1, 0) 12
0 x
5
2 5 = −2n
12
n = 2 5 ÷ −2
x=1
y = loge (2x + 4)
12
= −2 5
b.
7
y
4.5 Exam questions

y = loge (2x + 4)
(0, loge (4)) solutions online.
1. a. y
0 x
(–1.5, 0)
x = –2 x=0
c. y = loge +1
( )
1 x
y = f (–x)
2 4
y
(–1, 0) 0 x
()
y = 1–2 loge –4x + 1
(4 e –2
, 0)
0 x
x=0
b. y b. y
y = 4e–3x – 4
x=1
(0, 0)
x
y = f (x – 1)
0 (2, 0) x
y = –4
Domain R, range (−4, ∞)

c. y
y = 5ex – 2
c. y (2, 5)
x=0
y=f x ( )
2
(0, 5e–2) y=0
0 (2, 0) x
0 x
Domain R, range R+
3. a. y
2. E (1, 8)
3. D 4 × 10 x
y=–
5
4.6 Exponential graphs
4.6 Exercise
1. a. −100 (0 , –45 ( y=0
0 x
b. y
x → ∞, y → ∞
(–1, 10) (1, 10)
b. y
y = 10–x y = 10x
(–1, 12)
(0, 1) y=0 y = 3 × 4–x
0 x
y= –10x
(0, 3)
0 y =0 x
(1, –10)
x → ∞, y → 0+
y= or y = 0.1x .
( )x
1
c. c. y
10
2. a. y
y=0
0 x
0 x
(0, –5)
y = –3 x
––
2
y = –5 × 3
(0, –5)
x → ∞, y → 0−
(–2, –15)
Domain R, range (−∞, −3)

y = –2ex – 3

d. y e. y
(3, 6)
y = 4e2x–6 + 2
y=0
0 x
(0, –1) y=2
(1, –1.5) (0, 4e– 6 + 2)
0 x
()
–x
Range (2, ∞)
2
y=––
x → ∞, y → −∞
3
f. y
4. a. y
y = ex – 3 (0, 1 – e– 0.5)
y=1
0 x
x
(–1, 0) 0
(0, –2) (loge (3), 0)
x+1
– –––
y = –3 y=1–e 2
Range (−3, ∞)
Range (−∞, 1)
5. a. y
b. y
0 x (0, 2e – 4)
y = –1 x
(0, –3)
0
(–13 (1 – log (2)), 0)
e
y = –2e2x – 1
y = 2e1 – 3x – 4
Range (−∞, −1) y = –4
c. y b. y
1 e–4x + 3
y=– y = 3 × 2x – 24
2
(0, 3.5) (3, 0)
y=3 0 x
x (0, –21)
Range (3, ∞)
y = –24
Domain R, range (−24, ∞)

a = −2, b = 2
d. y
6. a.
y = −2 × 10 4
x
y=4 b.
a = −11, b = 11, f ∶ R → R, f(x) = −11ex + 11

(0, 3) 7. C
b. a = 1, n = −2, y = e +4
−2x
(loge (2), 0) 8. a.
c. i. b = −1, c = −7 ii. (−7, ∞)

0 x
A = 12, B = −2 a=1
y = 4 – e2x
f(x) = 2 loge (3(x + 1)), domain = (−1, ∞) and range = R

d. i. ii.
Range (−∞, 4)
9. a.
f −1 (x) = e 2 − 1, domain = R and range = (−1, ∞)

1 x
b. f(x) = loge (2(x − 1)) + 2, domain = (1, ∞) and

3
range = R
f −1 (x) = ex−2 + 1, domain = R and range = (1, ∞)
1
2
f(x) = 2 loge (1 − x) − 2, domain = (−∞, 1) and y = 2x − 2−x , domain R, range R

range = R
c. 11.
f −1 (x) = 1 − e 2 (x +2) , domain = R and range = (−∞, 1)

y
1
y = f (x)
10. a. y
y=x y = ( f – g)(x)
(0, 1)
y=0
y = 2 loge(3x + 3) x
(6.12, 6.12) 0 (0, 0)
(0, 2 loge (3)) (0, –1) y = –g(x)
x
1 e–2 – 1
y=–
3
( )
– 2– , 0
3 12. y
0 x
y = –1 y = ex + e–x
( )
0, – 2–
3
(2 loge (3), 0)
(0, 1) (0, 2)
(–0.77, –0.77)
y = ex y = e–x
x = –1
b. 0 y=0 x
y
y=x
(3.68, 3.68)
y = loge (2(x – 1) + 2) 4.6 Exam questions
(1.23, 1.23) solutions online.
y = 1–e x – 2 + 1 1. B
2
2. E
(0, 1– e–2 + 1
2 ) 3. D
y=1
4.7 Applications
4.7 Exercise
$1648.72
0 x 1. 54 years
(
1– e–2 + 1, 0
2 ) 2.
x=1
3. a. 7.32%
c. y b. 33 years 5 months
y=x
y = 2 loge (1 – x) – 2 (1 – e, 0) 4. a. 2 parts per million
y=1 b. 2.96 parts per million
x c. 47.2 hours
0
(0, 1 – e) 5. a. 18
(–2, 0) (0, –2) 1
– (x + 2) b. 12
(–0.81, –0.81) y = 1 – e2
c. 1.62 months
x=1

d. y e. T
P = 83 (0, 95)
T = 20 + 75e–0.062t
T = 85 – 30e–0.05t
P = 83 – 65e–0.2t (8.24, 65)
(1.6, 36)
(1, 30)
(0, 18)
0 x
0 t
The population cannot exceed 83.

e.
4.8 Review
6. 0.1793 4.8 Exercise
7. 0.0003 Technology free: short answer
8. a. 88.3 milligrams b. 5590 years 4 1
1. a. i. ii. 4 iii. 2,
9. a. 88.57% lost b. 1.87 millennia 5 64
y= (x > 0) ii. y = (x > 0)

10. a. 11.3863 b. 13.5835 c. 10.18 weeks x2 1
b. i.
11. 12 979 years 8 x3
P(x) = 800 loge 2 + − 300 − 2x

( ) ( )
= log4 ⎜ 3 ⎟
x ⎛ 64q 23 ⎞
12. a. 64q2
250 c. log4 √
p3 q ⎜ p ⎟
k = 10 000, m = 0.025
b. 330 ⎝ ⎠
= log4 (64) + log4 − log4 p3

( )
$15 685.58
13. a. 3 ( )
q2
P = 13 750e0.025t − 10 000
b.
= log4 43 + log4 q − 3 log4 p

$15 059.38
c. ( ) 3 ( ) ( )
a = −2885.4, c = 10 000
d. 2
= 3 log4 (4) + log4 q − 3 log4 p
14. a. 3 ( ) ( )
b. 4000 2
= 3 + log4 q − 3 log4 p
3 ( ) ( )
a = 12.5, b = 100
c. 22.6 weeks
15. a. 2
Substitute x = log4 (p) and y = log4 (q):

b. 7.253 g
4.7 Exam questions ( )

=3+ log4 q − 3 log4 p
64q2 3 ( ) ( )
Note: Mark allocations are available with the fully worked log4 √
p3 q 2
=3+ − 3x
solutions online.
1. a. c = = e−1 = 0.61 mg/L
( ) 3y
2 5
2
= 3 − 3x +
3 3
3y
b. 0.33 hours
2
A = 1.439, k = 0.536
c. 0.86 hours
2. a. 2. a. i. 2, acidic ii. 11, basic
2.999 M 10−14 moles/litre
x = loge (3), x = loge (5)
b. b. i. 0.001 moles/litre ii.
95 °C
32 minutes 25 seconds
x = loge (7)
c. 3. a.
The temperature approaches 20 °C. x = 1, log2 (9)

3. a. b.
3 − 4m
b. c.
A = 85, B ≈ −30 x= , where k ∈ R \ {0} and m ∈ R

c. 8.24 minutes
4. a.
d. k
2 + 22
( √ )
x = loge , where k ∈ R \ {0}
1
b.
k 3
5. a. y = loge (x − 1) + 3 d. y = − loge (x − 4)
y y
y = –loge(x – 4)
y = loge(x – 1) + 3
( 1
–
e3
+ 1, 0 ) (5, 0)
0 x
0 x

x=1

x=4
b. y = loge (x + 3) − 1
6. a. Range (−12, ∞)
y
y
y = loge(x + 3) – 1 (2, 0)
0 x
(0, loge(3) – 1)
(e – 3, 0) 0 x
y = 6 × 2x – 1 – 12
(0, –9)
y = –12
b. Range (2.5, ∞)
y
Domain = (−3, ∞), range = R

x = –3 y = 1 (e3–x + 5)
2
y = 2 loge (−x) ( )
0, 1 e3 + 5
c. 2 2
y = 2loge(–x) y = 2.5
0 x
(–1, 0) 0 x 7. a. 0.001 watt/m2 b. 60 dB

8. D
9. E
10. C
x=0 11. A
Domain = (−∞, 0), range = R

12. E
13. B
14. E
15. C
16. E
17. A

18. a. i. y = e − 5, domain = R As t → ∞, N → ∞.
Technology active: extended response 3. a. 7 days
c. i. N = 22 × 2 , t = 0
x−1
b.
ii. f : loge (5) + 1, 0 , 0, − 5

) ( 1 )
−1
( t
N = 22 × 20
= 22 × 1
e
= 22
y
y=x
N= ,t=0
1 + 2e−0.2t
(0, loge(5) + 1) 66
(3.091, 3.091)
y = f (x)
=
1 + 2e−0.2×0
(loge(5) + 1, 0) 66
=
x
(1 – 5, 0
–
e ) 0
y = f –1(x) 66
= 22
3
(–4.998, –4.998) (
0, –
e )
1 –5
Initially there are 22 bacteria in each model.
y = –5
4. a. P(t) = 200e
ii. The population will never exceed 66.
0.0536t
x = –5 b. 4986 cases
(−4.998, −4.998) , (3.091, 3.091)

x = loge (2) or x = 0
c. 63.5 days d. 97.9 days days
h = −2
iii.
5.
ii. y = loge (x + 2) + k
b. i.
0 = loge (2) + k
Substitute (0, 0):
k = − loge (2)
x+2
iii. g(x) = loge
( )
2
19. a. 117.054 milligrams
n = e0.000 124t , 18 569 years

b. 5590 years
a = 3265, b = 150
c.
20. a.
i. PR = 2448.75 loge (t) + 112.5

b. 8525 quokkas
c.
ii. 6393 quokkas
4.8 Exam questions

solutions online.
1. C
2. a. A = 80, k = − loge ≈ −0.3466

( )
1 1
20.5 °C
2 2
b.
c. T
(0, 98)
T = 80e–0.3466t + 18
T = 18
0 t
The temperature drops to no less than 18 °C.

d. After approximately 9:38 pm
e.
“c05Differentiation_PrintPDF” — 2022/7/15 — 20:39 — page 287 — #1
5 Differentiation
LEARNING SEQUENCE
5.1 Overview ................................................................................................................................................................. 288
5.2 Review of differentiation ................................................................................................................................... 289
5.3 Differentiation of exponential functions ...................................................................................................... 304
5.4 Applications of exponential functions ......................................................................................................... 310
5.5 Differentiation of trigonometric functions ................................................................................................... 316
5.6 Applications of trigonometric functions ...................................................................................................... 322
5.7 Differentiation and application of logarithmic functions ....................................................................... 330
5.8 Review ..................................................................................................................................................................... 338

5.1 Overview
5.1.1 Introduction
One of the most important branches of mathematics is calculus, the mathematical study of continuous change,
of which there are two subfields: differential calculus, which deals with gradients and rates of change, and
integral calculus, which deals with finding original functions from rates and finding areas under graphs. This
topic and Topic 6 are concerned with differential calculus.
Calculus was developed in the 17th century by mathematicians Isaac Newton and Gottfried Leibniz. Each of
them claimed that the other stole his work. Leibniz had his results published first; however, Newton derived his
first. Today, the consensus is that they both independently contributed to the invention of calculus — Leibniz
about 8 years after Newton. Leibniz is also given credit for introducing the calculus notations that are used
dy
today, including the notation and the integral symbol.
dx
KEY CONCEPTS
• deducing the graph of the derivative function from the graph of a given function and deducing the graph
• derivatives of xn for n ∈ Q, ex , log (x), sin(x), cos(x) and tan(x).

of an anti-derivative function from the graph of a given function
e
5.2 Review of differentiation

LEARNING INTENTION
• find derivatives of basic functions and apply differentiation to curve sketching
• determine the tangent to a curve at a given point.
5.2.1 The derivative of a function

The gradient of a curve is the instantaneous rate of change of the function at any point. The gradient at any
point (x, y) can be found using the central difference approximation.
As shown in the diagram below left, the aim is to find the gradient of the tangent line at point P. The central
points are represented by R (x − h, f(x − h)) and Q (x + h, f(x + h)). This is shown on the diagram below right.
difference approximation involves finding the coordinates of two points equidistant horizontally from P. These
y y
Q
f (x + h)
y = f (x) y = f (x)
Secant
x x–h x
0 x 0 x+h x
Tangent Tangent
f (x) Q f (x) P
f (x – h)
R
The gradient of the secant RQ can be calculated by:
rise f (x + h) − f (x − h)
Gradient = =
(x + h) − (x − h)
f (x + h) − f (x − h)
run
=
2h
This formula can be used to find the gradient function or the gradient at a particular point. As h gets smaller, the
points R and Q get closer and closer to P, and the line RQ better approximates the tangent at P.
Central difference approximation

f (x + h) − f (x − h)
f ′ (x) ≈
2h
where h is a small change in the x-coordinate.
TOPIC 5 Differentiation 289

In this notation, f ′ (x) is the derivative of the function, or the gradient of the tangent to the curve at the point
P (x, f(x)). f ′ (x) is also the gradient function of f(x), and
dy
is the gradient equation for y with respect to x.
dx
WORKED EXAMPLE 1 Approximating f ′ (x) by the central difference method
Consider the function f (x) = −x2 − x + 2.

a. Determine the central difference approximation, f ′ (x).
b. Hence, evaluate the gradient of the graph of f (x) at the point (–2, 0).
THINK WRITE
a. f (x + h) = −(x + h) − (x + h) + 2
f (x + h).
2
= −(x2 + 2xh + h2 ) − x − h + 2
a. 1. Form an expression for
= −x2 − 2xh − h2 − x − h + 2
f (x − h) = − (x − h)2 − (x − h) + 2
f(x − h). = −(x2 − 2xh + h2 ) − x + h + 2
2. Form an expression for
= −x2 + 2xh − h2 − x + h + 2
−x2 − 2xh − h2 − x − h + 2 − −x2 + 2xh − h2 − x + h + 2

f ′(x) ≈
( )
3. Substitute the
−x − 2xh − h − x − h + 2 + x2 − 2xh + h2 + x − h − 2
expressions into the 2h
≈
2 2
central difference
−4xh − 2h
approximation 2h
≈
formula, then expand
and simplify.
2h (−2x − 1)
2h
≈ −2x − 1
2h
b. For the point (−2, 0), x = −2.

The gradient at this point is f ′(−2).
b. Calculate the gradient at the
f ′(−2) = −(−2) − 1
given point.
=3
Therefore, the gradient at the point (−2, 0) is 3.
5.2.2 The derivative of xn

Differentiating by the central difference approximation is quite a tedious method, but there are rules to shortcut
polynomial function when f(x) = xn . This general formula can also be used when n ∈ R.
the process, depending on the function. Units 1 and 2 of Mathematical Methods covered differentiation of a
Differentiation of f(x) = xn
If f(x) = axn , f ′ (x) = naxn−1 , where n ∈ R and a ∈ R
and
if f(x) = g(x) ± h(x), f ′ (x) = g′ (x) ± h′ (x).
WORKED EXAMPLE 2 Differentiation using f(x) = xn
x − 3x3
Differentiate the following.
a. f(x) = x − +4 b. y =
√
31
2x 4x2
THINK WRITE
a. f(x) = x3 − +4
1
a. 1. Rewrite the equation with negative indices.
= x3 − x−1 + 4
2x
1
2
f ′ (x) = 3x2 + x−2

1
2. Differentiate each term separately.
2
f ′ (x) = 3x2 +
1
3. Write the answer with positive indices.
2x2
x − 3x3
y=
√
b. 1. Split
√ the fraction into two terms and rewrite b.
x using a fractional index. 4x2
= −
1
x2 3x3
4x2 4x2
−3
= − x
x 2 3
2. Simplify each term by applying the index
laws. 4 4
−5
=− × −
dy 3 x 2 3
dx 2 4 4
=− −
3 3
4. Simplify and write the answer with positive
5 4
indices. 8x 2
TI | THINK DISPLAY/WRITE TI | THINK DISPLAY/WRITE

a. 1. On a Calculator a. 1. On the Main screen,
page, press select:
MENU, then • Action
select: • Calculation
4: Calculus • diff
1: Derivative Complete the entry line
Complete the entry as:
diff x − +4
line(as: 1
( )
x − +4
3
dy 3 1
)
2x
dx 2x then press EXE. Click
then press the ‘Simp’ icon to
ENTER. simplify the answer.
x3 − + 4 = 3x2 + 2 x3 − +4 =
dy 1 1 dy 1
( ) ( )
2. The answer 2. The answer appears on
3x +
appears on the dx 2x 2x the screen. dx 2x
2 1
screen.
2x2

WORKED EXAMPLE 3 Finding the gradient of a curve
a. If f(x) = − x2 , calculate the gradient of the curve when x = −2.

3
b. If f(x) = 2 x − 4, determine the coordinates of the point where the gradient is 2.

x
√
THINK WRITE
f(x) = − x2
3
a. 1. Rewrite the equation with negative indices a.
= 3x−1 − x2
and differentiate each term. x
f ′ (x) = −3x−2 − 2x
= − 2 − 2x
3
x
2. The gradient of the curve when x = −2 is f ′ (−2) = − − 2 × −2

3
(2, 0). (−2)2
= − +4
3
4
=
13
4
f(x) = 2 x − 4
√ √
b. 1. Rewrite x with a fractional index and b.
= 2x 2 − 4
differentiate each term.
1
f ′ (x) = x
−1
2
=√
1
x
2= √
1
f ′ (x) = 2.
2. Finding where the gradient is 2 means solving
2 x=1
x
x=
√
√ 1
x=
2
1
4
=2 −4
√
1 1 1
( ) ( )
3. Find f to determine the y-value where f
= 2× −4
4 4 4
the gradient is 2. 1
= −3
2
, −3 .
1
( )
4. Write the answer. The gradient is 2 at the point
4

a. 1. On a Calculator page, a. 1. On the Main screen,
4: Calculus • Interactive
2: Derivative at a Point… • Calculation
Complete the fields as: • diff
Variable: x Select ‘Derivative at
Value: 1: value’, then complete
Expression: − x2
Derivative: 1st Derivative the fields as:
then select OK. 3
Complete the entry line x
Variable: x
− x |x = −2
as: (
Value: −2
d 3 Order: 1
)
2
dx x
then press ENTER. Select OK.
2. The answer appears on ( x = −2,

When 2. The answer appears When x = −2,
− x2 = . − x2 = .
the screen. d 3 13 on the screen.
)
d 3 13
( )
dx x 4 dx x 4
b. 1. On a Calculator page, b. 1. On the Main screen,
1: Actions • Interactive
Complete the entry line Complete the fields
Define f 1(x) = 2 x − 4
as: √ as:
Func name: f
Expression: 2 x − 4
then press ENTER. Variable/s: x √
then select OK.
2. Press MENU, then select: 2. Complete the next

3: Algebra entry line as:
diff f (x) = 2, x
1: Solve solve
( ( ) )
Press MENU, then select:
4: Calculus then press EXE.
1: Derivative
Complete the entry line
as: (
( f1(x)) = 2, x
d
)
solve
dx
then press ENTER.

3. Complete the next entry 3. Complete the next

line as: entry line as:
1
( )
1
( )
f1 f
4 4
4. The answer appears on The

( gradient
) is 2 at the point 4. The answer appears The gradient
) is 2 at the point
, −3 . , −3 .
the screen. 1 on the screen. 1
(
4 4
5.2.3 Graphs of the gradient function

The previous section shows that the derivative of the function f(x) = xn is one degree lower: f ′ (x) = nx n−1 . This
also applies to the gradient graphs of these functions. For example, if f(x) is a quadratic graph, f ′ (x) will be a
linear graph; if f(x) is a cubic graph, f ′ (x) will be a quadratic graph, and so on.
Gradient function f ′ (x)

A line of the form y = mx + c is degree one, and the
Given function f(x)
is a line parallel to the x-axis, y = m, degree zero.

The gradient is a constant value, so the gradient graph
gradient is m.
Example: Example:
y y
f ′(x) = 2
f (x) = 2x + 1
(0, 2)
(– –12 , 0) (0, 1)
x 0 x
0
A quadratic of the form y = ax2 + bx + c is degree A line of the form y = mx + c is degree one.
Example: The line shown has an x-intercept at x = − .
two. 1
minimum at x = − .
Example: The function shown has a local 2
1 y
2
y f (x) = (x + 3)(x – 2)
f ′(x) = 2x + 1
(– 12 , 0)
0 x
0 x
(– –21 , –6 –14)
A cubic of the form y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d is degree A quadratic of the form y = ax2 + bx + c is degree two.
Example: The curve shown has x-intercepts at x ≃ −1.8
and x ≃ 1.1.
three.
x ≃ −1.8 and x ≃ 1.1.

Example: The function shown has turning points at
f ′(x) = 3x2 + 2x – 6
y y
f (x) = x3 + x2 – 6x – 3
(–1.8, 5.2)
(–1.8, 0) (1.1, 0)
0 x
0 x
(1.1, –7.1)
Sometimes f(x) may not be a known function, so the features of the graph of f(x) need to be studied carefully in
order to sketch the gradient graph.
Summary of features for derivative graphs

• Turning points on the graph of f(x) represent x-intercepts on the graph of f ′ (x).
• Where the graph of f(x) has a positive gradient, the graph of f ′ (x) is above the x-axis.
• Where the graph of f(x) has a negative gradient, the graph of f ′ (x) is below the x-axis.
Existence of a gradient
single tangent must be able to be drawn at x = a for f ′ (a) to exist.

The gradient of a function only exists where the graph is smooth and continuous. That is, a
WORKED EXAMPLE 4 Sketching a derivative graph and its domain

′
a. The graph of the cubic function f (x) is shown. Sketch the derivative function, f (x).
y
y = f (x)
(2.2, 3.1)
(–1, 0) (3, 0)
(1, 0) x
0
(0, –3)
(–0.2, –3.1)

′
b. State the domain of the gradient function, f (x), for the function shown.
y
(4, 4)
(1, 4)
y = f (x)
(6, 0)
0 x
(1, –2)
THINK WRITE
a. The turning points are points of zero gradient, so a. y
f ′ (x).
these points will correspond to x-intercepts on
f ′ (x) lies above the x-axis where the gradient is y = f ′(x)
Where the gradient is negative is where f ′ (x) lies

positive.
(–0.2, 0) (2.2, 0)
Use this information to sketch f ′ (x).

below the x-axis.
0 x
b. For the gradient to exist, the graph must be b. The domain is R \ {1, 4}.
exist at x = 1 or at x = 4.
smooth and continuous. The gradient doesn’t
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Graph of a derivative function (int-5961)
5.2.4 Equations of tangents and perpendicular lines
gradient value, its equation can be found using y − y1 = m(x − x1 ).

A tangent is a straight line. If we are given one point and the y
For the tangent to a curve y = f(x) at a point P, the gradient m is

found by evaluating the curve’s derivative, f ′ (x), at P, the point
Tangent
point (x1 , y1 ) on the line.

y = f (x)
of contact or point of tangency. The coordinates of P provide the
P
0 x
Important features of tangent lines

• The angle of inclination of the tangent to the horizontal can be calculated using m = tan(𝜃).
• The gradient of a line perpendicular to the tangent is found using mT mP = −1. That is, if the
• Tangents that are parallel to each other have the same gradient.
gradient of a tangent is mT , then the gradient of a perpendicular line, mP , is −

1
.
mT
• The gradient of a horizontal tangent is zero.
• The gradient of a vertical tangent is undefined.
WORKED EXAMPLE 5 Finding equations of tangent and perpendicular lines
Consider the function f(x) = (1 − x)(x − 3)(x − 6). The y

graph of this function is shown.
a. Determine the equation of the tangent to the curve at
(0, 18)
the
point (4, 6). f (x) = (1 – x)(x – 3)(x – 6)
b. Determine the equation of the line perpendicular to the
tangent at the point (4, 6).
(1, 0) (3, 0) (6, 0)

0 x
a. f(x) = (1 − x)(x − 3)(x − 6)

THINK WRITE
= (1 − x)(x2 − 9x + 18)
a. 1. Expand f(x).
= −x3 + 10x2 − 27x + 18
2. Find the derivative of f(x). f ′ (x) = −3x2 + 20x − 27
3. Find the gradient at x = 4. f ′ (4) = −3(4)2 + 20(4) − 27

= −48 + 80 − 27
=5
m = 5 and (x1 , y1 ) = (4, 6)
formula y − y1 = m (x − x1 ). y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
4. Substitute the appropriate values into the
y − 6 = 5(x − 4)
y − 6 = 5x − 20
y = 5x − 14

b. mP = −
1
b. 1. Find the gradient of the line perpendicular to
=−
the tangent. mT
1
5
m = − and (x1 , y1 ) = (4, 6)

1
2. Find the equation of the perpendicular line.
y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
5
y − 6 = − (x − 4)
1
y−6 = − x+
5
1 4
y = − x+ +
5 5
1 4 30
y = − x+
5 5 5
1 34
5 5
5y = −x + 34
or
x + 5y = 34

a. 1. On a Calculator page, press a. 1. On the Main screen,
MENU, then select: select:
9: Tangent Line • Calculation
Complete the entry line as: • line
((1 − x)(x − 3)(x − 6), x, 4)

tangentLine • tanLine
Complete the fields
then press ENTER. as:
(1 − x) (x − 3) (x − 6)
Expression:
Variable: x
Point: 4
then select OK.
curve at x = 4 is y = 5x − 14.
2. The answer appears on the The equation of the tangent to the 2. The answer appears The equation of the
x = 4 is y = 5x − 14.
screen. on the screen. tangent to the curve at
b. 1. On a Calculator page, press b. 1. On the Main screen,

A: Normal Line • Calculation
Complete the entry line as: • line
((1 − x)(x − 3)(x − 6), x, 4)

normal Line • normal
Complete the fields
then press ENTER. as:
(1 − x) (x − 3) (x − 6)
Expression:
Variable: x
Point: 4
then select OK.
The answer appears on the The equation of the normal to the The answer appears The equation of the
curve at x = 4 is y = − .
2. 2.
screen. 34 x on the screen. normal to the curve at
x = 4 is y = − + .
5 5 x 34
5 5
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Equations of tangents (int-5962)
5.2 Exercise

1. WE1 Consider the function f(x) = (2 − x) + 1.

Technology free
a. Determine the central difference approximation, f ′(x).

2
b. Hence, evaluate the gradient of the curve at the point (1, 2).
2. For the following functions, determine the central difference approximation, f ′(x).
a. f(x) = 12 − x b. f(x) = 3x2 − 2x − 21

2 x − x4
3. WE2 Differentiate the following.
a. f(x) = 4x3 + + b. y =
√
1 1
4− x
2
3x 2 5x3
c. f(x) = (x + 3)(x2 + 1) d. y = √
√
x3
10x − 2x3 + 1
4. Differentiate the following.
a. y = − +4 b. f(x) =
3 1
(3 − x)3
4x 5 2x x4
c. y = x − √ d. f(x) =
√ 1
2 x 2x
a. If f(x) = − + 2x, calculate the gradient of the curve when x = − .

1 1
5. WE3
2x − 4
2 2
x
b. If f(x) = , determine the coordinates of the point where the gradient is 1.
x
a. f(x) = x2 − 3 at x = 2 b. f(x) = (3 − x) (x − 4) at x = 1
6. Determine the gradient of the tangent to each of the following curves at the specified point.
c. f(x) = (x − 2) at x = 4 d. f(x) = x− + 2x at x = 4
3
√ 3
7. If y = (x − a) (x2 − 1), calculate the gradient of the curve when x = −2 in terms of a.

x
8. WE4 a. The graph of f(x) is shown. Sketch the graph of the derivative function, f ′ (x).
y
(–5, 0) (1, 0)
0 x
y = f (x)
(0, –5)
(–2, –9)
b. State the domain of the gradient function, f ′ (x), for the function shown.
y
(0, 2)
y = f (x)
0 x
(–2, –2) (2, –2)
9. The graph of f(x) is shown. Analyse this function and sketch the graph of f ′ (x).
(0, 8)
y = f (x)
(–2, 0) 0 x
10. For the following graphs:

i. state the domain of the gradient function, f ′ (x)
ii. sketch the graph of f ′ (x).
a. y b. y
y = f (x)
(0, 1)
y = f (x)
1 x 0 y=0 x
––
2 3
c. y d. y
(2, 3)
(4, 3)
y = f (x) y = f (x)
(–5, 0)
0 (1, 0) x (0, 0) (4, 0) x
(0, –1)
(0, –3)
(–2, –3)
a. Determine the equation of the tangent to the curve with equation y = x(x − 2) (x − 4) at the
point (3, −3).
2
11. WE5
b. Determine the equation of the line perpendicular to the tangent at the point (3, –3).

a. f(x) = (x + 1)(x + 3) at x = −5 b. f(x) = 8 − x3 at x = a

12. Determine the equations of the tangents to the following curves at the specified points.
c. f(x) = 2 x − 5 at x = 3 d. f(x) = −
− 4x at x = −2
√ 2
x
a. f(x) = (x + 1)(x + 3) at x = −5 b. f(x) = 8 − x3 at x = a

13. Determine the equation of the line perpendicular to the tangent for each of the following functions.
c. f(x) = 2 x − 5 at x = 3 d. f(x) = − − 4x at x = −2
√ 2
14. a. Determine the equation of the tangent to the curve f(x) = −(x − 2) + 3 that is parallel to the line
x
y = 3x + 4.
2
b. Determine the equation of the tangent to the curve f(x) = − + 1 that is perpendicular to the line
2
2y − 2 = −4x.
x2
15. a. Sketch the graphs of y = (x + 2) (2 − x) and y = x2 (4 − x) on the one set of axes.

Technology active
b. Determine the point(s) of intersection of the two curves, giving coordinates correct to 2 decimal places
c. If P is the point of intersection where x ∈ Z, use first principles to calculate the gradient of the tangents to
where appropriate.
each of the curves at this point.

16. a. Use CAS technology to sketch y = x(x − 2) (x + 3) and y = (2 − x) (x + 3) (x − 3) on the same set of axes.
b. Determine the coordinates of the point of intersection between the graphs where 1 < x < 2.
part b for the cubic function defined by y = x(x − 2) (x + 3).

c. Determine the equation of the tangent and the line perpendicular to the tangent at the point defined in
17. The equation of a tangent to a given parabola is y = −2x + 5. The equation of the line perpendicular to this
tangent is y = x + . The parabola also has a stationary point at (0, 4). Determine the equation of the
1 5
2 2
parabola and hence sketch the parabola, the tangent and the line perpendicular to the tangent, on the one set
of axes.
18. The tangent to a parabolic curve at x = 4 has the equation y = −x + 6. The curve also passes through the
points (0, −10) and (2, 0). Determine the equation of the curve.
19. The tangent to a cubic function at the point x = 2 has a rule defined by y = 11x − 16. The cubic passes
through the origin as well as the point (−1, 0). Determine the equation of the cubic function.
20. A line perpendicular to the graph of y = 2 x has the equation y = −2x + m, where m is a real constant.
√
Determine the value of m.
5.2 Exam questions
The tangent to the graph of y = x3 − ax2 + 1 at x = 1 passes through the origin.

MC
The value of a is
1 3 5
A. B. 1 C. D. 2 E.
2 2 2
Part of the graph of y = f(x) is shown below.

MC
x
O 5 6
The corresponding part of the graph of y = f ′(x) is best represented by

A. y B. y
x x
O 56 O 5 6
C. y D. y
x
O 56
x
O 5 6
E. y
x
O 5 6


MC Part of the graph of a cubic polynomial function f and the coordinates of its stationary points are
shown below.
y
50
(–3, 36)
x
–6 O 5
5 , –400
3 27
f ′(x) < 0 for the interval

–50
B. (−∞, −5) ∪ (0, 3) C. (−∞, −3) ∪ ,∞

5
( )
A. (0, 3)
−400
3
−3, , 36
5
( ) ( )
D. E.
3 27
5.3 Differentiation of exponential functions

LEARNING INTENTION
• calculate derivative of an exponential function
• determine the gradient and equation of a tangent to an exponential function.
5.3.1 The derivative of the exponential function

We can find the derivative of the exponential function as follows.
f(x + h) − f(x)
f ′ (x) = lim
f(x) = ex
h→0 h
f(x + h) = ex+h
f(x + h) − f(x)
If f ′ (x) = lim
−
h
then f ′ (x) = lim
h→0
x+h
e ex
− 1)
h
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0
x h
e (e
−1
h
f ′ (x) = ex lim
h→0
h
e
h→0 h
eh − 1
We don’t know the value of lim , but we can investigate by substituting different values for h and looking
h→0 h
at what happens to the limit as the value of h approaches zero.
eh − 1
If h = 1, = 1.7183
eh − 1
h
h = 0.1, = 1.0517
eh − 1
h
h = 0.01, = 1.0050
eh − 1
h
h = 0.001, = 1.0005
eh − 1
h
h = 0.001, = 1.000 05
eh − 1
h
From these results, we can see that as the value of h gets smaller and approaches zero, the value of
h
approaches 1:
eh − 1
f ′ (x) = ex lim
h→0 h
eh − 1
Therefore, as lim = 1, f ′ (x) = ex .
h→0 h
Derivative of ex
If f (x) = ex , then f ′(x) = ex .
The derivative of the exponential function is itself.
Note: This rule only applies to exponential functions of base e.
The following can be shown using the chain rule, which will be introduced in the next topic.
Derivative of ekx and eg(x)

If f(x) = ekx , then f ′ (x) = kekx
and
if f(x) = eg(x) , then f ′ (x) = g′ (x)eg(x) .

WORKED EXAMPLE 6 Determining derivatives of exponential functions
Determine the derivative of each of the following functions with respect to x.

e2x + 3ex − 1
a. y = e 2 b. y = e + ex c. y = d. y = (ex − 2)2
−1x 1 2x 2
4 e2x
THINK WRITE
y=e
−1x
a. 1. Write the equation to be differentiated. a. 2
(e ) with k = − . =− e 2
d kx 1 dy 1 −1x
2. Apply the rule for
dx 2 dx 2
y = e2x + ex
1 2
b. 1. Write the equation to be differentiated. b.
4
= g′ (x)eg(x) and = × 2e2x + 2xex

d ( g(x) ) dy 1 2
2. Apply the rule e
= e2x + 2xex
dx dx 4
differentiate each term separately. 1 2
e2x + 3ex − 1
c. 1. Write the equation to be differentiated. c. y=
e2x
= + 2x − 2x
e2x 3ex 1
2. Split the right-hand side into three separate
= 1 + 3e−x − e−2x
2x
terms and divide through by e2x . e e e
e = kekx and = −3e−x + 2e−2x

d ( kx ) dy
3. Apply the rule
= − x + 2x
dx dx
differentiate each term separately. 3 2
e e
d. 1. Write the equation to be differentiated. d. y = (ex − 2)2
2. Expand the right-hand side. = e2x − 4ex + 4
= 2e2x − 4ex
dy
dx
WORKED EXAMPLE 7 Determining equations of tangents of exponential functions
a. Determine the gradient of the tangent to the curve with equation y = e−x at the point where x = 1.
b. i. Determine the equation of the tangent to the curve y = e−x at the point where x = 1.
ii. Hence, determine the equation of the line perpendicular to this tangent.
THINK WRITE
a. 1. The gradient of the tangent is given by y = e−x

= −e−x
a.
dy dy
.
dx dx
2. Substitute x = 1. = −e−1
dy
=−
dx
1
The gradient of the curve is − .

e
1
e
b. i. 1. We have the gradient but we need a point. b. x = 1:

y = e−1
when x = 1. =
Determine the corresponding y-value
1
e
2. Use y − y1 = m(x − x1 ) to find the equation If (x1 , y1 ) = 1, and m = −

1 1
( )
y − = − (x − 1)
of the tangent. e e
1 1
y− = − x+
e e
1 1 1
y = − x+
e e e
1 2
= − (x − 2)
e e
1
The equation of the tangent is y = − (x − 2).

e
1
mP = − (−e)
e
=e
ii. 3. A line perpendicular to a tangent has a
the gradient of the tangent: mP = − .

gradient that is the negative reciprocal of
1
mT
If (x1 , y1 ) = 1, and m = e:
1
( )
4. The perpendicular
( line)passes through e
y − = e(x − 1)
1
the same point, 1, . Use
y − y1 = m(x − x1 ) to find the equation of
1
e
y − = ex − e
e
the perpendicular line. 1
y = ex − e +
e
1
e
The equation of the perpendicular line is
y = ex − e + .
1
e

5.3 Exercise

Technology free
4ex − e−x + 2
1. WE6 Determine the derivative of each of the following functions with respect to x.
b. 3x4 − e−2x c. y = d. y = e2x − 3

−1x 2 )2
a. e 3
(
3x
3e
2. Differentiate the following with respect to x.
a. 5e−4x + 2e b. e 2 + c. 4e3x − − 3e −3x+2

−
x 1 3 1 6 √x
x e
e5x − e−x + 2 ex (2 − e−3x )

3 2
f. (e2x + 3) (e−x − 1)
e−x
d. e.
e2x
3. Consider the function defined by the rule
f(x) = e3x + e−x .

1
2
Determine the gradient of the curve when x = 0.

4. Calculate the exact gradients of the tangents to the given functions at the specified points.
a. y = 2e−x at x = 0 b. y = at x =
4 1
2x 2
c. y = e at x = d. y = 2x − e x at x = 0
e
1 3x 1
2 3
a. Determine the gradient of the tangent to the curve with equation y = e2x at the point where x = 0.
b. i. Determine the equation of the tangent to the curve y = e2x at the point where x = 0.
5. WE7
ii. Hence, determine the equation of the line perpendicular to this tangent.
6. Determine the equations of the tangent and the line perpendicular to the curve with equation y = e−3x + 4 at
the point where x = 0.
7. Determine the equations of the tangent and the line perpendicular to the curve y = e−3x − 2 at the point
where x = 0.
8. Determine the equations of the tangent and the line perpendicular to the curve y = e x + 1 at the point
where x = 3.
√
9. Determine the equation of the tangent to the curve y = ex +3x−4 at the point where x = 1.
2
Technology active
The equation of the tangent to the curve with equation y = e−2x at the point where x = − is:
1
10. MC
A. y = −2ex + e B. y = 2ex C. y = 2ex + 1

2
D. y = −2ex − x E. y = −2ex
11. a. The graphs of the equations y = 2e−2x + 1 and y = x3 − 3x are y

shown. Determine the coordinates of the point of intersection,
giving your answer correct to 2 decimal places. y = 2e–2 x + 1
b. Calculate the gradient of the tangent to the cubic at this point.
12. Determine the exact value for f ′ (2) if f(x) = 32x−4 .
13. Determine the derivative of the function f(x) = e −2x+3

− 4 and hence
y=1
0 x
calculate:
a. f ′ (−2) in exact form
b. {x ∶ f ′ (x) = −2}. y = x3 – 3x
e3x + 2
14. Determine the derivative of the function f(x) = and
ex
hence calculate:
a. f ′ (1) in exact form
b. {x ∶ f ′ (x) = 0}.
15. The curve with the rule A = A0 e−0.69t passes through the point (0, 2).
a. Determine the value of A0 .
when t = 0.
dA
b. Determine
16. For the function with the rule f(x) = Aex + Be−3x , where A and B are non-zero real constants, determine f ′ (x)
dt
and show that f ′ (x) = 0 when e4x =

3B
.
A
5.3 Exam questions
Question 1 (1 mark) TECH-FREE
Differentiate y = 2e−3x with respect to x.

Source: VCE 2021, Mathematical Methods Exam 1, Q1a; © VCAA.
If the tangent to the graph of y = eax , a ≠ 0, at x = c passes through the origin, then c is equal to
E. −
MC
1 1
A. 0 B. C. 1 D. a
a a
e2x + e−2x
Find the derivative of y = .

ex

5.4 Applications of exponential functions

LEARNING INTENTION
• find derivatives of exponential functions and apply differentiation to real-world applications.
5.4.1 Applications of exponential functions

Exponential functions are commonly used to model a number of real-world applications, including Newton’s
Law of Cooling, population growth and decay, cell growth and decay, and radioactive decay.
A general equation to represent exponential growth and decay is given by
A = A0 ekt
where A0 is the initial amount and k is a constant.

If the equation represents growth, then k is a positive value. If the equation represents decay, then k is a negative
value.
WORKED EXAMPLE 8 Application of exponential functions
The number of bacterial cells on a culture plate, N, can be defined by the rule
N(t) = 2000e0.3t , t ≥ 0
where t is the time in seconds the culture has been multiplying.

a. Determine how many bacterial cells are initially present.
b. Determine how many bacterial cells, to the nearest whole number, are present after 10 seconds.
c. Determine the rate at which the population of bacteria is multiplying after 10 seconds. Give your
answer correct to the nearest whole number.
a. 1. Initially t = 0, so substitute this value a. N(0) = 2000e0.3(0)

THINK WRITE
into the rule. = 2000

2. Write the answer. Initially there are 2000 bacterial cells present.
b. 1. Substitute t = 10. b. N(10) = 2000e0.3 10
= 2000e3
( )
= 40 171
2. Write the answer. After 10 seconds there are 40 171 bacterial cells present.
= 600e0.3t
dN dN
c. 1. represents the required rate. c.
dt dt
2. Substitute t = 10. = 600e0.3(10)

dN
= 600e3
dt
= 12 051
3. Write the answer with the correct units. After 10 seconds the bacterial cells are growing at a rate of
12 051 per second.
5.4 Exercise

1. The graph shown is that of the function f ∶ R → R, f(x) = e2x + qex + 3,

Technology free
y
where q is a constant.
a. Determine the value of q.
b. Calculate the exact value of m, where m is a constant and (m, 0) are
c. Determine the derivative function, f ′ (x).

the coordinates of the point where the function intersects the x-axis.
d. Calculate the gradient of the curve where it intersects the y-axis. (0, 0) (m, 0) x
f ∶ R → R, f(x) = e −2x
+ ze
−x
+ 2, where z is a constant.
2. The graph shown is that of the function y
a. Determine the value of z.

b. Calculate the exact value of n, where n is a constant and (n, 0) are
c. Determine the derivative function, f ′ (x).

the coordinates of the point where the graph intersects the x-axis.
d. Calculate the gradient of the curve where it passes through the (n, 0) (0, 0) x
origin.
Technology active
3. WE8 The mass, M grams, of a radioactive substance is initially 20 grams; 30 years later its mass is
19.4 grams. If the mass in any year is given by
M = M0 e−0.00152t
where t is the time in years and M0 is a constant, determine:

a. the value of M0
b. the annual rate of decay
c. the rate of decay after 30 years.

4. The intensity of light decreases as it passes through water. The

phenomenon can be modelled by the equation
I = I0 e−0.0022d
where I0 is the intensity of light at the surface of the water and I is the
intensity of light at a depth of d metres below the surface of the water.
a. Calculate the intensity of light at a depth of 315 metres.
b. Determine the rate at which the intensity of light is decreasing at
315 metres.
5. An unstable gas decomposes in such a way that the amount present, A units, at time t minutes is given by the
equation
A = A0 e−kt
where k and A0 are constants. It was known that initially there were 120 units of unstable gas.
a. Determine the value of A0 .
dA
b. Show that is proportional to A.
dt
d. Determine the rate at which the gas is decomposing when t = 5. Give your answer correct to 3 decimal
c. After 2 minutes there were 90 units of the gas left. Calculate the value of k.
places.
e. Explain whether there will ever be no gas left.
6. The bilby is an endangered species that can be found in the

Kimberley in Western Australia as well as some parts of South
Australia, the Northern Territory and Queensland. The gestation
time for a bilby is 2 to 3 weeks and when they are born, they are
only about 11 mm in length. The growth of a typical bilby can
be modelled by the rule
L = L0 e0.599t
where L0 is its length in millimetres at birth and L is the length

of the bilby in millimetres t months after its birth.
a. Determine the value of L0 .
b. Determine the rate of change of length of the bilby at time t months.
c. Determine the rate at which the bilby is growing when it is 3 months old. Give your answer correct to
3 decimal places.
7. The population of Australia since 1950 can be modelled by
the rule
P = P0 e0.016t
where P0 is the population in millions at the beginning of

1950 and P is the population in millions t years after 1950.
It is known that there were 8.2 million people in Australia at
the beginning of 1950.
a. Calculate the population in millions at the beginning of 2015, correct to 1 decimal place.
b. Determine the year and month in which the population reaches 20 million.
c. Determine the rate of change of population at the turn of the century, namely the year 2000, correct to
2 decimal places.
d. Determine the year in which the rate of increase of the population is predicted to exceed 400 000 people
per year.
8. An entrance to a local suburban park has a series of posts connected with heavy chains as shown.
h
h = 0.295(ex + e–x)
Chain
Post Post
Ground
0 x
–0.6 0.6
The chain between any two posts can be modelled by the curve defined by
h = 0.295(ex + e−x ), −0.6 ≤ x ≤ 0.6
midpoint of the posts. The x-axis represents the ground. The posts are positioned at x = −0.6 and x = 0.6.
where h metres is the height of the chain above the ground and x metres is the horizontal distance from the
a. Calculate the amount of sag in the chain (i.e. the difference in height between the highest points of the
chain and the lowest point of the chain). Give your answer in centimetres.
x = 0.6). Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.

b. Calculate the angle the chain makes with the post positioned on the right-hand side of the structure (i.e. at
9. The graph of the function f ∶ R → R, f(x) = e−x − 0.5e−2x is shown. y

a. Calculate the coordinates of the point at which the graph crosses
b. Determine f ′ (x).
the y-axis. f (x) = e–x – 0.5e–2x
c. Calculate the coordinates of the point at which the gradient is

equal to zero. 0 x
d. Calculate the angle, correct to 1 decimal place, that the graph
the graph cuts the x-axis at − loge (2), 0 .

makes with the positive direction of the )x-axis if it is known that
e. Determine the equation of the tangent to the curve when x = 1.

(
when x = 1.
f. Determine the equation of the line perpendicular to the curve
x2 − 5
10. Consider the curve with equation y = 2
. Using CAS:
2ex
dy
a. calculate
dx
b. determine the exact coordinates of the points on the curve where the gradient is equal to zero
c. calculate the gradient of the tangent to the curve at x = , giving your answer correct to 3 decimal places.
3
2

11. The cane toad, originally from South America, is an invasive

species in Australia. Cane toads were introduced to Australia
from Hawaii in June 1935 in an attempt to control cane beetles,
though this proved to be ineffective.
In a controlled experiment at a particular waterhole, it was
observed that at the beginning of the experiment there were
an estimated 30 000 tadpoles (future cane toads) in the water.
The number of tadpoles increased by about 60 000 a day over
the period of a week. This growth pattern can be defined by the
equation
T = T0 ekt
where T0 is the initial number of cane toad tadpoles (in thousands) at the waterhole during the time of the
experiment, T is the number of cane toad tadpoles (in thousands) at the waterhole t days into the experiment,
and k is a constant.
b. Calculate how many cane toad tadpoles are in the waterhole after a week if it is known that k = 0.387 .
a. Calculate the value of T0 .
Give your answer to the nearest thousand.

c. Determine the rate at which the cane toad tadpole numbers are increasing after 3 days.
After a week, no more tadpoles could be supported by the C
habitat. In favourable conditions, tadpoles take about 2
weeks to develop into small cane toads, at which point they
leave the water. Once the small cane toads emerged, meat
ants were introduced into their environment. This caused
90% of the cane toads to be killed off over a period of a
week. The growth and decline of the tadpoles/cane toads
is shown.
The decline in the number of young cane toads can be
defined by the equation
C = C0 emt 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
t
where C0 is the number of young cane toads (in thousands) just before the meat ants were introduced, C
is the number of young cane toads (in thousands) t days after the meat ants were introduced, and m is a
constant.
d. Determine the value of C0 .
e. Determine how many young cane toads still survived a week after the meat ants were introduced.
f. Determine m and the rate of decline in the number of cane toads after 4 days.
5.4 Exam questions
A body that is at a higher temperature than its surroundings cools according to Newton’s Law of Cooling, which
states that
T = T0 e−zt
where T0 is the original excess of temperature, T is the excess of temperature in degrees centigrade after
a. The original temperature of the body was 95 °C and the temperature of the surroundings was 20 °C.
t minutes, and z is a constant.
Determine the value of T0 . (1 mark)
z = 0.034. Give your answer correct to 3 decimal places.

b. Determine the rate at which the temperature is decreasing after a quarter of an hour if it is known that
(1 mark)
The graph of y = Ae−x , where A is a constant, is shown. Answer the following questions correct to 2 decimal
2
places where appropriate.
(0, 5)
0 x
a. If the graph goes through (0, 5), determine the value of A. (1 mark)
dy
b. Calculate . (1 mark)
dx
i. x = −0.5
c. Determine the gradient of the tangent to the curve at the point where:
ii. x = 1
(1 mark)
(1 mark)
The pressure of the atmosphere, P cm of mercury, decreases with the height, h km above sea level, according to
the law
P = P0 e−kh
where P0 is the pressure of the atmosphere at sea level and k is a constant. At 500 m above sea level, the pressure
is 66.7 cm of mercury, and at 1500 m above sea level, the pressure is 52.3 cm of mercury.
a. Determine the values of P0 and k, correct to 2 decimal places. (2 marks)
b. Determine the rate at which the pressure is falling when the height above sea level is 5 km. Give your
answer correct to 2 decimal places. (1 mark)

5.5 Differentiation of trigonometric functions

LEARNING INTENTION
• find derivatives of trigonometric functions sine, cosine and tangent
• determine equations of the tangent to trigonometric functions.
5.5.1 The derivatives of trigonometric functions

The derivatives of sin(x) and cos(x)
The derivative of sin(x) can be determined as follows.
Consider f ∶ R → R, f(x) = sin(x), where x is an angle
y
measurement in radians.
f(x + h) − f(x)
f (x) = lim
′
1
Q
f(x) = sin(x)
h→0 h
f(x + h) = sin(x + h)
S
f(x + h) − f(x) sin(x + h) − sin(x)

R N
=
x+h
+ h) − sin(x)
h h
f ′ (x) = lim
sin(x x
O x
h→0 h P M
To evaluate this limit, we must look at the unit circle.
∠NOM = x, ∠QOM = x + h
𝜋
∠PQO = − (x + h)
𝜋 𝜋
2
∠RQS = − − (x + h)
( )
= x+h
2 2
By definition,
sin(x) = MN
sin(x + h) = PQ
sin(x + h) − sin(x) = PQ − MN = QR
sin(x + h) − sin(x) QR
=
h h
From the diagram, it can be seen that ∠RQS = x + h and the arc QN has length h.
As h → 0, ∠RQS approaches ∠RQN, which approaches x. Furthermore, the arc QN approaches the chord QN.
→ = cos(x).
QR QR QR
Consequently, , but by definition,
h QN QN
Hence,
sin(x + h) − sin(x)
f ′ (x) = lim
= lim
h→0 h
QR
= cos(x)
h→0 h
Derivative of sin(x)
If f(x) = sin(x), then f ′ (x) = cos(x).
The following properties can be shown using the chain rule, which will be introduced in the next topic.
Derivatives of sin(kx) and sin (g(x))

If f(x) = sin(kx), then f ′ (x) = k cos(kx), where k is a constant
and
if f(x) = sin(g(x)), then f ′ (x) = g′ (x) cos(g(x)).
The derivative of cos(x) can also be investigated geometrically, using the same method as shown for sin(x) and
yielding the following result.
Derivative of cos(x)
If f(x) = cos(x), then f ′ (x) = −sin(x).
The following can also be shown using the chain rule.
Derivatives of cos(kx) and cos (g(x))

If f(x) = cos(kx), then f ′ (x) = −k sin(kx), where k is a constant
and
if f(x) = cos(g(x)), then f ′ (x) = −g′ (x) sin(g(x)).
The derivative of tan(x)

Consider the function f : R → R, f(x) = tan(x).
Derivative of tan(x)
If f(x) = tan(x), then f ′ (x) = = sec2 (x).

1
cos2 (x)

In order to prove this differentiation, we would use the trigonometric identity tan(x) =
sin(x)
in conjunction
cos(x)
with the quotient rule, which will also be introduced in the next topic.
The following properties can be shown using the chain rule.
Derivatives of tan(kx) and tan(g(x))
If f(x) = tan(kx), then f ′ (x) = = k sec2 (kx), where k is a constant

k
cos2 (kx)
and
g′ (x)
if f(x) = tan(g(x)), then f′ (x) = = g′ (x) sec2 (g(x)).
cos2 (g(x))
Remember that these rules only apply if the angle x is measured in radians.
WORKED EXAMPLE 9 Finding derivatives of trigonometrical functions and combinations
a. sin(8x) + x4 b. tan(5x) + 2 cos(x2 )

Differentiate each of the following functions with respect to x.
1 − sin2 (x)
c. d. sin(6x°)
cos(x)
THINK WRITE
(sin(kx)) = k cos(kx) and y = sin(8x) + x4

d
a. Apply the rule
= 8 cos(8x) + 4x3
a.
dx dy
differentiate each term separately.
dx
(cos(g(x))) = −g′ (x) sin(g(x)) and y = tan(5x) + 2 cos(x2 )

d
b. Apply the rules b.
(tan(kx)) =
dx
= − 2 × 2x sin(x2 )
d k dy 5
.
dx cos2 (x) 2
dx cos (5x)
= − 4x sin(x2 )
5
2
cos (5x)
1 − sin2 (x)
c. 1. Remember the trigonometric identity sin (𝜃) + y=
cos2 (𝜃) = 1. Use this to simplify the equation.
2
c.
cos(x)
=
cos2 (x)
= cos(x), cos(x) ≠ 0
cos(x)
= − sin(x)
dy
2. Differentiate the simplified function.
dx
𝜋
d. sin(6x°) = sin 6×
( )
d. 1. The function sin(6x°) cannot be differentiated x
𝜋x
as the angle is not measured in radians. 180
𝜋 𝜋c = sin
, as 1° =
Convert the angle to radian measures by
( )
multiplying by . 30
𝜋x
180 180
y = sin
)(
(sin(kx)) = k cos(kx).
2. Differentiate the resultant function by applying
𝜋 𝜋x
d 30
=
the rule
dx dy
( )
cos
dx 30 30
WORKED EXAMPLE 10 Finding the equation of tangent of a trigonometrical function

𝜋
Determine the equation of the tangent to the curve y = sin (3x) + 1 at the point where x = .
3
𝜋
THINK WRITE
When x = ,
𝜋
determine the y-value when x =
1. First find the coordinates of the point; that is,
𝜋
( 3 )
y = sin 3 × +1
.
3
= sin(𝜋) + 1
3
= 0+1
=1
𝜋
,1 .
( )
The point is
3
= 3 cos(3x)
dy
2. Find the derivative of the function.
dx
𝜋 dy 𝜋
x= , = 3 cos 3 ×
𝜋
( )
x=
3. Determine the gradient at the point where
= 3 cos(𝜋)
3 dx 3
.
= 3 (−1)
3
= −3
𝜋
m = −3, (x1 , y1 ) = ,1
( )
y − y1 = m(x − x1 ) to find the equation of the

4. Substitute the appropriate values into the rule
y − y1 = m(x(− x1 ) )
3
𝜋
y − 1 = −3 x −
tangent.
y − 1 = −3x + 𝜋
3
y = −3x + 𝜋 + 1
The equation of the tangent is y = 1 + 𝜋 − 3x.

5.5 Exercise

Technology free
1. WE9 Differentiate each of the following functions with respect to x.
a. 5x + 3 cos(x) + 5 sin(x) b. sin(3x + 2) − cos(3x2 )

1
c. sin(9x)
3
d. 5 tan(2x) − 2x
x
( )
5
e. 8 tan f. tan(9x°)
4
dy
2. For each of the following functions, determine .
𝜋
dx
a. y = 2 cos(3x) b. y = 3 cos −x c. y = −4 sin

x
( ) ( )
𝜋
2 3
d. y = 2 sin + 3x e. y = − tan(5x2 ) f. y = tan(20x)

1
( )
2 2
sin(x) cos2 (2x) − sin(x)

3. Simplify and then differentiate with respect to x.
𝜋
sin(x) sin(2x)
4. WE10 Determine the equation of the tangent to the curve y = − cos(x) at the point where x = .
𝜋
2
5. Determine the equation to the tangent to the curve y = tan (2x) at the point where x = − .
𝜋
8
6. Determine the equation of the tangent to the curve with equation y = 3 cos(x) at the point where x = .
𝜋
6
7. Determine the equation of the tangent to the curve with equation y = 2 tan(x) at the point where x = .
4
8. Determine the equations of the tangent and the line perpendicular to each of the following graphs at the points
indicated.
a. y = sin(3x) at ,0 b. y = cos
2𝜋 x
( ) ( )
at (𝜋, 0)
3 2
9. a. Use both or either of the trigonometric identities sin (𝜃) + cos2 (𝜃) = 1 and tan(𝜃) =
2 sin(𝜃)
to simplify
sin(x) cos(x) + sin2 (x)
cos(𝜃)
sin(x) cos(x) + cos2 (x)

.
d sin(x) cos(x) + sin2 (x)

dx sin(x) cos(x) + cos2 (x)
( )
b. Hence, calculate .
Technology active
A point on the curve with equation y = −2 sin , x ∈ [0, 2𝜋] where the gradient is equal to is:
x 1
( )
10. MC
𝜋 𝜋
2 2
,− 3 ,− 3 , ,− , 3
4𝜋 4𝜋 1 4𝜋 1
( √ ) ( √ ) ( ) ( ) ( √ )
A. B. C. D. E.
3 3 3 2 3 2 3
11. Consider the function f ∶ [0, 2𝜋] → R, f(x) = sin(x) − cos(x). Determine:
a. f(0) b. {x ∶ f(x) = 0} c. f ′ (x) d. {x ∶ f ′ (x) = 0}.
12. Consider the function f ∶ [−𝜋, 𝜋] → R, f(x) = 3 cos(x) + sin(x). Determine:

b. {x ∶ f(x) = 0} d. {x ∶ f ′ (x) = 0}.
√
c. f ′ (x)
𝜋
a. f(0)
13. For the function f(x) = 2x + cos(3x), 0 ≤ x ≤ , determine the point(s) where the gradient is zero. Give your
2
answer correct to 3 decimal places.
𝜋 𝜋
14. For the function f(x) = x − sin(2x), − ≤ x ≤ , determine the point(s) where the gradient is zero. Give your
2 2
15. Determine the angle that the curve with equation y = sin(2x) makes with the positive direction of the x-axis
the first time it intersects the x-axis when x > 0. Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
16. Determine the x-values over the domain x ∈ [−𝜋, 𝜋] for which the gradients of the functions f(x) = sin(2x)
and f(x) = cos(2x) are equal.
5.5 Exam questions

MC Consider the following function.
x≥0
f(x) = {
x<0
sin(x)
0
A. The function is continuous at x = 0 and differentiable at x = 0.

Select the true statement from the following.
B. The function is continuous at x = 0 and not differentiable at x = 0.

C. The function is not continuous at x = 0 and differentiable at x = 0.
D. The function is not continuous at x = 0 and not differentiable at x = 0.
E. The lim f(x) exists and f(0) = 0. Therefore the function is differentiable at x = 0.
x→0
Question 2 (1 mark)
A. 2h′ (cos(2x)) cos(2x) B. h′ (cos(2x)) cos(2x) C. −2h′ (cos(2x))(cos(2x))

MC The derivative of h(cos(2x)) is
D. −2h′ (cos(2x))(sin(2x)) E. 2h′ (cos(2x))(sin(2x))
𝜋
If f(x) = e
Question 3 (1 mark)
′
( )
sin(2x)
MC , then f is equal to
A. − C. −1 D. −2
2
1
B. 0 E. 2
e

5.6 Applications of trigonometric functions

LEARNING INTENTION
• apply differentiation of trigonometric functions to real-world problems.
5.6.1 Problem solving with trigonometric functions

Trigonometric functions can be used to model geometric scenarios in real-life situations where cyclic (or
periodic) phenomena are being investigated.
WORKED EXAMPLE 11 Geometric application of trigonometric functions
The circle shown has a radius of 1 unit. y

a. Show that the area of the triangle OQP is equal to
A = cos(𝜃), where ∠QOX = 𝜃 and 𝜃 is in radian measure.

1P
1
𝜋
2
when 𝜃 = .
dA R Q
b. Evaluate
d𝜃 6
θ
–1 O 1 x
–1
a. 1. Determine the magnitude of ∠RQO. a. As RQ is parallel to the x-axis, ∠RQO = 𝜃

THINK WRITE
because it is alternate to ∠QOX.
cos(𝜃) =
RQ
2. Determine the length of RQ and apply
OQ
A = × base × height. =
the formula for the area of a triangle,
1 RQ
cos(𝜃) = RQ and OP = 1
2 1
Area = × OP × RQ
1
2
= × 1 × cos(𝜃)
1
2
= cos(𝜃) (as required)
1
2
= − sin(𝜃)
dA dA 1
b. 1. Evaluate . b.
d𝜃 d𝜃 2
𝜋 𝜋 dA 𝜋
2. Substitute 𝜃 = 𝜃= , = − sin
1
( )
.
6 6 d𝜃 2 6
=− ×
1 1
2 2
=−
1
4
The previous example involved a geometric application question, but everyday application questions can also be
solved using trigonometric functions, as shown in the example below.
WORKED EXAMPLE 12 Problem solving using a trigonometric function
The temperature on a particular day can be modelled by the function
𝜋t
T(t) = −3 cos + 18, 0 ≤ t ≤ 18
( )
where t is the time in hours after 5:00 am and T is the temperature in degrees Celsius.
For the remaining 6 hours of the 24-hour period, the temperature remains constant.
b. Determine the time(s) of the day at which the temperature is 20 °C. Give your answer correct to the
a. Calculate the temperature at 8:00 am.
nearest minute.
dT
c. Determine .
dt
d. Determine the rate of change of temperature at the time(s) found in part b, correct to 2 decimal
places.
THINK WRITE
a. At 8:00 am, t = 3. Substitute this value into the equation. a. T(3) = −3 cos + 18
3𝜋
) (
9
𝜋
= −3 cos + 18
( )
= −3 × + 18
1
= −1.5 + 18
2
= 16.5 °C
𝜋t
b. 1. Substitute T = 20 into the equation. b. 20 = −3 cos + 18
( )
𝜋t
2. Solve the equation for 0 ≤ t ≤ 18 using CAS. 20 = −3 cos + 18
( )
t = 6.6, 11.4
9
t = 6.6 ⇒ 11:36 am
t = 11.4 ⇒ 4:24 pm
3. Interpret your answers and convert the
t values to times of the day.

4. Write the answer. The temperature is 20 °C at 11:36 am and

4:24 pm.
𝜋 𝜋t
= 3 × sin
dT dT
( )
c. Determine . c.
𝜋 𝜋t
dt dt 9 9
=
( )
sin
3 9
d. 1. Substitute t = 6.6 (11:36 am) and d. When t = 6.6 (11:36 am),
t = 11.4 (4:24 pm) into dT 𝜋 6.6 × 𝜋

=
dT
( )
. sin
= 0.78
dt dt 3 9
When t = 11.4 (4:24 pm),

dT 𝜋 11.4 × 𝜋
=
( )
sin
= −0.78
dt 3 9
rate of 0.78 °C per hour.

2. Write the answer. At 11:36 am, the temperature is increasing at a
rate of 0.78 °C per hour.

At 4:24 pm, the temperature is decreasing at a
5.6 Exercise

Technology free
a. Show that the area, A cm2 , is given by A = 21 sin(𝜃).

1. WE11 Consider the triangle shown.
𝜋
when 𝜃 = .
6 cm
dA
b. Determine
d𝜃 3
spring, L cm after time t seconds, is modelled by the function L(t) = 2 sin(𝜋t) + 10

θ
2. A mass oscillates up and down at the end of a metal spring. The length of the
for t ≥ 0.
7 cm
a. Determine the length of the spring when the mass is not oscillating, that is, when it is at the mean
position, P.
dL
b. Determine .
dt
dL
c. Evaluate the exact value of after 1 second.
dt
3. WE12 Between 6:00 am and 6:00 pm on a given day

the height, H metres, of the tide in a harbour is
given by
𝜋t
H(t) = 1.5 + 0.5 sin , 0 ≤ t ≤ 12.
( )
6
b. Determine the value of H at low tide and the time
when low tide occurs.
dH
c. Determine .
dt
dH
d. Determine the exact value of at 7:30 am.
dt
dH
e. Determine the second time during the given time interval that equals the value found in part d.
dt
𝜋
Technology active
4. Given that f ∶ 0, → R, f (x) = 2 sin (4x) + 1, find:
[ ]
a. the values of x for which f(x) = 0.5, giving your answer correct to 3 decimal places
2
𝜋
c. the value of f ′ (x) when x =
b. the coordinates where the gradient of the function is zero
4
d. the interval over which the gradient is positive.
5. The diagram shows a garden bed bordered by wooden sleepers. BDC is a C
a. Determine BD and CD in terms of a and 𝜃, where a is a constant, 𝜃 is

triangular herb garden and ABDE is a rectangular garden for vegetables.
𝜋
θ
∠BCD as shown and 0 < 𝜃 < . a

2
Herbs
b. Calculate the total length, L metres, of sleepers required to surround the
garden bed. (This should include BD as well as the sleepers defining the B D
perimeter.)
in terms of 𝜃 and a.
dL
c. Determine
𝜋
Vegetables 2m
d. Let a = 2 and use CAS to sketch for 0 < 𝜃 < . Hence, determine when
d𝜃
dL
= 0, correct to 1 decimal place.

d𝜃 2 A E
dL
d𝜃
long, and each diagonal makes an angle of 𝜃 with the horizontal.

6. A wire frame is shaped as shown in the diagram. The diagonals shown are 100 cm
a. Show that the length of wire required to form the shape is given by
𝜋
100 cm
L = 300 cos(𝜃) + 400 sin(𝜃) + 200, 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤

2 θ
where L is the total length of wire in centimetres and 𝜃 is the angle shown in
θ
radians. 100 cm
dL
b. Determine .
d𝜃
required and the value of 𝜃, correct to 2 decimal places, for which this occurs.
c. Use CAS to sketch the graph of L. Determine the maximum length of the wire

7. The figure shows a circular running track with centre O. The track has a radius of 200 metres.
An athlete at a morning training session completes an obstacle course from N to P at a rate of 2 m/s and then
a series of hurdles from P to M along the running track at a rate of 5 m/s.
M θ N
200 m O 200 m
a. If ∠MNP = 𝜃 radians and the total time taken to complete the total course is T seconds, show that
𝜋
T = 40 (5 cos(𝜃) + 2𝜃) , 0 < 𝜃 ≤
2
b. Determine the value of 𝜃 when = 0.

dT
d𝜃
c. Determine the maximum time taken to complete the whole course. Give your answer in minutes and
seconds.
8. A section of a water slide at a local aquatic complex is shown.
7 5
2 ( )
πx
y = – cos — + –
20 2
0 x Water surface
Climbing
tower
The water slide can be defined by the rule
𝜋x
y= + , 0 ≤ x ≤ 20
7 5
( )
cos
2 20 2
where y is the height in metres of the water slide above the water surface and x is the horizontal distance in
metres between the start of the slide and the end of the slide. (Note: The x-axis represents the water surface.)
a. Determine how high a person must climb in order to reach the top of the water slide.
dy
b. Determine .
dx
i. when x = 5 ii. when x = 10.

c. Calculate the exact gradient of the water slide:
d. i. Determine how far, to the nearest whole metre, from the climbing tower does the slide come into
contact with the water surface.
ii. Determine the angle that the slide makes with the water surface at this point. Give your answer correct
to 2 decimal places.
9. The diagram represents the cross-section of a waterfall feature in an Australian h
native garden. It consists of an undulating surface of corrugated plastic with
vertical posts at each end. The relationship that defines this surface can be 7x
expressed by ( )
h(x) = 10 cos — – 5x + 90
2
h (x) = 10 cos − 5x + 90, 0 ≤ x ≤ 4.5

(
7x
) A
where h centimetres represents the vertical height of the water feature and
x metres is the horizontal distance from the left-hand post. The posts
points x = 0 and x = 4.5, as shown.

supporting the undulating surface over which the water falls are situated at the 0 4.5 x
Post Post
a. Determine the coordinates of the end points of the undulating surface. Give your answers correct to the
nearest centimetre.
b. Determine the coordinates of point A, the first point in the interval [0, 4.5] where the gradient of the
c. Determine the slope of the undulating surface at x = 0.4. Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
undulating surface is zero. Give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
10. At a skateboard park, a new skateboard ramp has been h

constructed. A cross-section of the ramp is shown.
x
The equation that approximately defines this curve is given by ()
h(x) = 2.5 – 2.5 cos –
4
h(x) = 2.5 − 2.5 cos , −5 ≤ x ≤ 5

x
( )
where h is the height in metres above the ground level and x is 0 x

–5 5
the horizontal distance in metres from the lowest point of the
Ground
ramp to each end of the ramp.
a. Determine the maximum depth of the skateboard ramp,
giving your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
dh
b. Calculate the gradient of the ramp, .
when x = 3, giving your answer correct to

dx
dh
c. Determine
dx
3 decimal places.
= 0.58, giving your answer correct
dh
d. Determine where
dx

5.6 Exam questions
the size of the angle XZY, 𝜃 radians, and the length of ZM, where M is the midpoint of XY.
The triangle XYZ is inscribed by a circle with radius, r cm. The actual placement of the triangle is dependent on
h
O
X M Y
a. Show that ∠XOM = 𝜃. (1 mark)

b. Show that the relationship between 𝜃, r and h, where h = d (ZM), is given by = cos(𝜃) + 1.
h
(1 mark)
r
dh
c. If the radius of the circle is 3 cm, determine
. (1 mark)
𝜋
when 𝜃 = .
d𝜃
dh
d. Determine the exact value of (1 mark)
d𝜃 6
A mechanism for crushing rock is shown. Rocks are placed on a W

steel platform, S, and a device raises and lowers a heavy mallet, H.
The wheel, W, rotates, causing the upper block, B, to move up and
down. The other wheel, V, is attached to the block, B, and rotates
independently, causing the mallet to move up and down. T is the top
of the block B.
T
by the equation P = −2 cos(mt) + n, where t is the time in minutes

The distance, P metres, between T and the steel platform, is modelled B
and m and n are constants. When t = 0, T is at its lowest point,

4 metres above the steel platform. The wheel, W, rotates at a rate of V
a. Show that n = 6 and m =

1 revolution per 1.5 minutes.
4𝜋
. (2 marks)
3 P
dP
b. Determine . (1 mark)
dt
t = 0.375 minutes.
c. Calculate the exact rate of change of distance when
(1 mark) H
An industrial process is known to cause the production of two separate gases that are released into the
atmosphere. At a factory where this industrial process occurs, the technicians work a 12-hour day from
6:00 am until 6:00 pm.
The emission of the gas X can be modelled by the rule
𝜋t
x(t) = 1.5 sin + 1.5, 0 ≤ t ≤ 12
( )
and the emission of the gas Y can be modelled by the rule
𝜋t
y(t) = 2.0 − 2.0 cos , 0 ≤ t ≤ 12.
( )
The graphs of these two functions are shown.
y
4
y = x(t)
y = y(t)
(12, 1.5)
1.5
0 t
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
a. Determine the time of the day at which the emissions are the same for the first time and how many units
of each gas are emitted at that time. Give your answer correct to 2 decimal places, and remember to note
whether the time is am or pm. (2 marks)
b. The Environment Protection Authority (EPA) has strict rules about the emissions of gases. The total
emission of gases for this particular industrial process is given by
T(t) = x(t) + y(t)
i. Sketch the graph of the function T(t). (2 marks)

ii. Determine the maximum and minimum emissions in a 12-hour working day and the times at which
these occur. (2 marks)
c. If the EPA rules state that all emissions from any one company must lie within the range 0 to 7 units at any
one time, indicate whether this company works within the guidelines. (1 mark)

5.7 Differentiation and application of logarithmic

functions
LEARNING INTENTION
• differentiate logarithmic functions
• determine the equation of the tangent to a logarithmic function.
5.7.1 The derivative of f(x) = loge (x)

The proof for the derivative of y = loge (x) relies heavily on its link to its inverse function, y = ex .
If y = loge (x), then, by the definition of a logarithm, ey = x.
If x = ey , then applying the exponential derivative rule gives = ey .

dx
dy
However, it is known that
= dx
dy 1
dx
= .
dy
dy 1
so
But ey = x
dx ey
= .
dy 1
so therefore,
dx x
loge (x) = .
d ( ) 1
In summary,
dx x
loge (kx) = also.

d ) 1
It is worth noting that
(
dx x
This can be shown by applying the chain rule, which will be introduced in the next topic.
It can also be shown that
) g′ (x)
loge (g(x)) = .
d (
dx g(x)
In summary, the following rules apply for derivatives of logarithmic functions.
Derivatives of logarithmic functions

(loge (x)) =
d 1
dx x
(loge (kx)) =
d 1
dx x
g′ (x)
(loge (g(x))) =
d
dx g(x)
Note: The above rules are only applicable for logarithmic functions of base e.
WORKED EXAMPLE 13 Derivatives of logarithmic functions
Determine the derivative of each of the following. (√ )
d. loge (x2 − 7x + 6)
a. 3 loge (2x) b. 3 loge x
c. 8:
THINK WRITE
loge (kx) = to 3 loge (2x) = 3 ×

d ( ) 1 d ( 1
a. 1. Use the rule
)
a.
dx x dx x
differentiate the function.
=
3
2. Simplify the answer.
x
b. 1. Rewrite the function using x = x 2 . x = 3 loge x 2

1 1
(√ ) ( )
√
b. 3 loge
= 3×
1
2. Simplify the function by applying log laws. loge (x)
=
2
3
loge (x)
2
= ×
d 3 3 1
( )
3. Differentiate the function and simplify. loge (x)
=
dx 2 2 x
3
2x
loge (g(x)) = c. If g(x) = sin(x),

d ( ) g′(x)
g′(x) = cos(x)
c. 1. Use the rule to
dx g(x)
differentiate the function. State g(x) and g′(x).
(loge (sin(x))) =
d cos(x)
2. Substitute g(x) and g′(x) into the derivative
rule. dx sin(x)
1
or
tan(x)
loge (g(x)) = d. If g(x) = x2 − 7x + 6,

d ( ) g′(x)
g′ (x) = 2x − 7
d. 1. Use the rule to
dx g(x)
differentiate the function. State g(x)
2x − 7
and g′(x).
(x − 7x + 6) = 2
x − 7x + 6
d 2
2. Substitute g(x) and g′(x) into the derivative
rule. dx


4: Calculus • Action
1: Derivative • Calculation
Complete the entry line as: • diff
ln x − 7x + 6
d ( ( 2 )) Complete the entry
diff ln x2 − 7x + 6
dx line (as: ( ))
then press ENTER.
then press EXE.
ln x − 7x + 6 ln x − 7x + 6
d ( ( 2 )) d ( ( 2 ))
2. The answer appears on 2. The answer appears
2x − 7 2x − 7
dx dx
= 2 = 2
the screen. on the screen.
x − 7x + 6 x − 7x + 6
5.7.2 Applications of the logarithmic derivative

Questions may also involve the differentiation of logarithmic functions to find the gradient of a curve at a given
point or to find the equations of the tangent (and the perpendicular line) at a given point.
WORKED EXAMPLE 14 Determining equations of tangents and perpendicular lines
The graph of the function f(x) = 0.5 loge (x − 1) is shown. y

a. State the domain and range of f.
b. Calculate the value of the constant a given that (a, 0) is the x-axis y = 0.5 loge (x – 1)
intercept.
c. Determine the equation of the tangent at (a, 0).
0 (a, 0) x
d. Determine the equation of the line perpendicular to the curve
at (a, 0).
x=1
a. Domain = (1, ∞)
THINK WRITE
Range = R
a. State the domain and range of the function.
b. 1. To find the x-intercept, let f(x) = 0. b. 0.5 loge (x − 1) = 0
2. Solve 0.5 loge (x − 1) = 0 for x. loge (x − 1) = 0

e0 = x − 1
1 = x−1
x=2
(a, 0) ≡ (2, 0)
∴a=2
3. Answer the question.
c. 1. Determine the derivative of the function. c. f(x) = 0.5 loge (x − 1)
f ′ (x) = ×
2 x−1
1 1
=
2(x − 1)
1
2. Substitute x = 2 into the derivative to find the f ′ (2) =

2(2 − 1)
1
=
gradient at this point.
1
The gradient at x = 2 is .
2
1
2
y − y1 = mT (x − x1 ).
3. State the general equation for a tangent. The equation of the tangent is
(x1 , y1 ) = (2, 0) is mT = .
4. State the known information. The gradient of the tangent at
1
y − 0 = (x − 2)
2
1
5. Substitute the values into the general
equation. 2
y= x−1
1
6. Simplify.
2
d. mP = −
1
mp = −
d. 1. A perpendicular line has a gradient of
1
mP = −2
1 2
.
mT
2. State the general equation for a line y − y1 = mP (x − x1 )
mP = −2, (x1 , y1 ) = (2, 0)

perpendicular to the tangent.
y − 0 = −2(x − 2)
3. State the known information.
4. Substitute the values into the general
y = −2x + 4
equation.
5. Simplify.

b. 1. On a Graphs page, b. 1. On a Graph & Table screen,
y1 as: y1 = 0.5 ln(x − 1)

complete the entry complete the entry line for
f 1(x) = 0.5 ln(x − 1)

line for function 1 as:
then press EXE.
then press ENTER. Select the ‘Graph’ icon to
draw the graph.

2. To find the x-intercept, 2. To find the x-intercept,

1: Zero • Root
left of the x-intercept
when prompted for
the lower bound, then
press ENTER. Move
the cursor to the right
of the x-intercept when
bound, then press
ENTER.
3. The answer appears on (2, 0) 3. The answer appears on the (2, 0)
the screen. screen.
x = 2, press MENU, x = 2, select:

c. 1. To find the gradient at c. 1. To find the gradient at
then select: • Analysis

6: Analyze • Sketch
dy • Tangent
6: Type ‘2’, select OK, then
dx
Click on the x-intercept press EXE.
then press ENTER.
The answer appears on The gradient at x = 2 is 0.5.

appears at the bottom of the x = 2 is y = 0.5x − 1 and the
2. 2. The equation of the tangent The equation of the tangent at
the screen.
screen. The gradient is the gradient is 0.5.
coefficient of the x term.
3. To find the equation of
x = 2, press MENU,
the tangent at
then select:
8: Geometry
1: Points & Lines
7: Tangent
Click on the x-intercept
then press ENTER.
x = 2 is y = 0.5x − 1.
4. The answer appears on The equation of the tangent at
the screen.
perpendicular line at x = 2,
d. 1. To find the equation of d. 1. To find the equation of the
tangent at x = 2, press
the perpendicular to the
select:
MENU, then select: • Analysis
8: Geometry • Sketch
4: Construction • Normal
1: Perpendicular Type ‘ 2’, select OK, then
and choose the tangent press EXE.
line.
Note: To get the
equation of the
perpendicular line,
press MENU, then
select:
1: Actions
8: Coordinates and
Equation
perpendicular line at x = 2 is perpendicular line at x = 2 is

2. The answer appears on The equation of the 2. The answer appears on the The equation of the
y = −2x + 4. y = −2x + 4.
the screen. screen.
5.7 Exercise

Technology free
1. WE13 Determine the derivative of each of the following.
b. 2 loge (x3 + 2x2 − 1)

x
( )
a. 7 loge
c. 3 loge (e2x − e−x ) d. loge (x3 − 3x2 + 7x − 1)

3
2. Determine the derivative of each of the following.
b. −6 loge (cos(x))
x
( )
a. 4 loge
2
3. Differentiate the following functions with respect to x and state any restrictions on x.
a. y = −5 loge (2x) b. y = loge

x−2
1
( )
x+3
c. y = loge d. y = loge (x2 − x − 6)
x+1
( )

4. WE14 The graph of the function f ∶ (2, ∞) → R, f(x) = 2 loge (x − 2) is shown.

y
y = 2 loge (x – 2)
(a, 0)
0 x
x=2

b. Calculate the value of the constant a given that (a, 0) is the x-axis intercept.
c. Determine the equation of the tangent at (a, 0).
d. Determine the equation of the line perpendicular to the curve at (a, 0).
5. Determine the equation of the tangent to each of the given curves at the specified point.
a. y = loge (2x − 2) at ,0 b. y = 3 loge (x) at (e, 3)

3
( )
2
6. Obtain the equation of the tangent to the curve y = 4 loge (3x − 1) at the point where the tangent is parallel to
the line 6x − y + 2 = 0.
7. The graph of the function defined by the rule y = 2 loge (2x) is shown.
y
y = 2 loge (2x)
0 x
) )
1, 0
–
2
x=0
a. Determine the derivative of y with respect to x.
,e .
e
( )
b. Determine the equation of the tangent at
2
8. MC The line y = x is a tangent to the curve y = loge (x − 1) + b, where b is a constant. The value of b is:
Technology active
1
A. 2 B. 1 C.
D. −1
2
E. 0
9. The equation of a line perpendicular to the curve y = loge (2(x − 1)) has the equation y = −2x + k, where k is
a constant. Calculate the value of k, correct to 1 decimal place.
10. Calculate the gradient of each of the following functions at the specified point.
a. y = 2 log5 (x); x = 5 b. y =
log3 (x + 1); x = 2
1
c. y = log6 (x2 − 3); x = 3 d. y = loge x2 ; x = e

3
1 ( )
11. The tangent to the curve y = loge (2x − 1) at x = n intersects the x-axis at x = 0.3521. Calculate the value of
2
the integer constant n.
5.7 Exam questions
Let f(x) = − loge (x + 2).

MC
A tangent to the graph of f has a vertical axis intercept at (0, c).
A. −1 B. −1 + loge (2) C. − loge (2)

The maximum value of c is
D. −1 − loge (2) E. loge (2)
A tangent to the graph of y = loge (2x) has a gradient of 2.

B. −0.5 C. −1
MC
D. −1 − loge (2) E. −2 loge (2)

A. 0
If a function f(x) = loge (2x), find f ′ (1).


5.8 Review
5.8.1 Summary
doc-37020
5.8 Exercise
1. a. The graph of y = f(x) is shown. Sketch the graph of its

gradient function.
b. Differentiate the following functions with respect to x y y = f (x)
x+2
and state any restrictions on x.
x−3
( )
i. loge
ii. loge (x + 2)
2
𝜋
2. Given f ∶ 0, → R, f(x) = 3 sin(2x) − 4, determine:
(0, 0)
[ ]
0 (3, 0) x
2
a. f ′ (x)
𝜋
b. the value of f ′ (x) when x =
3
c. the domain over which the gradient is positive. (2, –4)
𝜋x
3. For the graph whose equation is given by y = −3 cos + 7, determine the equations of the tangent and
) (
the line perpendicular to the curve at the point where x = 3.

6
4. Determine the equation of the tangent to the curve f(x) = (x − 1) + 2 that is perpendicular to the line
x − 2y = 5.
2
5. a. Sketch the graph of the function f ∶ (−𝜋, 𝜋) → R, f (x) = tan − 1.

x
( )
′ 𝜋
2
′
( )
b. Calculate f (x) and hence determine f .
3
6. A function has the equation f(x) = kex .

2
a. Given f ′ (4) = 4e16 , show that k =

1
.
b. Hence, determine f ′ (2).
2
c. Determine the equation of the line perpendicular to the curve at x = 2.
𝜋
If f(x) = m cos(3x) where m is a constant and f ′ = −3, then m is equal to:
( )
7. MC
D. −3 E. −1
6
A. 1 B. 3 C. 0
If y = e−x − 3, then the gradient of the tangent to the curve when x = 0 is:
A. −e B. −4 C. −1 E. e − 3
8. MC
D. 0
x − 4x2
If y =
3
√
dy
9. MC , then is:
3x − 8
3 dx
2x
B. − +2 C. − +
4 4 2
A.
11
5
x2
3x − 8
6x
3x 3
D. − +
3x 3
4 2
E.
13
x2 2x2
3x 3
sin3 (𝜃) + sin(𝜃) cos2 (𝜃)
10. MC The derivative of with respect to x is:
cos(𝜃)
3 sin2 (𝜃) − 2 cos(𝜃) sin(𝜃)
C. −
− sin(𝜃)
cos(𝜃)
A. B. cos2 (𝜃)
sin(𝜃)
1 1
D. E.
2
sin (𝜃) cos2 (𝜃)
If y = loge
2 dy
( )
11. MC , then is equal to:
x dx
E. −
1 2 x 1
( ) ( )
A. x B. C. loge D. loge
x x 2 x
If y = 2 tan(3x), then
dy
12. MC equals:
dx
1 2 6 6 6
A. B. C. D. E.
2 2 2 2
cos (3x) cos (3x) cos (3x) sin (3x) cos2 (x)
The following information relates to Questions 13 and 14.

The depth of water, d metres, in a canal changes with the tides according to the rule
𝜋t
d = 6 + 2 cos
( )
where t is the time in hours after high tide. On a particular day, high tide was at 10:00 am.
13. MC The water depths at high tide and low tide respectively were:
A. 6 m, 6 m B. 8 m, 6 m C. 8 m, 4 m D. 6 m, 4 m E. 4 m, 8 m
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
14. MC The rate of change of the depth of water with respect to time at 2:00 pm is equal to:
A. − B. − m/h C. − m/h
√ √
3𝜋 3𝜋
m/h D. m/h E. m/h
6 6 3 6 6
If y = 2x − e−2x , the equation of the tangent to the curve at x = 0 is given by:
A. y = −4x + 1 B. y = 4x + 1 C. y = −4x − 1
15. MC
D. y = 4x − 1 E. y = − x − 1
1
If y = loge (x + 5), then the equation of the tangent to the curve at the point where x = e − 5 is given by:
4
16. MC
A. ey = x − 5 B. ey = x + 5 C. y = x +
5
D. y = + 5 E. y = x + 5
e
x
e


17. The profile of water waves produced by a wave machine in a scientific laboratory is modelled by the
f(x) = a sin(x) + b cos(x).

trigonometric function defined by
y
(0, 7) y = f (x)
( )
π,3
–
2
0 3π x
π
–
π – 2π
2 2
𝜋
, 3 , determine the
( )
a. Given that the graph of the wave profile passes through the points (0, 7) and
2
constants a and b.
b. Determine the maximum and minimum swells for the wave profile, correct to 1 decimal place. Hence,
c. Determine {x ∶ f(x) = 0, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2𝜋}, giving your answers correct to 4 decimal places.

state the range of the function.
d. Determine f ′ (x) and evaluate the gradient at the x-values found in

part c. Give your answers correct to 3 decimal places.
18. The diagram shows a property in the country that includes a farmhouse that is rented out for holidays.
y
P
M
0 F x
F represents the farmhouse, MP is a road, and TF is a track from the farmhouse to the road. MP is modelled
by the equation
y = 2 sin(2x) +
5
2
a. Write the coordinates of the points M and P.

dy
b. Calculate .
dx (
, t . Find the value of t.
2𝜋
)
c. T is the point
3
d. Given that the track, TF, lies perpendicular to the road at point T, determine the gradient of the track.
e. Determine the equation of the track, TF.
19. Scientists have been studying common microbes in soil. One such group is the Streptomyces genus of
bacteria. These bacteria produce an organic compound called geosmin, which is one of the substances
that causes the distinctive smell of damp topsoil. These microbes are dangerous to humans, but they are
important because they can tolerate dry conditions that many others microbes cannot.
Scientists are interested in the microbial biomass of soil (the amount of microbes in the soil) because better
management of the biomass leads to the improved use of the soil.
It is known that the relationship between the growth in the biomass and the breakdown of organic matter
over time is given by
B(t) = B0 ekt , 0 ≤ t ≤ 10
where B0 is the initial biomass, B is the biomass t days after the start of the experiment, and k is a constant.
A particular soil sample is being tested. The sample has an initial biomass of 1.5 units.
a. Determine the value of B0 , the initial biomass of the soil sample.
b. It is known that the rate of increase in the biomass of the soil after 4 days is 0.55 units/day. Find the value
of k, correct to 4 decimal places.
The biomass reaches a maximum of 9 units after 10 days of incubation. After this, the biomass of the soil
slowly reduces. This breakdown in the biomass of the soil can be described by
B(t) = A0 eht
where B is the biomass of the soil t days after the beginning of the breakdown of the soil, and A0 and h are
constants. It was observed that 4 days after the biomass had started to break down, the biomass of the soil
was 7 units. The graph depicting the increase and decrease in the biomass of the organic matter is shown.
B
(10, 9)
9
(0, 1.5)
0 10 t
c. Determine the values of A0 and h, correct to 4 decimal places.

d. Calculate the rate of decrease of the biomass after 4 days since the start of the breakdown, correct to
2 decimal places.

20. Microbiologists have been working with a certain type of bacteria that continues to thrive providing it has
a favourable growth medium. However, it is known that once the medium is exhausted, the bacteria growth
stagnates and then declines at a fast rate. The graph showing this growth, stagnation and decay is shown.
P
60 000
40 000
20 000
(0, 500) (84, 500)

0 t
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
For a particular experiment, microbiologists started with 500 bacterial cells and observed that the population
doubles every 7.2 hours. The relationship between the number of bacterial cells, P, and the time, t hours
since the bacteria started multiplying, is given by
P = P0 ekt
where k is a constant.
a. State the value of P0 and determine the value of k, correct to
4 decimal places.
This growth phase lasts for 50 hours, after which the size of
the colony stagnates (stays the same) for 10 hours.
b. How many bacterial cells are present in the colony after
50 hours? Give your answer correct to the nearest thousand.
c. Determine the rate of increase in the colony size after
30 hours. Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
The colony population declines over the next 24 hours.
It is known that over this time the number of bacterial cells
drops to just 500. It is also known that the number of
bacterial cells present in the colony can be defined by
P = Q0 emt , 0 ≤ t ≤ 24
where t is the number of hours since the population started to decline, and m is a constant.
e. Determine the rate of decrease in the size of the colony after 10 hours if it is known that m = −0.2008.
d. Determine the value of Q0 to the nearest thousand.
Give your answer correct to the nearest bacterial cells.
5.8 Exam questions
Consider the function f(x) = x2 + 3x + 5 and the point P(1, 0). Part of the graph of y = f(x) is shown below.
O
x
a. Show that point P is not on the graph of y = f(x). (1 mark)

b. Consider a point Q(a, f(a)) to be a point on the graph of f.
i. Find the slope of the line connecting points P and Q in terms of a. (1 mark)
Let the tangent to the graph of f at x = a pass through point P. Find the values of a.
ii. Find the slope of the tangent to the graph of f at point Q in terms of a. (1 mark)
iii. (2 marks)
c. Find the value, k, that gives the shortest possible distance between the graph of the function of y = f(x − k)
iv. Give the equation of one of the lines passing through point P that is tangent to the graph of f. (1 mark)
and point P. (2 marks)

Part of the graph y = f(x) of the polynomial function f is shown below.

MC
1 100
,
3 27
1
−
2 1
x
–3 O
(–2, –9)
f ′(x) < 0 for

A. x ∈ (−2, 0) ∪ ,∞ B. x ∈ −9, C. x ∈ (−∞, −2) ∪ ,∞
MC
1 100 1
( ) ( ) ( )
) 3 27 3
D. x ∈ −2, E. x ∈ [−∞, −2] ∪ (1, ∞)
1
(

For the curve y = x2 − 5, the tangent to the curve will be parallel to the line connecting the positive
MC
C. −5
√ and the y-intercept when x is equal to
x-intercept
A. 5 B. 5
√
5 1
D. E. √
2 5
Source: Adapted from VCE 2016, Mathematical Methods Exam 2, Section B, Q1; © VCAA.
Let f ∶ [0, 8𝜋] → R, f(x) = 2 cos + 𝜋.

x
( )
b. State the rule for the derivative function f ′ .

a. Find the period and range of f. (2 marks)
c. Find the equation of the tangent to the graph of f at x = 𝜋.

(1 mark)
(1 mark)
d. Find the equations of the tangents to the graph of f ∶ [0, 8𝜋] → R, f(x) = 2 cos + 𝜋 that have a
x
( )
e. Find the values of x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 8𝜋, such that f(x) = 2f ′ (x) + 𝜋.

gradient of 1. (2 marks)
(2 marks)
Consider the tangent to the graph of y = x2 at the point (2, 4).

MC
A. (1, −4) E. (4, −4)

Determine which of the following points lies on this tangent.
B. (3, 8) C. (−2, 6) D. (1, 8)


Answers ii. y
Topic 5 Differentiation y = fʹ(x)

5.2 Review of differentiation
5.2 Exercise
f (x) = 2x − 4
′
(– –21 , 0) (3, 0)
b. −2
1. a. x
0
2. a. f (x) = −1 f ′ (x) = 6x − 2
′
b.
12x2 − − −
2 1 1
3. a. b. 7
3x3 5
x2
3x2 + 6x + 1 − +
Domain = R
6 1
c. d.
5 x2 b. i.
x2
=− + 2 f ′ (x) = − + 2− 5
dy 15 1 30 2 4 ii. y
4. a. b.
dx 4x 6 2x x 4 x x
= √ + 3 d. f (x) = −
′
−x+
dy 1 1 27 9
c.
dx 2 x 2x2 2
4x 2
−14
0 x
5. a. b. (2, 0) and (−2, 4) y = fʹ(x)
39
6. a. 4 b. 5 c. 12 d.
11 + 4a Domain = (−∞, 4)\ {−2}

16
7. c. i.
8. a. y ii. y
y = fʹ(x)
(–2, 0)
0 x (–2, 1) (4, 1)
0 x
(–2, –1)
x ∈ (−∞, 2)\ {−2}

y = f ʹ(x)
b.
Domain = R \ {0}
9. y
d. i.
ii. y
y = fʹ(x)
y = fʹ(x)
(2, 0)
0 x
(–2, 0) 0 x
10. a. i. Domain = R
y = −4x + 9 y= x−
1 15
11. a. b.
4 4

y = −6x − 22 1 , −3
1 3
y = −3a2 x + 2a3 + 8
( )
12. a.
b.
b. 2 8
Tangent: y = x−9
y= x+ 3−5
√ 15
3 c.
Line perpendicular to tangent: y = − x−

√
c. 4
3 4 119
y=− x+2
y = 4 − x2
7 15 40
d.
2
y= x+
17.
1 53 y
13. a.
6 6
y = 2 x + 8 − a3 −
1 1 (0, 5)
b.
3a 3a
y = − 3x + 5 3 − 5
√ √ (0, 4)
c.
y= x+
2 67 (1, 3)
d.
7 7
14. a. y = 3x − y= x−
1 5
y=– x+–
3 1 1 2 2
y = –2x + 5
b.
4 2 2
15. a and b
y (–2, 0) 0 (2, 0) x
y = 4 – x2
y = −x2 + 7x − 10
19. y = x − x
18.
20. m = 12
3
y = x2(4 – x)
(– 0.83, 3.31) (1, 3)

5.2 Exam questions
(–2, 0) 0 x
(2, 0) (4, 0) Note: Mark allocations are available with the fully worked
solutions online.
1. B
2. A
3. D
y = (x + 2)(2 – x)
5.3 Differentiation of exponential functions
(4.83, – 19.31)
The gradient of y = (x + 2)(2 − x) when x = 1 is −2.

5.3 Exercise
− e 3
1 −1x
The gradient of y = x2 (4 − x) when x = 1 is 5.
c. 1. a.
3
12x3 + 4xe−2x
2
16. a. y
b.
c. − e + e − 2e−3x
8 −2x 4 −4x
4e4x − 12e2x
y = x(x – 2)(x + 3) 3 3
2. a. −20e
−4x
d.
(–3, 0) (0, 0) (2, 0) (3, 0)
b. − e 2 + x
1 −1x
x
2
2
c. 12e − √ + 9e
−3x + 2
√
3e6 x
3x
2 x
3e3x + 3e−3x − 4e−2x
e. 4e + e
−x
d.
f. e − 2e − 3e
2x
−x
(0, –18)
x 2x
y = (2 – x)(x + 3)(x – 3) 1
3.
2
4. a. −2 b. −
8 3e
c. d. 1
e 2
= −120ke−kt
dA
y = 2x + 1 ii. y = − x + 1
5. a. 2 b.
= −k × 120e−kt
1 dt
b. i.
= −k × A
2
6. yT = −3x + 5, yP = x + 5 ∝A
1
3
7. yT = −3x − 1, yP = x − 1 c. k =
1 1 4
( )
loge
3 2 3
yT = √ x + e 3 + 1 − √
As t → ∞, A → 0. Technically, the graph approaches
√ √
e 3 √
3e 3 d. 8.408 units/min
the line A = 0 (with asymptotic behaviour, so it never

8.
e.
2 3 2 3
reaches A = 0 exactly). However, the value of A would be
yP = − √ x + e + 1 + √
√ √
2 3 √
3 6 3
y = 5x − 4
e 3 e 3 so small that in effect, after a long period of time, there
9.
will be no gas left.
6. a. 11
= 6.589e0.599t
10. E
dL
11. a. (1.89, 1.05) b. 7.66 b.
dt
12. 2 loge (3)
−2e7
c. 39.742 mm/month
3
13. a. b. 7. a. 23.2 million b. 2005, September
2
2e2 −
c. 0.29 million/year d. 2019
2
14. a. b. 0
b. f (x) = −e + e
8. a. 10.94 cm b. 69.4°
′ −x −2x
e
−1.38
9. a. (0, 0.5)
2
f ′ (x) = Aex − 3Be−3x
15. a. b.
y = −0.2325x + 0.5327 f. y = 4.3011x − 4.0009

c. (0, 0.5) d. 63.4°
0 = Aex − 3Be−3x
16.
x3 − 6x
e.
= e−3x Ae4x − 3B
10. a.
e−3x ≠ 0, no real solution

( ) 2
ex
± 6, and 0, −
1 5
So, 0 = Ae4x − 3B
( ) ( )
√
b.
2e6 2
3B = Ae4x c. 0.593
e4x =
3B 11. a. 30
A b. 450 000
c. 37 072.2/day
5.3 Exam questions
d. 450
e. 45 000
−6e−3x m = − loge (10), 39 711/day

solutions online.
1
1. f.
7
2. B
= ex − 3e−3x
dy 5.4 Exam questions
3.
dx Note: Mark allocations are available with the fully worked
T0 = 75 1.531 °C/ min

solutions online.
5.4 Applications of exponential functions
1. a. b.
5.4 Exercise
q = −4 (m, 0) = ( loge 3, 0) −10xe−x
2. a. 5
2
c. f (x) = 2e − 4e d. f (0) = −2
′ ′
1. a. b. b.
ii. −3.68
2x x
z = −3 b. (n, 0) = (− loge (2), 0)

c. i. 3.89
f ′ (x) = −2e−2x + 3e−x d. 1 3. a. P0 = 75.32 cm of mercury, k = 0.24

2. a.
c.
−0.0304e−0.00152t
3. a. 20 b. 5.45 cm of mercury/km
b.
5.5 Differentiation of trigonometric functions
c. 0.0291 g/year
5.5 Exercise
5 − 3 sin(x) + 5 cos(x)
4. a. 0.5I0 b. 0.0011I0
3 cos(3x + 2) + 6x sin(3x2 )
5. a. 120 1. a.
b.
d. 10 sec (2x) − 10x

c. 3 cos(9x)
2 4

x
Low tide = 1 metre at 3:00 pm
( )
e. 2 sec
2 3. a.12 hours
𝜋 𝜋x
4
𝜋 𝜋t
b.
( ) ( )
f. sec2
𝜋
20 20 c. cos
−6 sin(3x) −x
( ) 12 6
2. a. b. 3 sin
√
2𝜋
𝜋
2 d.
c. − cos + 3x
4 x
( ) ( ) 24
d. 6 cos e. 4:30 pm
−5x sec2 (5x2 )

3 3 2
𝜋
4. a. 0.849, 1.508
−2 cos(2x)
2
, 3 , , −1
e. f. 20 sec (20x)
3𝜋
( ) ( )
𝜋
3. b.
4. y = x − −8
8 8
𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 𝜋
2 c.
5. y = 4x + −1 ∪ ,
[ ) ( ]
d. 0,
BD = a sin(𝜃), CD = a cos(𝜃)
2 8 8 2
𝜋 3 3
y=− x+ + L = a + 2a sin(𝜃) + a cos(𝜃) + 4
√ 5. a.
3
2a cos(𝜃) − a sin(𝜃)
6. b.
7. y = 4x + 2 − 𝜋
2 4 2
𝜃 = 1.1c
c.
8. a. yT = 3x − 2𝜋, yP = − x + L = 3 × 100 cos(𝜃) + 4 × 100 sin(𝜃) + 2 × 100 L =

1 2𝜋 d.
300 cos(𝜃) + 400 sin(𝜃) + 200 as required

𝜋
3 9 6. a.
b. yT = − x + , yP = 2x − 2𝜋 −300 sin(𝜃) + 400 cos(𝜃)

1
700 cm, 𝜃 = 0.93c

b.
2 2
9. a. tan(x)
2
b. sec (x) c.
𝜋 5𝜋
A 7. a.
a. −1 ,
10. P
11. b. θ
4 4
c. cos(x) + sin(x) ,
π–θ
–
3𝜋 7𝜋 2
d.
𝜋 2𝜋
4 4
b. − ,
π–θ
–
2
√
12. a. 3 θ
5𝜋 𝜋
M N
3 3
c. − 3 sin(x) + cos(x) d. − ,
200 m O 200 m
√
6 6 π –θ
π–2 –( )
(−0.524, 0.342), (0.524, −0.342)
13. (0.243, 1.232), (0.804, 0.863) 2
= π – π + 2θ
14. = 2θ
𝜋 3𝜋 7𝜋 Distance ÷ time = velocity

15. 116.6°
x=− , − , , Distance = velocity × time

5𝜋
Distance ÷ velocity = time

16.
8 8 8 8
5.5 Exam questions So d(PM) = 400 cos(𝜃).

Tobstacles =
Note: Mark allocations are available with the fully worked 400 cos(𝜃)
Tobstacles = 200 cos(𝜃)

solutions online. 2
dPM = 200 × 2𝜃
1. B
dPM = 400𝜃
2. D
3. D
Thurdles =
400𝜃
5.6 Applications of trigonometric functions
= 80 𝜃
5
Ttotal = Tobstacles + Thurdles

5.6 Exercise
A=
1
Ttotal = 200 cos(𝜃) + 80𝜃

1. a. ab sin(c)
2
= × 6 × 7 cos(𝜃) Ttotal = 40(5 cos(𝜃) + 2𝜃)
1
= 21 sin(𝜃)
2
c. Tmax = 3 min 36 s
b. 0.4115
10.5 cm2 /radian

−2𝜋 cm/s
b.
2. a. 10 b. 2𝜋 cos(𝜋t) c.
4 = −2 cos(0) + n
𝜋x 4+2 = n
8. a. 6m
b. − 6=n
7𝜋
( )
sin
𝜋 Period: =
40 20
3 2𝜋
c. i. − = −0.3888
7𝜋
3m = 4𝜋
( )
sin 2 m
𝜋
40 4
ii. − = −0.5498 m=
7𝜋
( ) 4𝜋
sin 3
40 2
d. i. 15 m ii. 158.95° 8𝜋 4𝜋t
( )
b. sin
−39.5
9. a. (0, 100), (4.5, 57.5) b. (0.94, 75.41) 3 3
c. 8𝜋
c. m/min
3. a. 2.86 units at 7:55 am (t = 1.92)
x 3
( )
10. a. 1.7 m b. 0.625 sin
4
b. i.
c. 0.426 d. 4.756 m T(t)
πt πt
T(t) = 1.5 sin — + 3.5 – 2.0 cos —
6 3 3
5.6 Exam questions

solutions online. (12, 1.5)
(0, 1.5)
1. a. Z
0 t
6 12
Minimum 1 unit at 11 ∶ 23 am (t = 5.39) and 5 ∶

23 pm (t = 11.39)
θ
– ii.
Maximum 6 units at 8 ∶ 23 am (t = 2.39) and 2 ∶

2
h 23 pm (t = 8.39)
O c. Emissions of 1 unit and 6 units lie within the guidelines.
θ
r
h–r 5.7 Differentiation and application of
logarithmic functions
X M Y 5.7 Exercise
∠XOY = 2𝜃 because the angle at the centre of the circle

7
1. a.
2(3x2 + 4x)
x
is twice the angle at the circumference.
∠XOM = ∠YOM = × 2𝜃 x3 + 2x2 − 1
1 b.
∠XOM = 𝜃 as required 3(2e3x + 1)

2
XM = r sin(𝜃) e3x − 1
c.
= tan(𝜃) 3x2 − 6x + 7
b.
h−r
XM
− 3x2 + 7x − 1
d.
=
x3
h−r
r sin(𝜃) sin(𝜃) 4
cos(𝜃) 2. a.
=
x
h−r
r 1
d. 6 tan(x)
h−r = − , x ∈ (0, ∞)
cos(𝜃)
= cos(𝜃)
dy 5
3. a.
dx x
=− , x ∈ (2, ∞)
r
− 1 = cos(𝜃) x−2
dy 1
h b.
dx
=− , x ∈ (−∞, −3) ∪ (−1, ∞)

r
= cos(𝜃) + 1 (x + 3)(x + 1)
dy 2
h c.
2x − 1
dx
c. −3 sin(𝜃)
r
= , x ∈ (−∞, −2) ∪ (3, ∞)
−x−6
dy
4. a. Domain = (2, ∞), range = R

d.
−
3 dx x2
2. a. P = −2 cos(mt) + n b. a = 3
d.
2
When t = 0, P = 4: c. y = 2x − 6
y=− x+
1 3
d.
2 2

y = 2x − 3 y=
3 5. a. y
5. a. b. x
Tangent: y = 6x + 4 loge (2) − 6

e
6. ()x
y = tan – – 1
2
= b. y = x + e − 2
dy 2 4
7. a.
dx x e
( )
π, 0
–
9. k = 7.4
8. A 2
π 0 π x
–– –
2 1 2 (0, –1) 2
10. a. log5 (e) b. log3 (e)
5 9
1
c. log6 (e) d.
n=2
e
11.
5.7 Exam questions

𝜋
x = –π x=π
b. f (x) = sec = =
′
(x) f ′
Note: Mark allocations are available with the fully worked 1 x 1 2
( ) ( )
2
solutions online. 2 2 2
2 cos 2 3 3
f(x) = kex
1. C 2
6. a.
f ′ (x) = 2xkex
2. C
2
f ′ (4) = 8ke16
3. 1
∴ 8ke16 = 4e16
5.8 Review
∴k=
5.8 Exercise 1
f ′ (2) = 2e4
Technology free: short answer 2
1. a. y b.
y=− + 4+
x 1 e4
c.
2e 4 e 2
y = fʹ(x)
7. A
(0, 0) (2, 0)
x 8. C
0
9. C
10. E
11. E
12. C
13. C
14. A
15. D
−5
16. B
, x ∈ (−∞, −2) ∪ (3, ∞)

(x − 3)(x + 2) 17. a. a = 3, b = 7
b. i.
b. Max = 7.6, min = −7.6; range = −7.6, 7.6

, x ∈ R \ {−2}
x+2
[ ]
2
ii.
d. −7.616, 7.616
c. 1.9757, 5.1173
b. −3
2. a. 6 cos(2x)
𝜋
18. a. M (0, 2.5) , P (𝜋, 2.5)
c. x ∈ 0, = 4 cos (2x)
[ )
dy
𝜋
4 b.
3. yT = x − + 7, yP = − x + + 7
dx
𝜋 𝜋 t= − 3
3𝜋 2 6 5 √
4. y = −2x + 3
2 2 c.
2
1
d.
𝜋
2
y= x+ − 3−
1 5 √
19. a. B0 = 1.5
e.
2 2 3
b. k = 0.1791
c. A0 = 16.8696, h = −0.0628
P0 = 500, k = 0.0963
d. 0.44 units/day
20. a.
b. 62 000 bacterial cells
c. 865.5 bacterial cells/hour
d. 62 000 bacterial cells
e. 1671 bacterial cells/hour
5.8 Exam questions

f(x) = x2 + 3x + 5
solutions online.
f(1) = 1 + 3 + 5 = 9 ≠ 0, so the point P(1, 0) is not on the

1. a.
graph of y = f(x)
a2 + 3a + 5
a−1
b. i.
f′ (a) = 2a + 3
iii. a = −2, 4
ii.
iv. y = 11x − 11 or y = 1 − x
2. C
Period = 4𝜋, range [−2 + 𝜋, 2 + 𝜋]

3. D
4. a.
b. f (x) = − sin
′ x
( )
y = −x + 2𝜋
2
y = x − 2𝜋, y = x − 6𝜋
c.
d.
x= , , ,
3𝜋 7𝜋 11𝜋 15𝜋
e.
2 2 2 2
5. B

“c06FurtherDifferentiationAndApplications_PrintPDF” — 2022/7/8 — 14:26 — page 355 — #1
Further differentiation
6 and applications
LEARNING SEQUENCE
6.1 Overview ................................................................................................................................................................. 356
6.2 The chain rule ........................................................................................................................................................357
6.3 The product rule ...................................................................................................................................................365
6.4 The quotient rule .................................................................................................................................................. 372
6.5 Curve sketching ................................................................................................................................................... 377
6.6 Maximum and minimum problems ............................................................................................................... 389
6.7 Rates of change ................................................................................................................................................... 396
6.8 Newton’s method ................................................................................................................................................ 405
6.9 Review ..................................................................................................................................................................... 410

6.1 Overview
6.1.1 Introduction
Differential calculus is one of the two subfields
of calculus, the other being integral calculus.
There are many and varied applications of
differential calculus, some of which will be
investigated in this topic.
In physics, the derivative of displacement of a
moving object with respect to time is equal to the
velocity of that object, and the derivative of the
velocity of a moving object with respect to time is
with Newton’s second law of motion, F = ma,

equal to the acceleration. The equation associated
comes from a derivative statement as well.

The study of infectious diseases such as
COVID-19 utilises calculus to determine how far and how fast it might be spreading, as well as where it might
have come from. Calculations take into account factors such as people who are vulnerable to the disease, those
who are already infected, and those that have had the disease and recovered. These types of situations change
rapidly; therefore, the calculus equations must be dynamic so as to form new models with every new piece of
information.
Weather prediction involves the use of calculus modelling through algorithms that take into account factors such
as wind speed, moisture level and temperature.
KEY CONCEPTS
• derivatives of f(x) ± g(x), f(x) × g(x), and ( f ◦g)(x) where f and g are polynomial functions,
f(x)
g(x)
exponential, circular, or power functions and transformations or simple combinations of these functions
• application of differentiation to graph sketching and identification of key features of graphs, including
stationary points and points of inflection, and intervals over which a function is strictly increasing or
strictly decreasing
• identification of local maximum/minimum values over an interval and application to solving
optimisation problems in context, including identification of interval endpoint maximum and minimum
values.
6.2 The chain rule

LEARNING INTENTION
• use the chain rule to find the derivative of functions and equations of their tangents.
6.2.1 The proof of the chain rule
each other. Consider the functions g(x) = x4 and h(x) = 2x + 1.

A composite function, also known as a function of a function, consists of two or more functions nested within
If f(x) = g(h(x)), we are actually determining the rule for g(2x + 1), so
f(x) = g(h(x)) = g(2x + 1) = (2x + 1)4 .
h(g(x)) = h x4 = 2x4 + 1.
It is worth noting,
( ) however, that g(h(x)) is not necessarily equal to h(g(x)). In this instance,
The chain rule for differentiation is another name for the derivative of a composite function.
Consider again f(x) = (2x + 1)4 . If this is expanded, it is possible to find the derivative.
f(x) = (2x + 1)4

= (2x)4 + 4(2x)3 (1) + 6(2x)2 (1)2 + 4(2x)(1)3 + 14
= 16x4 + 32x3 + 24x2 + 8x + 1
Therefore, the derivative can be given by
f ′ (x) = 64x3 + 96x2 + 48x + 8

= 8(8x3 + 12x2 + 6x + 1)
= 8(2x + 1)3
The chain rule allows us to reach this same outcome without having to expand the function first.
The proof of the chain rule is as follows.
If f(x) = m(n(x)),
then f(x + h) = m(n(x + h)).
f(x + h) − f(x) m(n(x + h)) − m(n(x))
Therefore, = .
Multiply the numerator and the denominator by n(x + h) − n(x), as it is expected that at some stage n′(x) will
h h
appear somewhere in the rule.
f(x + h) − f(x) n(x + h) − n(x) m(n(x + h)) − m(n(x))

= ×
h h n(x + h) − n(x)
m(n(x + h)) − m(n(x)) n(x + h) − n(x)
f (x) = lim
′
×
n(x + h) − n(x)
[ ]
h→0 h
m(n(x + h)) − m(n(x)) n(x + h) − n(x)
= lim × lim
n(x + h) − n(x)
[ ] [ ]
h→0 h→0 h
TOPIC 6 Further differentiation and applications 357

n(x + h) − n(x)
By definition, n′ (x) = lim . Also, if we let n(x) = A and n(x + h) = A + B, then
n(x + h) − n(x) = A + B − A, so that
h→0 h
m(n(x + h)) − m(n(x)) m(A + B) − n(A)

= .
n(x + h) − n(x) B
Also, as h → 0, B → 0.
m(A + B) − m(A)
Consequently, lim = m′(A).
m(n(x + h)) − m(n(x))

B→0 B
= m′(n(x)).
n(x + h) − n(x)
[ ]
Therefore, lim
h→0
Bringing this all together, we can state the rule as follows.
The chain rule

If f(x) = m(n(x)),
f ′ (x) = m′ (n(x)) × n′ (x).
Using Leibnitz notation, this becomes
= × , where y = f(u) and u is a function of x.

dy dy du
dx du dx
Consider again y = f(x) = (2x + 1)4 . The chain rule can be used to find the derivative of this function.
Let u = 2x + 1; therefore, = 2.
du
dx
Let y = u4 ; therefore, = 4u3 .

dy
du
= ×
dy dy du
By the chain rule,
= 4u3 × 2
dx du dx
= 8u3
Since u = 2x + 1, = 8(2x + 1)3 .

dy
dx
In Topic 5, the following derivatives were given. We are now in a position to derive these using the chain rule.
(sin (kx)) = k cos (kx)

d
(cos (kx)) = −k sin (kx)

dx
d
(tan (kx)) = k sec2 (kx) =

dx
d k
dx 2
cos (kx)
We will prove the last of these facts.

If y = tan (kx),
let u = kx; therefore, = k.

du
dx
Let y = tan(u); therefore, = sec2 (u)

dy
du
= ×
dy dy du
= sec2 (u) × k
dx du dx
dy
= k sec2 (u)
dx
dy
But u = kx; ∴ = k sec2 (kx) =

dx
dy k
dx 2
cos (kx)
The other derivatives can be shown in a similar way.
y = sin (e2x ). First, differentiate the inner function.

The chain rule can also be applied without showing so much detail. Suppose you are asked to differentiate
e = 2e2x
d ( 2x )
dx
Then differentiate the outer function.
(sin (u)) = cos (u), where u = e2x

d
dx
The required derivative is the product of the two derivatives.
= 2e2x × cos e2x = 2e2x cos e2x

dy ( ) ( )
dx
WORKED EXAMPLE 1 The chain rule
Use the chain rule to determine the derivative of y = x3 + 2x2 − x−2 .

( )−7
y = x3 + 2x2 − x−2
THINK WRITE
)−7
1. Write the function to be derived.
Let u = x3 + 2x2 − x−2 .

(
2. Let u equal the inner function.
= 3x2 + 4x + 2x−3
du du
3. Differentiate to find .
y = u−7
dx dx
4. State the equation relating y and u.
= −7u−8
dy dy
5. Differentiate to find .
du du
= ×
dy dy du
6. Apply the chain rule.
= −7u−8 × 3x2 + 4x + 2x−3

dx du dx
( )
= −7 3x2 + 4x + 2x−3 x3 + 2x2 − x−2

dy )−8
7. Substitute back in for u.
( )(
dx
The chain rule must often be applied first before application problems involving the derivative can be solved.

WORKED EXAMPLE 2 Further use of the chain rule
If y = cos2 (ex ), evaluate the derivative when x = 0, giving your answer correct to 4 decimal places.
y = cos2 (ex ) = [cos (ex )]2

THINK WRITE
1. Write the function to be derived.
d
2. Consider first the inner function. (cos (ex ))
dx
(cos (ex )) = −ex sin (ex )
d
3. Use the chain rule to differentiate this inner
function. dx
u , where u = cos (ex )

d ( 2)
4. Consider the outer function.
dx
u =2u
d ( 2)
5. Apply the chain rule to differentiate this
function. dx
= 2 cos (ex ) × −ex sin (ex )

dy
6. The required derivative is the product of the
= −2ex cos (ex ) sin (ex )

two previously found derivatives. dx
when x = 0. Let x = 0.
dy
7. Evaluate
= −2e0 cos (e0 ) sin (e0 )

dx
dy
= −2(1) cos (1) sin (1)

dx
= −0.9093
WORKED EXAMPLE 3 Equations of the tangents using the chain rule
For the function with the rule y = (x − 1) 3 , determine:

2
dy
a.
dx
b. the equations of the tangents at (2, 1) and (0, 1).
THINK WRITE
y = (x − 1) 3
2
a. 1. Write the function to be derived. a.
= (x − 1) 3 × (1)
dy 2 −1
2. Apply the chain rule to find the derivative.
dx 3
= √
Multiply the derivative of the outer function
3 (x − 1)
with the derivative of the inner function. Write 2
the answer in surd form. 3
b. 1. Find the gradient at x = 2. b. When x = 2:
= √
dy
dx 3 2 − 1
2
3
=
2
3
2. Find the equation of the tangent at x = 2, y = 1. If mT = , (x1 , y1 ) = (2, 1).

2
y − y1 = m (x − x1 )
3
y − 1 = (x − 2)
2
3
y−1 = x−
2 4
3 3
y = x−
2 1
or 2x − 3y = 1
3 3
3. Find the gradient at x = 0. When x = 0:
= √
dy
dx 3 0 − 1
2
3
=−
2
3
4. Find the equation of the tangent at x = 0, y = 1. If mT = − , (x1 , y1 ) = (0, 1).

2
y − y1 = m (x − x1 )
3
y − 1 = − (x − 0)
2
3
y−1 = − x
2
3
y = − x+1
2
or 2x + 3y = 3
3

1: Actions • Interactive
Complete the entry line Complete the fields as
Define f1(x) = (x − 1) 3
as: Func name: f
2
Expression: (x − 1) 3
Variable/s: x
2
then press ENTER.
then select OK.


4: Calculus • Action
1: Derivative • Calculation
Complete the entry line • diff
as: Complete the entry
d line (as: )
( f1(x))
dx diff f (x)
(x − 1) 3 = (x − 1) 3 =
d 2 2 d 2 2
( ) ( )
3(x − 1) 3 3(x − 1) 3
3. The answer appears on 1
3. The answer appears 1
the screen. dx on the screen. dx
b. 1. Press MENU, then select: b. 1. Select:
Complete the entry line • line
as: • tanLine
tangentLine Complete the fields as:
( f1(x), x, 2) Expression: f (x)
then press ENTER. Variable: x
Point: 2
then select OK.

Complete the entry line • line
as: • tanLine
tangentLine Complete the fields as:
( f1(x), x, 0) Expression: f(x)
then press ENTER. Variable: x
Point: 0
then select OK.
The answers appear on The tangent to the curve at (2, 1) The answers appear on The tangent to the curve at
is y = − and the tangent to (2, 1) is y = − and the
3. 3.
the screen. 2x 1 the screen. 2x 1
the curve at (0, 1) is y = 1 − .

3 3 3 3
2x tangent to the curve at (0, 1) is
y = − + 1.
2x
3
3
6.2 Exercise

Technology free
a. y = x2 − 7x + 1 b. y = 3x2 + 2x − 1 c. y = sin (x) d. y = ecos (3x)

1. WE1 Use the chain rule to determine the derivatives of the following.
√ ( )3 2
2. State the derivatives of the following functions.
a. g(x) = 3 x2 + 1 b. g(x) = ecos(x) c. g(x) = (x + 1)2 + 2

)−1
√
(
d. g(x) = e. f(x) = x2 − 4x + 5 f. f(x) = 3 cos x2 − 1

1 √ ( )
sin2 (x)
2−x
3. State the derivatives of the following functions.
)−2
a. f(x) = 5e 3x −1
b. f(x) = x − c. f(x) = d. f(x) = cos3 (2x + 1)
2−x
√
2
(
2
3
x2
loge (3 − 2x) x−2

√ 1 (√ )
a. b. loge
𝜋
2
5. WE2 If y = sin3 (x), evaluate the derivative when x = .

3
𝜋
6. Determine the derivatives of the following functions, and hence calculate the gradients at the given x-values.
a. f(x) = tan (4x + 𝜋); evaluate f b. f(x) = (2 − x) ; evaluate f

′ −2 1 ′
( ) ( )
. .
4 2
c. f(x) = e2x ; evaluate f ′ (−1). d. f(x) = (3x2 − 2) ; evaluate f ′ (1).

√
2 3 4

𝜋 𝜋
7. a. If f(x) = e ′
b. If f(x) = (cos (3x) − 1) , calculate f
′
( ) ( )
2 5
sin (x)
, calculate f . .
4 2
8. Determine f ′ (x) for each of the following.
a. f(x) = g[cos (x)] b. f(x) = g 2x3 c. f(x) = g 3e2x+1 d. f(x) = g 2x2 − x

( ) ( ) (√ )
9. Determine f ′ (x) for each of the following.

a. f(x) = [h(x)]−2 b. f(x) = sin [h(x)] c. f(x) = 2h(x) + 3 d. f(x) = −2eh(x)+4
2 3
√
10. Let f: R+ → R, f(x) = . Determine g(x) = f( f(x)) and hence state g′ (x).
1
x2
For the function y =

(2x − 1)2
1
11. WE3 , determine:
dy
a.
b. the equation of the tangent to the curve at the point where x = 1.

dx
12. Let f(x) = (x − 1) and g(x) = ex .

3
b. Determine h′ (x) where h(x) = f(g(x)).

a. Write the rule for f(g(x)).
c. Determine the equation of the tangent of y = h(x) at the origin.
13. If f(x) = sin (2x), calculate the points where f ′ (x) = 0 for x ∈ [0, 𝜋].
2
Technology active
14. If z = 4y2 − 5 and y = sin (3x), find
dz
.
dx
15. For the functions f(x) = 2 sin(x) and h(x) = ex :
i. m(x) = f(h(x)) ii. n(x) = h( f(x))

a. state the rule for:
b. determine when m′(x) = n′(x) over the interval x ∈ [0, 3], correct to 3 decimal places.
16. For the functions m(x) = 3x and n(x) = x2 + 4x − 5:
b. calculate the gradient of the function at the point where x = 1.

a. state the rule of m(n(x))
17. For the functions with the rules f(x) = x and h(x) = 2x − 1:
3 2
define the rule for g(x) = f(h(x))

√
a.
determine g′(x)
b.
determine the equations of the tangents at the points (1, 1) and (0, 1)
c.
determine the coordinates of the point of intersection of these two tangents.
d.
18. The function f is defined by f∶ [0, ∞) → R, f(x) = 2 loge (x) , and the function g is defined by
g: [0, ∞) → R, f(x) = 2 loge (x).
( )2
a. Calculate the coordinates of the points of intersection between f and g.

b. Calculate the gradient of each graph at the point (1, 0).
d. Determine the x-values for which 2 loge x > 2 loge (x)

c. Sketch both graphs on the same set of axes.
)2
.
(
19. The function h has a rule h(x) = x2 − 16 and the function g has the rule g(x) = x − 3.
a. Find the integers m and n such that h(g(x)) = (x + m)(x + n).
√
√
b. State the maximal domain of h(g(x)).
d. Calculate the gradient of the function h(g(x)) at the point when x = −2.
c. Determine the derivative of h(g(x)).
20. The line perpendicular to the graph y = g( f(x)) where f(x) = and g(x) = x − 2 is given by y = −x + a,
1 1
x x
where a is a real constant. Calculate the possible value(s) of a.
6.2 Exam questions
If f (x) = eg(x ) , where g is a differentiable function, then f ′ (x) is equal to

2
MC
2 2 2
A. 2xeg(x ) B. 2xg x2 eg(x ) C. 2xg′ x2 eg(x )
( ) ( )
2
D. 2xg′(2x) eg(x ) E. 2xg′ x2 eg 2x
( )
( )
Let y = (5x + 1)7 .

Source: VCE 2015, Mathematical Methods (CAS) Exam 1, Q1a; © VCAA.
.
dy
Find
dx
If f (x) = x2 + 3, find f ′(1).

Source: VCE 2014, Mathematical Methods (CAS) Exam 1, Q1b; © VCAA.
√
6.3 The product rule

LEARNING INTENTION
• use the product rule to find the derivative of functions, equations of their tangents and determine
stationary points.
6.3.1 The proof of the product rule
ex (2x + 1). In order to differentiate such functions, we need to apply the product rule.
There are many functions that have rules which are the product of two simpler functions, such as x sin (x) or
The product rule

If f(x) = g(x) × h(x), then
f ′(x) = g(x) × h′(x) + h(x) × g′(x)
Alternatively, if y = uv, then
=u +v
dy dv du
dx dx dx

This rule can be proven as follows.

Let f(x) = u(x)v(x)
so f(x + h) = u(x + h)v(x + h).
f(x + h) − f(x) u(x + h)v(x + h) − u(x)v(x)
=
Add and subtract u(x)v(x + h), as it is expected that at some stage v′(x) will appear somewhere in the rule.
h h
f(x + h) − f(x) u(x + h)v(x + h) − u(x)v(x + h) + u(x)v(x + h) − u(x)v(x)

=
[u(x + h) − u(x)]v(x + h) + u(x)[v(x + h) − v(x)]

h h
f(x + h) − f(x)
h
f ′ (x) = lim
[u(x + h) − u(x)]v(x + h) + u(x)[v(x + h) − v(x)]

h→0 h
= lim
u(x + h) − u(x) v(x + h) − v(x)

h→0 h
= lim × v(x + h) + lim × u(x)

[ ] [ ]
u(x + h) − u(x) v(x + h) − v(x)

h→0 h h→0 h
= lim × lim v(x + h) + lim × lim u(x)

h h
= u′ (x)v(x) + v′ (x)u(x)
h→0 h→0 h→0 h→0
= u(x)v′ (x) + v(x)u′ (x)
The Leibnitz notation states that if y = uv,
=u +v
dy dv du
Apply this to differentiate y = x sin (x).

dx dx dx
Let u = x; therefore, = 1.
du
dx
Let v = sin (x), so = cos (x).
dv
dx
= u +v
dy dv du
dx dx dx
= x × cos (x) + sin (x) × 1

dy
= x cos (x) + sin (x)

dx
For another example, differentiate y = ex (2x + 1).
Let u = ex ; therefore, = ex
du
Let v = 2x + 1, so = 2.
dx
dv
dx
= u +v
dy dv du
= ex × 2 + (2x + 1) × ex
dx dx dx
= 2ex + 2xex + ex
= 3ex + 2xex
WORKED EXAMPLE 4 The product rule
If g(x) = x3 sin (3x), determine g′ (x).
g(x) = x3 sin (3x)

THINK WRITE
Let u(x) = x3 and v(x) = sin (3x).

1. Define u and v as functions of x.
u′(x) = 3x2 v′(x) = 3 cos(3x)

g′ (x) = u(x)v′(x) + v(x)u′(x)
2. Differentiate u and v with respect to x.
3. Apply the product rule to determine g′ (x).
= x3 × 3 cos (3x) + sin (3x) × 3x2
= 3x3 cos (3x) + 3x2 sin (3x)
The product rule may have to be used first before an application problem can be solved.
WORKED EXAMPLE 5 Equation of tangents using the product rule
Given that y = e2x (x + 1)2 , determine

dy
and hence calculate the equation of the tangent to the curve
dx
at the point (0, 1).
y = e2x (x + 1)2
THINK WRITE
Let u = e2x and v = (x + 1)2 .

= 2e2x = 2(x + 1)
du dv
= u +v
dx dx
dy dy dv du
3. Apply the product rule to determine and
dx dx dx dx
= e2x × 2(x + 1) + (x + 1)2 × 2e2x

simplify.
dy
dx
= 2e2x (x + 1) + 2e2x (x + 1)2
= 2e2x (x + 1)(1 + x + 1)
= 2e2x (x + 1)(x + 2)
when x = 0. When x = 0, then
dy
4. Evaluate
= 2e0 (0 + 1)(0 + 2)
dx dy
=4
dx
If m = 4 and (x1 , y1 ) = (0, 1),

y − y1 = m (x − x1 )
5. Find the equation of the tangent.
y − 1 = 4(x − 0)
y − 1 = 4x
y = 4x + 1

Frequently, problems may involve graphs of a function being given so that aspects of the function can be
investigated.
WORKED EXAMPLE 6 Using the product rule to determine stationary points
The graph of f ∶ R → R, f(x) = x2 ex is shown. Using calculus, calculate the coordinates where f ′ (x) = 0.
y
y = x2ex
0 x
f(x) = x2 ex
THINK WRITE
Let u(x) = x2 and v(x) = ex .

u′(x) = 2x v′(x) = ex
3. Apply the product rule to determine f ′ (x). f (x) = u(x)v′(x) + v(x)u′(x)
′
= x2 × ex + ex × 2x
= x2 ex + 2xex
4. Solve f ′ (x) = 0. x2 ex + 2xex = 0

ex x(x + 2) = 0
e > 0 for all values of x.
Either x = 0 or x + 2 = 0.
x
∴ x = 0, −2
When x = −2,
y = (−2)2 e−2
5. Substitute the x-values to find the
corresponding y-values.
= 4e−2
When x = 0,
y = (0)2 e0
=0
and (−2, 4e−2 ).

6. Write the answer. The coordinates where the gradient is zero are (0, 0)
6.3 Exercise

Technology free
1. WE4 For each of the following functions, determine f ′ (x).
a. f(x) = sin (3x) cos(3x) b. f(x) = x2 e3x
c. f(x) = x + 3x − 5 e d. f (x) = x2 − 1 tan (3x)
√
2 5x
( )
c. x−2 (2x + 1)
x (4 − x) f. sin (2x − 𝜋)e−3x

3
a. x2 e5x b. e2x+1 tan (2x)
√
d. x cos (x) e. 2
4x2 − 1
a. 3x−2 ex
2 3
d. (x − 1) (3 − x) e. (3x − 2) g(x) f. −e5x g

√
b. e2x c. x2 sin (2x)
−2
(√ )
4 2
x
a. (x2 − 3x + 7) loge (2x − 1)

4. Determine the derivative of each of the following. State any restrictions on x.
b. sin(x) loge (x2 )
𝜋
5. If f(x) = 2x cos (2x), calculate f ′
( )
4
.
2
a. f(x) = xex ; find f ′ (−1). b. f(x) = x x2 + x

6. Determine the derivatives of the following functions, and hence calculate the gradient at the given points.
; find f ′ (1).
)4
𝜋
(
c. f(x) = (1 − x) tan2 (x); find f ′ d. f(x) = x sin 2x2 ; find f ′ 𝜋 .

( ) (√ )
√
.
( )
3
7. a. Given the function f(x) = (x + 1) sin(x), determine f ′ (x) and hence evaluate the gradient of the function
when x = 0.
𝜋
b. Let y = 2x tan (2x). Evaluate when x = , giving your answer in exact form.
dy
dx 12
𝜋
Technology active
8. Differentiate y = 2x sin (x) and evaluate the value of when x = . Give your answer correct to 2 decimal
dy
dx 2
places.
Given that f ∶ R → R, f(x) = x4 e−3x and that f ′ (x) may be written in the form f ′ (x) = e−3x ax3 + bx4 , the
( )
9. MC
A. −4 and 3 C. 4 and −3 E. 12 and −3

constants a and b are respectively:
B. 4 and 3 D. 12 and 3
10. WE6 Given f(x) = 2x2 (1 − x)3 , use calculus to determine the coordinates where f ′ (x) = 0.

11. The graph of f ∶ R+ → R, f(x) = e 2 sin(x) is shown.

−
x
a. Calculate the values of x when f(x) = 0 for x ∈ [0, 3𝜋].

y
b. Use calculus to determine the values of x when f ′ (x) = 0 for

x ∈ [0, 3𝜋]. Give your answers correct to 2 decimal places.
12. Determine the derivative of y = − cos (x) tan (x) by: 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
x
a. simplifying the expression first

b. applying the product rule and then simplifying.
13. a. If f(x) = (x − a) g(x), determine the derivative of f.

𝜋
2
b. If f(x) = g(x) sin (2x) and f

′
= −3𝜋, calculate the constant a if g(x) = ax2 .
( )
Given that y = x2 + 1 e3x , determine

dy
at x = 0.
and hence calculate the equation of the tangent to the curve
( )
14. WE5
dx
15. For the function with the rule y = xex , determine the equations of the tangent and the line perpendicular to
the curve at the point where x = 1.
16. The graph of y = e−x (1 − x) is shown.

2
a. Evaluate the coordinates of the points where the y

graph cuts the x- and y-axes.
b. Calculate the coordinates of the points where the
gradient is zero, giving your answers correct to
3 decimal places.
c. Determine the equation of the tangent to the curve
at the point where the curve intersects the x-axis.
d. Determine the equation of the line perpendicular to 0 x
the curve where the curve crosses the y-axis.
e. Determine where the tangent and the perpendicular
line from parts c and d intersect. Give your answer
correct to 2 decimal places.
17. A country town has decided to construct a y

new road. The x-axis is also the position of the
railway line that connects Sydney with Brisbane.
equationy = 4x2 − 5x ex .
The road can( be approximated by the
) y = (4x2 – 5x)ex
a. The post office for the town is positioned

at (−2, 3.5). They want the new road to be
adjacent to the post office. Explain whether 0 x
T
they have made a sensible decision regarding
the placement of the road.
b. Calculate the coordinates of the point T where
the road crosses the railway line.
c. Use calculus to find the coordinates of the
point B. Give your answer correct to 3 decimal B
places.
18. The graph of the function f ∶ R → R, f(x) = 3x3 e−2x y
f ′ (x) = ae−2x bx2 + cx3 , where a, b and c are constants.

is shown. The( derivative) may be written as
b. Calculate the exact coordinates where f ′ (x) = 0.

a. Calculate the exact values of a, b and c.
c. Determine the equation of the tangent to the curve at x = 1.

0 x
19. An artist has been commissioned to produce a sculpture for an art gallery. The artist intends to construct a
Perspex square-based pyramid as shown.
She also plans to have an animal-themed sculpture inside the pyramid. Each face of the pyramid is an
D is the midpoint of AB. Angles CAB and CBA are each 𝜃 radians.
isosceles triangle as shown.
a. i. Determine CD in terms of 𝜃. ii. Determine BD in terms of 𝜃.
S = 36 cos2 (𝜃) + cos (𝜃) sin (𝜃) .

2
b. Show that the total surface area, S m , of the pyramid, including the base, is given by
( )
dS
c. Determine .
d𝜃 C
3m 3m
θ θ
A B
D
6.3 Exam questions
Let y = x2 sin(x) .
.
dy
Find
dx
Let f (x) = x2 e5x .

Source: VCE 2016, Mathematical Methods Exam 1, Q1b; © VCAA.
Evaluate f ′ (1).
If y = x2 loge (x), find

dy
dx

6.4 The quotient rule

LEARNING INTENTION
• use the quotient rule to find the derivative of functions and the gradient at a given point.
6.4.1 The proof of the quotient rule

When one function is divided by a second function, for example f(x) = =
x2 − 1
x ex
or f(x) , we have the
cos(x)
quotient of the two functions. For such functions, there is a rule for finding the derivative. It is called the
quotient rule.
The quotient rule
If f(x) = , where v(x) ≠ 0, then

u(x)
v(x)
v(x)u′ (x) − u(x)v′ (x)

f′ (x) =
[v(x)]2
Alternatively, if y = , then
u
v
− u dx
=
dy v du
dx
dv
dx v2
This rule can be proven as follows by using the product rule.
If f (x) = , then f (x) = u (x) × [v (x)]−1

u (x)
v (x)
f ′ (x) = u (x) × −1 × [v (x)]−2 × v′(x) + [v (x)]−1 × u′(x)
=− +
u (x) v′(x) u′(x)
2 [v (x)]
[v (x)]
= −
u′(x) v (x) u (x) v′(x)
v (x) u′(x) − u (x) v′(x)

2
[v (x)] [v (x)]2
=
[v (x)]2
dy v dx − u dx
The Leibnitz notation for the quotient rule states that if y = , then =
du dv
u
.
v dx v2
For example, we can differentiate y = 2
x −1
x
as follows.
Let u = x so that = 1 and let v = x2 − 1 so that = 2x.

du dv
dx dx
dy v dx − u dx
=
du dv
dx v2
x − 1 (1) − x(2x)
=
( 2 )
x −1
)2
x2 − 1 − 2x2
( 2
= (
x2 − 1
)2
−x2 − 1
=(
x2 − 1
)2
x2 + 1
= −(
x2 − 1
)2
Note that although the numerator has been factorised and simplified, it is more common not to expand the
denominator.
x−2 5x2 − 2x
Always check that the quotient rule is the best method to use to differentiate the function. For example,
y= √ can be broken down to y = x − 2; therefore, the chain rule should be used. Also, y = √
x−2
√
can
x
be split into separate fractions, and each term can be differentiated using the basic differentiation rule. Before
applying the quotient rule, always check if the function can be simplified first.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7 The quotient rule
Determine the derivative of y =

sin (2t)
with respect to t.
t2
THINK WRITE
y=
sin (2t)
1. Define u and v as functions of t.
Let u = sin (2t) and v = t2 .

t2
= 2 cos (2t)
du
2. Differentiate u and v with respect to t.
= 2t
dt
dv
dt
dy v dt − u dt
=
du dv
dy
t2 × 2 cos (2t) − sin (2t) × 2t

dt dt v2
=
simplify.
( 2 )2
2t(t cos (2t) − sin (2t))

t
2(t cos (2t) − sin (2t))

t4
=
t3

WORKED EXAMPLE 8 Further use of the quotient rule
Determine the derivative of f(x) = and hence calculate the gradient at the point where x = 0.
2ex − x
cos (3x)
THINK WRITE
f(x) =
2ex − x
cos (3x)
Let u(x) = cos (3x) and v(x) = 2ex − x.

u′(x) = −3 sin (3x)
v′(x) = 2ex − 1
v(x)u′(x) − u(x)v′(x)
f ′ (x) =
dy
(2ex − x) × −3 sin (3x) − cos (3x) × (2ex − 1)

dx [v(x)]2
=
simplify.
(2ex − x)2
−3 (2ex − x) sin (3x) − (2ex − 1) cos (3x)
=
(2ex − x)2
−3 2e0 − 0 sin (0) − 2e0 − 1 cos (0)

′
f (0) =
′
( ) ( )
2e − 0
4. Evaluate f (0).
0−1
( 0 )2
=
4
=−
1
4
6.4 Exercise

Technology free
1. WE7 Use the quotient rule to determine the derivatives of:
e +1
e2x cos (3t)
a. x b. .
t3
x+1
x2 − 1
2. Determine the derivative of .
(5 − x)2
c. f(x) = √
sin (x) tan (2x)
5−x
a. b.
ex
√
x
3x − 1 x − 4x2
d. y = e. y = f. f(x) =
2
sin x2
2x2 − 3
( )
x
√
2 x
e−x
c. y =
cos (2x + 1) x−1 x+2
√
ex 3 x
a. b.
x−2 1 − e2x
d. y =
2x − x − 6 1 + e2x
cos (3x)
e. f.
sin (3x) 2

loge (x2 )
2x − 1 e2x + 1
2 loge (2x)
a. b.
x+2
6. Differentiate the following functions.
g e−2x
a. f(x) = b. f(x) =
( )
sin (g(x)) ex
If y =
sin (x)
where x = 0.
7. WE8 , determine the gradient and hence calculate the gradient of the function at the point
e2x
sin (2x + 𝜋) 𝜋
8. Evaluate the gradient at the stated point for each of the following functions.
a. y = , x=1 b. y = , x=
x +1 cos (2x + 𝜋)
2x
x+1 5−x
2 2
c. y = √ , x=5 d. y = , x=0
2
3x + 1 ex
9. a. Calculate the gradient of the tangent to the curve with equation y = at the point where x = 1.
2x
(3x + 1) 2
3
b. Determine the equation of the tangent to the curve y = when x = 0.

x2 + 2
ex
2x − 1
Technology active
10. Consider the curve defined by the rule y =
3x2 + 1
.
a. Determine the rule for the gradient.

b. Determine the value(s) of x for which the gradient is equal to 0.875. Give your answers correct to
sin (2x − 3)
4 decimal places.
11. Let f ∶ [−2, 2] → R, f(x) = . The graph of y

ex (a, b)
this function is shown.
a. The stationary points occur at (a, b) and (c, d).
Calculate the values of a, b, c and d, giving your
answers correct to 3 decimal places.
the point where x = 1, correct to 3 decimal places.

0 x
b. Calculate the gradient of the tangent to the curve at –2 2
(c, d)

1 + cos (x) −2 sin (x)

=−
1 − cos (x) (cos (x) − 1)2
d
( )
12. Show that .
dx
2x − 1
13. MC Given that f(x) = √ , the value of m such that f ′ (m) = √ is:
√
2x + 1
2
5 15
A. m = ±2 B. m = 2 C. m = −1 D. m = 2 E. m = ±
√ √
2
e−x a + be−2x
( −3x )
= (
dx e2x + 1
( )
e2x + 1
d e
14. If )2 , calculate the exact values of a and b.
15. Determine the derivative of the function f ∶ R → R, f(x) =

x +1
10x
2
and calculate when the gradient is negative.
x−5
16. For the curve with the rule y =
x + 5x − 14
2
:
a. state when the function is undefined
c. determine the equation of the tangent to the curve at the point where x = 1.
b. determine the coordinates when the gradient is zero
6.4 Exam questions
Let f (x) =
Source: VCE 2018, Mathematical Methods Exam 1, Q1b; © VCAA.
ex
.
Evaluate f ′(𝜋).
cos (x)
Let f ∶ (−2, ∞) → R, f (x) =

x+2
x
.
Differentiate f with respect to x.

Let y =
x2 + 2
cos (x)
.
dy
Find .
dx
6.5 Curve sketching

LEARNING INTENTION
• graph functions and use differentiation to identify their stationary points and their nature
• identify local maximum/minimum values over an interval
• identify interval endpoint maximum and minimum values.
At the points where a differentiable function is neither increasing nor decreasing, the function is stationary and
its gradient is zero. Identifying such stationary points provides information that assists curve sketching.
6.5.1 Stationary points

Stationary points
There are three types of stationary points:
• (local) minimum turning points
• (local) maximum turning points
• stationary points of inflection.
For a curve y = f(x) at a stationary point, f ′ (x) = 0.
The word ‘local’ means that the point is a minimum or a maximum in a particular locality or neighbourhood.
Beyond this section of the graph, there could be other points on the graph that are lower than the local minimum
or higher than the local maximum. Our purpose for the time being is simply to identify the turning points and
their nature, so we shall continue to refer to them just as minimum or maximum turning points.
Nature of a stationary point
At each of the three types of stationary points, f ′ (x) = 0. This means that the tangents to the curve at these points
are horizontal. By examining the slope of the tangent to the curve immediately before and immediately after the
stationary point, the nature or type of stationary point can be determined.
Minimum turning point Maximum turning point Stationary point of inflection

Stationary
point
or
For a minimum turning For a maximum turning For a stationary point of inflection,
point, the behaviour of point, the behaviour of the behaviour of the function remains
the function changes the function changes either increasing or decreasing before
from decreasing just from increasing just and after the point and stationary at
before the point, to before the point, to the point.
stationary at the point, stationary at the point,
to increasing just after to decreasing just after
the point. the point.

Slope of
tangent
or
The slope of the tangent The slope of the tangent The slope of the tangent is zero at the
changes from negative to changes from positive to point but does not change sign either
zero to positive. zero to negative. side of the point.
Identifying stationary points
• establish where f ′ (x) = 0

To identify stationary points and their nature:
• determine the nature by testing the slope of the tangent at selected points either side of, and in the
neighbourhood of, the stationary point.
WORKED EXAMPLE 9 Stationary points and their nature
a. Determine the stationary points of f(x) = 2 + 4x − 2x2 − x3 and justify their nature.
b. The curve y = ax2 + bx − 24 has a stationary point at (−1, −25). Calculate the values of a and b.
f(x) = 2 + 4x − 2x2 − x3
THINK WRITE
f ′ (x) = 4 − 4x − 3x2
a. 1. Derive the function. a.
At stationary points, f ′ (x) = 0.

points by solving f (x) = 0.
′
4 − 4x − 3x2 = 0
2. Calculate the x-coordinates of the stationary
Note: Always include the reason why f ′ (x) = 0.

(2 − 3x)(2 + x) = 0
x=
or x = −2
2
When x = ,
3
2
3. Calculate the corresponding y-coordinates.
3
= 2+4 −2 −
( )2 ( )3
2 2 2 2
( ) ( )
f
3 3 3 3
=
94
When x = −2,
27
f(−2) = 2 + 4(−2) − 2(−2)2 − (−2)3

= −6
, , (−2, −6).
2 94
( )
4. Write the answer. The stationary points are
3 27
−3 −2
5. To justify the nature of the stationary points, 2
draw a table to show the gradient of the curve x 0 1
−11 −3
3
f ′ (x)
either side of the stationary points.
0 4 0
Note: The shape of the cubic graph would
suggest the nature of the stationary points. Slope \ __ / — \
At x = −2, the gradient changes from negative

to positive, so (−2, −6) is a minimum turning
6. Identify the nature of each stationary point by
examining the sign of the gradient before and
At x = , the gradient changes from positive to

after each point. point.
2
,
3
2 94
( )
negative, so is a maximum turning
3 27
b. y = ax2 + bx − 24
point.
The point (−1, −25) lies on the curve.

b. 1. Use the coordinates of the given point to form
−25 = a(−1)2 + b(−1) − 24

an equation.
a − b = −1 [1]
Note: As there are two unknowns to determine,
two pieces of information are needed to form
two equations in the two unknowns.
The point (−1, −25) is a stationary point, so
= 0 at this point.
2. Use the other information given about the
point to form a second equation. dy
y = ax2 + bx − 24
dx
= 2ax + b
dy
dx
At (−1, −25), = 2a(−1) + b

dy
= −2a + b
dx
−2a + b = 0
a − b = −1 [1]
3. Solve the simultaneous equations and state the [2]
answer.
− a = −1
Add the equations:
∴a=1
Substitute a = 1 in equation [2]:
−2+b = 0
∴b=2
The values are a = 1 and b = 2.

b. 1. On a Calculator page, press b. 1. On the Main screen, select:
MENU, then select: • Interactive
1: Actions • Define
1: Define Complete the fields as:
Define f 1(x) = a × x2 + b ×
Complete the entry line as: Func name: f
x − 24 Expression: a × x2 + b×
Variable/s: x
then press ENTER. x − 24

Note: Remember to include then select OK.
the multiplication operator Note: Remember to include
between a and x, and between the multiplication operator
b and x. between a and x, and
between b and x.

2. Press MENU, then select: 2. Complete the next entry
solve({f(−1) = −25,
3: Algebra line as:
diff( f(x), x, 1, −1) = 0},

1: Solve
f1(−1) = −25 {a, b})

Complete
( the entry line as:
solve ) and
( f1(x))|x = −1
d then press EXE.
(
= 0, a, b)
dx
Press ENTER.
Note: Press MENU, then
select:
4: Calculus
2: Derivative at a point
to find the derivative template.
3. The answer appears on the a = 1 and b = 2. 3. The answer appears on the a = 1 and b = 2.
screen. screen.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Stationary points (int-5963)
6.5.2 Curve sketching

To sketch the graph of any function y = f(x), perform the following steps:
• Obtain any x-intercepts by solving, if possible, f(x) = 0. This may require the use of factorisation techniques
• Obtain the y-intercept by evaluating f(0).
• Calculate the x-coordinates of the stationary points by solving f ′ (x) = 0. Use the equation of the curve to
including the factor theorem.
obtain the corresponding y-coordinates.

• Identify the nature of the stationary points.
• Calculate the coordinates of the end points of the domain where appropriate.
• Identify any other key features of the graph where appropriate.
Strictly increasing and decreasing
Conditions for strictly increasing and decreasing

A function is strictly increasing on an interval x ∈ [a, b] if, for every value in that interval, f(b) > f(a).
Similarly, a function is strictly decreasing on an interval x ∈ [a, b] if, for every value in that interval,
f(b) < f(a).
WORKED EXAMPLE 10 Curve sketching
a. Sketch the function y = x − 3x2 + 6x − 8. Locate any intercepts with the coordinate axes and any
1 3
2
stationary points, and justify their nature.
b. State the domain over which the function is strictly increasing.
THINK WRITE
a. y = x − 3x2 + 6x − 8
1 3
a. 1. State the y-intercept.
y-intercept: (0, −8)

2
When y = 0,
2. Calculate any x-intercepts. For a polynomial x-intercepts:
of degree 3, try to identify a factor by
x − 3x2 + 6x − 8 = 0
looking at the equation. 1 3
x3 − 6x2 + 12x − 16 = 0
2
Let P(x) = x3 − 6x2 + 12x − 16.

P(4) = 64 − 96 + 48 − 16
=0
∴ (x − 4) is a factor.
0 = x3 − 6x2 + 12x − 16
0 = (x − 4) x2 − 2x + 4
∴ x = 4 or x2 − 2x + 4 = 0
( )
The discriminant of x2 − 2x + 4 is Δ = 4 − 16 < 0.

Therefore, there is only one x-intercept, (4, 0).
3. Obtain the derivative in order to locate any Stationary points:

y = x3 − 3x2 + 6x − 8
stationary points. 1
2
= x − 6x + 6
dy 3 2
dx 2
= 0.
dy
At stationary points,
dx
x − 6x + 6 = 0
3 2
2
(x − 4x + 4) = 0
3 2
2
(x − 2)2 = 0
3
x=2
2
Substitute x = 2 into the function’s equation:

y = (2)3 − 3(2)2 + 6(2) − 8
1
= −4
2
The stationary point is (2, −4).

4. Identify the type of stationary point by x 0 2 4
evaluating the slope either side of the
dy
stationary point. 6 0 6
dx
Slope / — /
The point (2, −4) is a stationary point of

inflection.

5. Sketch the curve, showing the intercepts y 1

y = – x3– 3x2 + 6x – 8
with the axes and the stationary point. 2
(4, 0)
0 x
(2, –4)
(0, –8)
b. Identify the domain over which f(b) > f(a), b. x ∈ R

where b > a.
a. 1. On a Graphs page, complete a. 1. On a Graph & Table
the entry line for function 1 as: screen, complete the entry
f 1(x) = x3 − 3x2 + 6x − 8
1 line for y1 as:
y1 = x3 − 3x2 + 6x − 8
2 1
then press ENTER. 2
then press EXE.
Select the ‘Graph’ icon to
draw the graph.
2. To find the x-intercept, press 2. To find the x-intercept,

1: Zero • G-solve
Move the cursor to the left of • Root
the x-intercept when prompted then press EXE.
for the lower bound, then press
ENTER. Move the cursor to
the right of the x-intercept
when prompted for the upper
3. To find the y-intercept, press 3. To find the y-intercept,

Type ‘0’, then press ENTER • Y Intercept
twice. then press EXE.
4. To find the point of inflection, 4. To find the point of

press MENU, then select: inflection, select:
5: Inflection • G-Solve
Move the cursor to the left of • inflection
the point of inflection when then press EXE.
prompted for the lower bound,
then press ENTER. Move the
cursor to the right of the point
of inflection when prompted
for the upper bound, then press
ENTER.
6.5.3 Local and absolute maxima and minima

The diagram shows the graph of a function sketched over a y
domain with end points D and E. C
There are three turning points: A and C are maximum turning
A
points, and B is a minimum turning point.
D
The y-coordinate of point A is greater than those of its
neighbours, so A is a local maximum point. However, the B
y-coordinate of point C is not only greater than those of its E
neighbours; it is greater than that of any other point on the
x
graph. For this reason, C is called the absolute maximum 0
point.
The absolute minimum point is the point whose y-coordinate is less than any others on the graph. For this
function, point E, an end point of the domain, is the absolute minimum point. Point B is a local minimum point;
it is not the absolute minimum point.
Absolute maximums and minimums may not exist for all functions. For example, a cubic function on its
is neither an absolute maximum nor an absolute minimum point, because as x → ± ∞, y → ± ∞ (assuming a

maximal domain may have one local maximum turning point and one local minimum turning point, but there
positive coefficient of x3 ).
If a differentiable function has an absolute maximum or an absolute minimum value, then this will occur at
either a turning point or an end point of the domain. The y-coordinate of such a point gives the value of the
absolute maximum or the absolute minimum.
WORKED EXAMPLE 11 Absolute maximum and minimum values
A function defined on a restricted domain has the rule y = + , x ∈ , 4 .

x 2 1
[ ]
2 x 4
a. Specify the coordinates of the end points of the domain.
b. Obtain the coordinates of any stationary point and determine its nature.
c. Sketch the graph of the function.
d. State the absolute maximum and minimum values of the function, if they exist.
THINK WRITE
a. y = + for the domain ≤ x ≤ 4.

x 2 1
a. Use the given domain to calculate the coordinates of
the end points. 2 x 4
Substitute each of the end values of the domain
in the function’s rule.

Left end point: when x = ,

1
y= +
4
x 2
= +8
2 x
1
=8
8
1
8
Right end point: when x = 4,
y = 2+
1
2
=2
1
,
2
1 65 5
( ) ( )
The end points are and 4, .
4 8 2
y= +
x 2
b. 1. Calculate the derivative of the function. b.
2 x
y = + 2x−1
x
2
= − 2x−2
dy 1
dx 2
= −
dy 1 2
dx 2 x2
= 0.
dy
2. Calculate the coordinates of any stationary At a stationary point,
− =0
point. dx
1 2
2 x2
= 2
1 2
x2 = 4
2 x
x = ±2
x = 2, x ∈ ,4
1
[ ]
When x = 2, y = +
2 2
=2
2 2
(2, 2) is a stationary point.
− =− − =
3. Test the gradient at two selected points either dy 1 2 3 1 2 5
side of the stationary point. 0
dx 2 1 2 2 9 18
Slope \ — /
4. State the nature of the stationary point. The The point (2, 2) is a minimum turning point.
gradient changes from negative to zero to
c. There is no y-intercept, since x = 0 is not in

positive about the stationary point.
the given domain, nor is y = + defined at

c. 1. Calculate any intercepts with the coordinate
axes. x 2
x = 0.
2 x
There is no x-intercept, since the end points

and the minimum turning point all have
positive y-coordinates, and there are no other
turning points.
2. Sketch the graph using the three known points. y
( )
1 , 65
–
4 8
–
x 2
y=–+–
2 x
(2, 2)
( ) 5
4, –
2
0 x
65
d. Examine the graph and the y-coordinates to d. The function has an absolute maximum of
identify the absolute extremes. 8
at the left end point and an absolute minimum,
and local minimum, of 2 at its turning point.
6.5 Exercise

Technology free
a. Determine the stationary points of f(x) = + − 2x + 4 and justify their nature.
2x3 3x2
1. WE9
b. The curve y = ax2 + bx + c passes through the point (0, −8) and has a stationary point at (−1, −5).
3 2
Calculate the values of a, b and c.
a. y = x(x + 2) b. y = x3 + 3x2 − 24x + 5

2. Obtain any stationary points of the following curves and justify their nature.
2
c. y = d. y = (x − 1)e−x
x+1
x2

3. Consider the function defined by f (x) = 16x2 − x4 .

√
a. Show that (2 2, 64) is a stationary point of the function.
b. Determine the nature of this stationary point.
c. State the coordinates of any other stationary points and state their nature.
4. The curve y = x3 + ax2 + bx − 11 has stationary points when x = 1 and x =

5
.
3
a. Calculate a and b.
b. Determine the coordinates of the stationary points and their nature.
5. WE10 a. Sketch the function f(x) = 2x3 − x2 . Locate any intercepts with the coordinate axes and any
b. State the domain over which the function is strictly decreasing.
6. Sketch the graphs of each of the following functions. Label any intercepts and any stationary points with
their coordinates, and justify the nature of the stationary points.
a. f: R → R, f(x) = − (x − 4) + 2 b. g(x) = 2x3 − x2 , x ∈ [−1, 1]
1 3
c. h: R → R, h(x) = x3 − x2 − x + 10 d. f(x) = x4 − 6x2 + 8

4
e. f(x) = (x + 3) (4 − x) f. f(x) = x3 − 4x2 − 3x + 12

3
7. a. Sketch the function f(x) = −x4 + 2x3 + 11x2 − 12x. Locate any intercepts with the coordinate axes and any
b. State the domain over which the function is strictly increasing.
Technology active
8. a. Sketch the graph of f(x) = (2x − 3)4 (x + 1)5 , showing all intercepts and stationary points.
1
2
b. State the domain over which the function is strictly decreasing.
9. The graph of the function f ∶ R+ → R, f (x) = + loge (x) is shown.

1
y
10x
Use calculus to determine the coordinates of the minimum turning point. 1 + log x
y=— e
10x
10. Use calculus to determine the exact local maximum or minimum value
of the function defined by:
a. f(x) = 2x loge (x), x > 0 b. f(x) = , x>0

loge (2x) 0 x
x
c. f(x) = x loge , x>0 d. f(x) = x − loge x−2
3
( ) (√ )
x
x=0
In each case, investigate the nature of the turning point to determine
whether it is a maximum or a minimum.
11. Sketch a possible graph of the function y = f(x) for which:
f ′ (−1) = 0, f ′ (3) = 0, f(3) = 0, f ′ (x) > 0 for x < −1, f ′ (x) < 0 for −1 < x < 3 and f ′ (x) > 0 for x > 3
f ′ (−1) = 0, f ′ (x) < 0 for x ∈ R \{−1} and f(−1) = 2.
a.
b.
12. a. The point (2, −8) is a stationary point of the curve y = x3 + bx + c. Calculate the values of b and c.
b. The point (1.5, 6) is a stationary point of the curve y = ax2 + bx + 15. Calculate the values of a and b.
c. A curve has equation y = x3 + bx2 + cx + d. The curve has a stationary point at (−3, −10) and passes
through the point (1, 6). Determine the values of b, c and d.
A function defined on a restricted domain has the rule f(x) = + x, x ∈ −2, − .

1 1
[ ]
13. WE11
4x 4
a. Specify the coordinates of the end points of the domain.
b. Obtain the coordinates of any stationary point and determine its nature.
c. Sketch the graph of the function.
d. State the absolute maximum and minimum values of the function, if they exist.
14. Calculate, if possible, the absolute maximum and minimum values of the function f(x) = 2x3 − 8x over the
domain {x : x ≤ 2}.
15. Sketch the graphs and state the absolute maximum and minimum values over the given domain for each of
the following functions.
a. y = (x − 1) − 2, 0 ≤ x ≤ 5 b. y = x3 − 2x2 , −2 ≤ x ≤ 3 c. y = 4 − x3 , x ≤ 2
1 2
2
16. The graph of f(x) = 2 x + , 0.25 ≤ x ≤ 5 is shown.

√ 1
y
x
a. Determine the coordinates of the end points A and C and the stationary
point B. A
b. Determine the point at which the absolute maximum occurs. C
c. State the absolute maximum and minimum values.
17. Let f(x) = xex . B
b. Determine {x : f ′ (x) > 0}.

a. Determine any stationary points and state their nature.
c. State, if possible, the absolute maximum and minimum values.
18. a. Sketch the graph of y = e−x .

0 x
b. If y = 20e−2x −4x+1 , use calculus to calculate the values of x for which

2
the function is strictly increasing.
19. The graph of the function f ∶ R− → R, f(x) = − 2 loge (x + 3) is shown.

1
1 – 2 log (x + 3) y
x2 y=—
x2 e
a. Calculate the coordinates of the x-intercepts, correct to 3 decimal places.

b. Determine the equations of the tangents at the x-axis intercepts.
c. Determine the coordinates of the minimum turning point. Give your
0 x
x = –3 x=0
20. The graph of the function f ∶ R+ → R, f(x) = − − 8 loge (x) is shown.

1
y
x2 1
y = – —2 – 8 loge x
a. Calculate the coordinates of the x-intercepts, giving your answers x
b. Calculate the gradient of the curve at the points found in part a, giving 0 x
c. Determine the equation of the tangent at (1, −1) and the equation of
your answers correct to 2 decimal places.
the line perpendicular to the curve at (1, −1).

d. Show that the coordinates of the maximum turning point are
, −4 + 8 loge (2) .
1
( )
x=0
2

21. Consider the function f(x) = (a − x) (x − 2) where a > 2.

2
a. Locate or calculate the coordinates of the stationary points.
c. Calculate the value of a if the graph of y = f(x) has a turning point at (3, 4).
b. State the nature of the stationary points.
22. Consider the function f(x) = (x − a)(x − b) , where a > 0, b > 0 and a < b.
3
a. Determine the x-intercepts

b. Locate or calculate the coordinates of the stationary points.
If one of the stationary points has coordinates (3, −27), calculate a and b.
c. State the nature of the stationary points.
d.
6.5 Exam questions
The function f : R → R, f (x) = x3 + ax2 + bx has a local maximum at x = −1 and a local minimum at
x = 3. The values of a and b are respectively

MC
A. −2 and −3 B. 2 and 1 C. 3 and −9 D. −3 and −9 E. −6 and −15
The cubic function R → R, f (x) = ax3 − bx2 + cx , where a, b and c are positive constants, has no stationary
MC
points when
A. c > B. c < C. c < 4b2 a D. c > E. c <
b2 b2 b2 b2
4a 4a 3a 3a
Let f : R → R, f (x) = x3 − 5x. Part of the graph of f is shown below.

Source: VCE 2017, Mathematical Methods Exam 2, Section B, Q1a, b; © VCAA.
y
10
x
–5 O 5
–5
–10
a. Find the coordinates of the turning points. (2 marks)

b. A (−1, f (−1)) and B (1, f (1)) are two points on the graph of f.
i. Find the equation of the straight line through A and B. (2 marks)
ii. Find the distance AB. (1 mark)
6.6 Maximum and minimum problems

LEARNING INTENTION
• solving problems involving maximum and minimum values.
6.6.1 How to solve maximum and minimum problems

In many practical situations, it is necessary to find the maximum or minimum value of the function that
describes it. For example, if you were running your own business, you would always want to minimise the
production costs while maximising the profits.
To solve maximum or minimum problems, apply the following steps.
• Draw a diagram if possible and label it with as few variables as possible.
• If there is more than one variable, find a connection between the variables from the information given. For
instance, if you are finding the area of a rectangle, where the dimensions are length, l, and width, w, the
width needs to be expressed in terms of the length or vice versa, so that the area can be expressed in terms
of one variable only. Pythagoras’ theorem, trigonometry, similar triangles, standard formulas, or given
information could be required to express one variable in terms of another.
• Find an expression for the quantity to be maximised or minimised in terms of the one nominated variable.
• Differentiate the expression, equate to zero and solve for the unknown variable.
• Reject any unrealistic solutions.
• Check the nature of the stationary point.
• Check whether the answer is the absolute maximum or minimum by evaluating the end points of
the domain.
• Always sketch the shape of the graph.
• Answer the actual question.
WORKED EXAMPLE 12 Maximum and minimum problems
The new owner of an apartment wants to install a window in the

shape of a rectangle surmounted by a semicircle in order to allow
more light into the apartment.
The owner has 336 cm of wood for a frame to surround the
window. They want to determine the dimensions of the window
that will allow as much light into the apartment as possible.
a. Show that the area, A in cm2 , of the window is
A = 336x − (4 + 𝜋)x2 .
1
2
b. Hence, determine, to the nearest cm, the width and the height h
of the window for which the area is greatest.
c. Structural limitations mean that the width of the window
should not exceed 84 cm. Determine the required dimensions
of the window of maximum area.
2x

THINK WRITE
∴ Arectangle = 2xh
a. 1. Form an expression for the total area. The a. Rectangle: length 2x cm, width h cm
total area is the sum of the areas of the
rectangle and semicircle. Semicircle: diameter 2x cm, radius x cm
∴ Asemicircle = 𝜋x2
Note: This expression involves more than 1
The total area of the window is A = 2xh + 𝜋x2 .

one variable. 2
1
Pwindow = 336 cm
2
2. Use the perimeter information to form an
Csemicircle = (2𝜋x)
expression connecting the two variables. 1
∴ Pshape = h + 2x + h + (2𝜋x)
2
1
Hence, 2h + 2x + 𝜋x = 336.
2
2h = 336 − 2x − 𝜋x
h = (336 − 2x − 𝜋x)
3. Express one appropriately chosen
variable in terms of the other. The 1
required expression for the area is in 2
terms of x, so express h in terms of x.
A = x (2h) + 𝜋x2
1
4. Write the area as a function of x by
2
= x (336 − 2x − 𝜋x) + 𝜋x2
substituting for h.
1
2
= 336x − 2x2 − 𝜋x2 + 𝜋x2

1
2
= 336x − 2 + 𝜋 x2
1
( )
∴ A = 336x − (4 + 𝜋) x2 as required.
1
2
= 0.
dA
b. 1. Determine where the stationary point b. At the stationary point,
= 336 − (4 + 𝜋) x
occurs and justify its nature. dx
dA
0 = 336 − (4 + 𝜋) x
dx
x=
4+𝜋
336
x = 47.05
4+𝜋
336
x 40 50
176 − 40𝜋 136 − 50𝜋

dA
0
dx
Slope / — \
The maximum area is obtained when x =

4+𝜋
336
cm.
When x = ,
4+𝜋
336
2. State the values of both variables.
2h = 336 − 2 × −𝜋×
4+𝜋 4+𝜋
336 336
( ) ( )
∴ h = 47.05 cm
The width of the window is 2x ≃ 94 cm.
The total height of the window is h + x ≃ 94 cm.
3. Calculate the required dimensions and
state the answer.
Therefore, the area of the window will be greatest if
its width is 94 cm and its height is 94 cm.
2x ≤ 84.
c. 1. Give the restricted domain of the area c. If the width is not to exceed 84 cm, then
∴ x ≤ 42
function.
With the restriction, the domain of the area function

is [0, 42].
2. Determine where the function is greatest. A
x ≈ 47, for the domain [0, 42] there is no

As the stationary point occurs when 8000
6000
stationary point, so the greatest area must
occur at an end point of the domain. 4000
2000
The maximum occurs when x = 42.

0
42 47 94
3. Calculate the required dimensions and When x = 42,

h = (336 − 84 − 42𝜋)
state the answer. 1
∴ h = 60.03 cm
2
≈ 60 cm
The width of the window is 2x = 84 cm.
The height of the window is h + x = 102 cm.
With the restriction, the area of the window will be
greatest if its width is 84 cm and its height is 102 cm.
WORKED EXAMPLE 13 Determining minimum distance
y = 2x2 to the point (4, 0), correct to 2 decimal

Calculate the minimum distance from the curve y
y = 2x2
places. You do not need to justify your answer.
(4, 0)
0 x

P = (x, y)
THINK WRITE
1. Let P be the point on the curve such that
the distance from P to the point (4, 0) is a
d(x) = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2

minimum. √
2. Write the formula for the distance between
= (x − 4)2 + (y − 0)2
two points. √
= (x − 4)2 + y2
√
3. Express the distance between the two points as y = 2x2
∴ d (x) = (x − 4)2 + (2x2 )2

a function of x only.
√
= x2 − 8x + 16 + 4x4 2
( )1
d′(x) = × 4x4 + x2 − 8x + 16 2 × 16x3 + 2x − 8

1 ( )− 1 (
4. Differentiate d(x).
)
2
16x3 + 2x − 8
= √
2 4x4 + x2 − 8x + 16
8x3 + x − 4
=√
4x4 + x2 − 8x + 16
8x3 + x − 4
5. Solve d′(x) = 0 using CAS. 0= √
4x4 + x2 − 8x + 16
0 = 8x3 + x − 4
x = 0.741
d(0.741) = (0.741)2 − 8(0.741) + 16 + 4(0.741)4

√
6. Evaluate d(0.741).
= 3.439
7. Write the answer. The minimum distance is 3.44 units.
Note: When finding the minimum distance between two points, one of which is on a curve, the line joining
the points is always perpendicular to the curve. This fact can also be used to determine the minimum distance
between two points.
6.6 Exercise

1. WE13 Calculate the minimum distance from the line y = 2x − 5 to the origin. You do not need to justify your
Technology free
answer.
2. Calculate the minimum distance from the line y = 2

√
x to the point y
(5, 0).
3. The sum of two positive numbers is 32. Determine the numbers if their
product is a maximum.
4. A rectangular box with an open top is to be constructed from a
rectangular sheet of cardboard measuring 16 cm by 10 cm. The box
will be made by cutting equal squares of side length x cm out of the four
corners and folding the flaps up.
x
a. Express the volume as a function of x. (0, 0) (5, 0)
b. Determine the dimensions of the box with greatest volume and give
this maximum volume.
Technology active
5. WE12 The owner of an apartment wants to create a stained glass feature in the shape of a
rectangle surmounted by an isosceles triangle of height equal to half its base. This will be
adjacent to a door opening on to a balcony.
The owner has 150 cm of plastic edging to place around the perimeter of the figure and
wants to determine the dimensions of the figure with the greatest area.
a. Show that the area, A in cm2 , of the stained glass figure is A = 150x − 2 2 + 1 x2 .
( √ )
y
b. Determine, correct to 1 decimal place, the width and the height of the figure for which
the area is greatest.
c. Due to structural limitations, the width of the figure should not exceed 30 cm. Determine
the required dimensions of the stained glass figure of maximum area. 2x
6. A pen for holding farm animals has dimensions l × w metres. This pen is to be partitioned so that there are
four spaces of equal area as shown.
l
The farmer has 550 metres of fencing material to construct this pen.
a. Calculate the required length and width in order to maximise the area of the pen.
b. Calculate the maximum area.
b
7. A playground is being constructed by the local council. The
shape of the playground is shown. All measurements are in a
metres.
The perimeter of the playground is known to be 96 metres.
a. Determine the values of a and b that give a maximum area
a
for the playground.
b. Calculate the maximum area.
2.5b

8. An ornamental fish pond has the shape shown.

A plastic cover is being made for the pond for the winter months. If the surface
area of the pond, A, is a constant, show that
√the perimeter of the pond is a
𝜋+4
2A R cm
minimum when both R and l are equal to .
l cm
9. A colony of blue wrens, also known as superb fairy

wrens, survives in a national park in Sassafras Victoria
because the wooded areas have rich undergrowth and
a plentiful supply of insects, the wrens’ main food
source. Breeding begins in spring and continues until
late summer.
The population of the colony at any time t months
after 1 September can be modelled by the function
−t
P (t) = 200te 4 + 400, 0 ≤ t ≤ 12
where P is the number of birds in the colony.

Determine:
a. the initial population of the birds
b. when the largest number of birds is reached
c. the maximum number of birds, to the nearest bird.
10. The amount of money in a savings account t years after the account was opened on 1 January 2016 is given
4 −t
by the equation
A(t) = 1000 − 12te for t ∈ [0, 6].
3
a. Calculate how much money was in the account when the account was first opened.
b. Determine the least amount of money in the account.
c. Determine when the account contained its lowest amount. Give the year and month.
d. Calculate how much money was in the account at the end of the 6 years.
11. A cylinder has a surface area of 220𝜋 cm2 . Calculate the height and radius of each end of the cylinder so that
the volume of the cylinder is maximised, and determine the maximum volume for the cylinder. Give answers
12. Calculate the volume of the largest cone, correct to the nearest cubic
centimetre, that can be inscribed in a sphere of radius 12 centimetres.
r cm
Let the base radius of the cone be r cm and the vertical height h cm.
13. A cone is 10 cm high and has a base radius of 8 cm. Calculate the 12 cm
radius and height of a cylinder that is inscribed in the cone such that
the volume of the cylinder is a maximum. Determine the maximum h cm
volume of the cylinder, correct to the nearest cubic centimetre.
14. A rower is in a boat 4 km from the nearest point, O, on a straight beach. A

His destination is 8 km along the beach from O. If he is able to row at
5 km/h and walk at 8 km/h, determine the point on the beach he should
row to in order to reach his destination in the least possible time. Give
your answer correct to 1 decimal place. 4 km
B
C
O x km
8 km
6.6 Exam questions

point (u, v), where u > 0 on the parabola y = 4 − x2 .

MC A rectangle is formed by using part of the coordinate axes and a y
5
Which one of the following is the maximum area of the rectangle?
√
2 3 4
A. 4 B.
8 3−4
3
√ 3
8 (u , v)
C. D.
3 3 2
√
16 3
E. 1
9
x
O 1 2 3 4 5
Let P be a point on the straight line y = 2x − 4 such that the length of OP, the line segment from the origin O to
P, is a minimum.
a. Find the coordinates of P. (3 marks)
√
a b
b. Find the distance OP. Express your answer in the form , where a and b are positive
b
integers. (2 marks)
MC The trapezium ABCD is shown below. The sides AB, BC and DA are of equal length, p. The size of the
acute angle BCD is x radians.
D C
x
p p
A p B
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
The area of the trapezium is a maximum when the value of x is
5𝜋
A. B. C. D. E.
12 6 4 3 12

6.7 Rates of change

LEARNING INTENTION
• solve problems involving instantaneous and average rates of change.
Calculus enables the behaviour of a quantity that changes to be analysed. Many topics of interest in the
biological, physical and social sciences involve the study of rates of change. In this section we consider
the application of calculus to rates of change in general contexts and then as applied to the motion of a
moving object.
6.7.1 Rates of change
line connecting the two points. The instantaneous rate of change, or rate of change, of the function y = f(x) is
The average rate of change of a function, f, over the interval x1 to x2 is calculated by finding the gradient of the
or f ′ (x).
dy
given by the derivative,
dx
Rate of change
f x2 − f x1
Average rate of change =
x2 − x1
( ) ( )
Instantaneous rate of change = or f ′(x)

dy
dx
dV
For example, the derivative could be the rate of change of volume with respect to time, with possible units
dt
dV
being litres per minute; the rate of change of volume with respect to height would be , with possible units
dh
being litres per cm. To calculate these rates, V would need to be expressed as a function of one independent
variable, either time or height. Similar methods to those encountered in optimisation problems are often required
to connect variables together in order to obtain this function of one variable.
To solve rates of change problems, apply the following steps.
• Draw a diagram of the situation where appropriate.
• Identify the rate of change required and define the variables involved.
• Express the quantity that is changing as a function of one independent variable, the variable the rate is
measured with respect to.
• Calculate the derivative that measures the rate of change.
• To obtain the rate at a given value or instant, substitute the given value into the derivative expression.
• Remember that a negative value for the rate of change means the quantity is decreasing (negative gradient),
whereas a positive value for the rate of change means the quantity is increasing (positive gradient).
WORKED EXAMPLE 14 Rates of change applications
A container in the shape of an inverted right cone of radius 2 cm and depth 5 cm is being filled with
water. When the depth of water is h cm, the radius of the water level is r cm.
a. Use similar triangles to express r in terms of h.
b. Express the volume of the water as a function of h.
c. Determine the rate with respect to the depth of water at which the volume of water is changing
when its depth is 1 cm.
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Draw a diagram of the situation. a.
2 cm
r cm
5 cm
h cm
=
2 5
2. Obtain the required relationship between the
r h
∴r=
variables using similar triangles.
2h
5
b. Vcone = 𝜋r2 h
1
b. Express the function in the required form.
Therefore, the volume of water is V = 𝜋r2 h.

3
1
Substitute r = :
3
2h
5
V= 𝜋
( )2
1 2h
h
3 5
=
4𝜋h3
∴ V=
75
4𝜋 3
h
75
= × 3h2
dV 4𝜋
c. 1. Calculate the derivative of the function. The c.
dh 75
=
derivative gives the rate of change at any
depth. 4𝜋 2
h
25
2. Evaluate the derivative at the given value. When h = 1,
=
dV 4𝜋
= 0.16𝜋
dh 25
3. Write the answer in context, with the At the instant the depth is 1 cm, the
0.16𝜋 cm3 /cm.

appropriate units. volume of water is increasing at the rate of

Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Rates of change (int-5960)
6.7.2 Kinematics
Many quantities change over time, so many rates measure that change with respect to time. Motion is one
such quantity. The study of the motion of a particle without considering the causes of the motion is called
kinematics. Analysing motion requires interpretation of the displacement,velocity and acceleration, and
this analysis depends on calculus. For the purpose of this course, only motion in a straight line, also called
rectilinear motion, will be considered.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Kinematics (int-5964)
Displacement
The displacement, x, gives the position of a particle by specifying both its distance and its direction from a
fixed origin.
Common units for displacement and distance are cm, m and km.
• if x > 0, the particle is to the right of the origin

The commonly used conventions for motion along a horizontal straight line are:
• if x < 0, the particle is to the left of the origin

x
–10 0 10
• if x = 0, the particle is at the origin.
For example, if x = −10, this means the particle is 10 units to the left of origin O.
displacement x = 10.
Note that its distance from the origin of 10 units is the same as the distance from the origin of a particle with
Distance is not concerned with the direction of motion. This can have implications
if there is a change of direction in a particle’s motion. For example, suppose a
particle that is initially 3 cm to the right of the origin travels 2 cm further to the 0 3 5
x
right and then 2 cm to the left, thus returning to where it started. Its change in
displacement is zero, but the distance it has travelled is 4 cm.
Velocity
that v = .
Velocity, v, measures the rate of change of displacement, which means x
dx = 0
dx —
dt
dt A (t1, xA)
xA
For a particle moving in a horizontal straight line, the sign of the
dx dx
• if v > 0, the particle is moving to the right

velocity indicates that: —
dt
>0 —
dt
<0
• if v < 0, the particle is moving to the left

• if v = 0, the particle is stationary (instantaneously at rest).
0 t1 t2 t
Common units for velocity and speed include m/s and km/h.
particle travels and is never negative. A velocity of −10 m/s means the particle is travelling at 10 m/s to the left.
Just as for distance, speed is not concerned with the direction the
speed is 10 m/s for v = ± 10 m/s.

Its speed, however, is 10 m/s, regardless of whether the particle is moving to the left or to the right; that is, the
x = f(t). Because v = , the gradient of the tangent to the curve f(t) at any point represents the velocity of the
The position or displacement, x, of a particle can be plotted against time t to create a position–time graph,
dx
particle at that point: v = = f ′(t).

dt
dx
dt
This position–time graph shows the displacement or position of a particle that t = t2
starts at the origin and initially moves to the right, as the gradient of the graph, t = t1
that is the velocity, is positive. t=0
xA x
0
At the point A the tangent is horizontal and the velocity is zero, indicating the
particle changes its direction of motion at that point.
The particle then starts to move to the left as indicated by the gradient of the graph, that is the velocity, having
a negative sign. The particle returns to the origin and continues to move to the left, so its displacement becomes
negative.
The same motion is also shown along the horizontal displacement line.
Average velocity is the average rate of change of the displacement. It is measured by the gradient of the chord
joining two points on the position–time graph. It must be evaluated using coordinate geometry, not calculus.
Average velocity and speed

x2 − x1
• Average velocity = =
t2 − t1
change in displacement
change in time
• Average speed =
distance travelled
time taken
Acceleration
Acceleration, a, measures the rate of change of velocity; thus, a =
dv
.
dt
Common units for acceleration include m/s2 .
Displacement, velocity and acceleration are linked by calculus. Differentiation enables us to obtain the velocity
function from the displacement function, and to obtain the acceleration function from the velocity function.
Relationship between x, v, and a

x v a
derive derive
x dx dv
dt dt
Acceleration acts tangentially to the velocity–time graph, whereas average acceleration measures the gradient of
the chord joining two points on the velocity–time graph.
Average acceleration
Average acceleration =
change in velocity
change in time

WORKED EXAMPLE 15 Kinematics applications
t seconds is modelled by x = t2 − 4t − 12, t ≥ 0.

A particle moves in a straight line such that its displacement, x metres, from a fixed origin at time
a. Identify its initial position.

b. Obtain its velocity and hence state its initial velocity and describe its initial motion.
d. Show the particle is at the origin when t = 6 and calculate the distance it has travelled to reach the
c. Determine the time and position at which the particle is momentarily at rest.
origin.
e. Calculate the average speed over the first 6 seconds.
f. Calculate the average velocity over the first 6 seconds.
a. Calculate the value of x when t = 0. a. x = t2 − 4t − 12, t ≥ 0

THINK WRITE
When t = 0, x = −12.
Initially the particle is 12 metres to the left of the
origin.
b. v =
dx
b. 1. Calculate the rate of change required.
v = 2t − 4
dt
When t = 0, v = −4.
The initial velocity is −4 m/s.
2. Calculate the value of v at the given instant.
3. Describe the initial motion. Since the initial velocity is negative, the particle
starts to move to the left with an initial speed of
4 m/s.
c. 1. Calculate when the particle is momentarily c. The particle is momentarily at rest when its
When v = 0,
at rest. velocity is zero.
2t − 4 = 0
Note: This usually represents a change of
t=2
direction of motion.
The particle is at rest after 2 seconds.
The position of the particle when t = 2 is

x = (2)2 − 4(2) − 12
2. Calculate where the particle is momentarily
= −16
at rest.
Therefore, the particle is momentarily at rest

after 2 seconds at the position 16 metres to the
d. When t = 6,
left of the origin.
x = 36 − 24 − 12
d. 1. Calculate the position to show the particle is
=0
at the origin at the given time.
The particle is at the origin when t = 6.

2. Track the motion on a horizontal The motion of the particle for the first 6 seconds
displacement line and calculate the required is shown.
distance. t=6
t=2
t=0
x
–16 –12 0
The distances travelled are 4 metres to the left,
then 16 metres to the right.
The total distance travelled is the sum of the

distances in each direction.
The particle has travelled a total distance of
20 metres.
e. Average speed =
distance travelled
e. Calculate the value required.
time taken
=
20
6
=3
1
3
1
The average speed is 3 m/s.
3
f. Calculate the average rate of change required. f. Average velocity is the average rate of change of
Note: As there is a change of direction, the displacement.
average velocity will not be the same as the
(t1 , x1 ) = (0, −12), (t2 , x2 ) = (6, 0).
For the first 6 seconds,
average speed.
x − x1
Average velocity = 2
t2 − t1
0 − (−12)
=
6−0
=2
The average velocity is 2 m/s.
6.7 Exercise

Technology free
1. WE14 A container in the shape of an inverted right cone of radius 4 cm and depth 12 cm is being filled with
water. When the depth of water is h cm, the radius of the water level is r cm.
a. Use similar triangles to express r in terms of h.
b. Express the volume of the water as a function of h.
c. Determine the rate with respect to the depth of water at which the volume of water is changing when its
depth is 5 cm.
2. a. A spherical balloon of radius r is expanding. Calculate the rate of change of the volume with respect to
the radius when the radius is 10 cm.
b. An ice cube melts in such a way as to maintain its shape as a cube. Calculate the rate at which its surface
area is changing with respect to its side length at the instant the side length is 6 mm.

3. Water is being poured into a vase. The volume, V mL, of water in the vase
after t seconds is given by
V = t2 (15 − t), 0 ≤ t ≤ 10.

2
3
a. Calculate the volume after 10 seconds.

b. Determine the rate at which the water is flowing into the vase at t seconds.
c. Determine the rate of flow after 3 seconds.
d. Determine the time at which the rate of flow is the greatest, and the rate of
flow at this time.
t seconds is given by x = 2t2 − 8t, t ≥ 0.

4. WE15 A particle moves in a straight line such that its displacement, x metres, from a fixed origin at time
a. Identify its initial position.

b. Obtain its velocity and hence state its initial velocity and describe its initial motion.
Show that the particle is at the origin when t = 4 and calculate the distance it has travelled to reach the
c. Determine the time and position at which the particle is momentarily at rest.
d.
origin.
e. Calculate the average speed over the first 4 seconds.
f. Calculate the average velocity over the first 4 seconds.
5. The position, in metres, of a particle after t seconds is given by x(t) = − t3 + t2 + 8t + 1, t ≥ 0.

1
3
a. Find its initial position and initial velocity.
b. Calculate the distance travelled before it changes its direction of motion.
c. Determine its acceleration at the instant it changes direction.
Technology active
6. The number of rabbits on a farm is modelled by N = , t > 0, where N is the
110
t
number of rabbits present after t months.
a. Determine the rate at which the population of rabbits is changing after 5 months.
t ∈ [1, 5].
b. Calculate the average rate of change of the population over the interval
c. Describe what will happen to the population of rabbits in the long term.
V = 0.4(8 − t)3 , 0 ≤ t ≤ 8.
7. The volume of water, V litres, in a bath t minutes after the plug is removed is given by
a. Determine the rate at which the water is leaving the bath after 3 minutes.
b. Determine the average rate of change of the volume for the first 3 minutes.
c. Determine when the rate of water leaving the bath is the greatest.
h = 50t − 4t2 .
8. A ball is thrown vertically upwards into the air so that after t seconds its height h metres above the ground is
Calculate its velocity when t = 5.

a. Calculate the rate at which its height is changing after 3 seconds.
Determine the time at which its velocity is −12 m/s and the direction the ball is then travelling.
b.
c.
d. Determine when its velocity is zero.
e. Calculate the greatest height the ball reaches.
f. Determine the time and speed at which the ball strikes the ground.
9. A colony of viruses can be modelled by the rule
N(t) = + 0.5
(t + 0.5)2
2t
where N hundred thousand is the number of viruses on a nutrient plate t hours after they started multiplying.
a. Calculate how many viruses were present initially.
b. Find N′(t).
c. Determine the maximum number of viruses and the time at which this maximum will occur.
d. Determine the rate at which the virus numbers were changing after 10 hours.
10. A population of butterflies in an enclosure at a zoo is modelled by
N = 220 − , t≥0
t+1
150
where N is the number of butterflies t years after observations of

the butterflies commenced.
a. Determine how long it took for the butterfly population to reach
190 butterflies and the rate at which the population was growing
at that time.
b. Determine the time at which the growth rate was 12 butterflies
per year. Give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
versus time, and explain what happens to each as t → ∞.

c. Sketch the graphs of population versus time and rate of growth
is given by x(t) = 2t2 − 16t − 18, t ≥ 0.

11. A particle moves in a straight line so that at time t seconds its displacement, x metres, from a fixed origin O
a. Calculate the distance the particle is from O after 2 seconds.

b. Calculate the speed at which it is travelling after 2 seconds.
c. Calculate the average velocity of the particle over the first 2 seconds of motion.
d. Determine the time and velocity when it reaches O.
x= t − 4t2 , t ≥ 0.
12. The position, x m, relative to a fixed origin of a particle moving in a straight line at time t seconds is
2 3
3
a. Show the particle starts at the origin from rest.
b. Determine the time and position at which the particle is next at rest.
c. Determine when the particle returns to the origin.
d. Determine the particle’s speed and acceleration when it returns to the origin.
13. A cone has a slant height of 20 cm. The diameter of its circular base is increased in such a way that the cone
maintains its slant height of 20 cm while its perpendicular height decreases. When the base radius is r cm,
the perpendicular height of the cone is h cm.
a. Use Pythagoras’s theorem to express r in terms of h.
b. Express the volume of the cone as a function of h.
c. Calculate the rate of change of the volume with respect to the perpendicular height when the height is
8 cm.

14. A tent in the shape of a square-based right pyramid has perpendicular height h metres, base side length
1
x metres and volume Ah, where A is the area of its base.
3
b. If the slant height of the pyramid is 12 metres, show that x2 = 288 − 2h2 and hence express the volume of
a. Express the length of the diagonal of the square base in terms of x.
air inside the tent in terms of h. √

c. Calculate the rate of change of the volume with respect to height when the height is 3 3 metres.
15. A container in the shape of an inverted right circular cone is being filled with water. The cone has a height of
15 cm and a radius of 6 cm. Calculate the rate at whcih the volume of water is changing with respect to the
depth of water when:
a. the depth of water reaches half the height of the cone
b. the container is one-third full.
16. A veterinarian has administered a painkiller by injection to a

sick horse.
The concentration of painkiller in the blood, y mg/L, can be
defined by the rule
y= (
4 + t2
3t
)
where t is the number of hours since the medication was

administered.
dy
a. Determine .
dt
b. Determine the maximum concentration of painkiller in the blood and the time at which this is achieved.
c. The effect of the painkiller is considerably reduced once the concentration falls below 0.5 mg/L, when a
second dose needs to be given to the horse. Determine when this occurs.
d. Calculate the rate of change of concentration of painkiller in the blood after one hour. Give your answer
e. Determine when the rate of change of painkiller in the blood equal to −0.06 mg/L/h. Give your answer
6.7 Exam questions
Let f ∶ R\ {4} → R, f (x) = , where a > 0.

x−4
a
MC
The average rate of change of f from x = 6 to x = 8 is

D. − E. −
a a a
A. a loge (2) B. loge (2) C. 2a
2 4 8
The average rate of change of the function with the rule f (x) = x2 − 2x over the interval [1, a], where
a > 1, is 8.
MC
E. 1 +
The value of a is √
A. 9 B. 8 C. 7 D. 4 2
For y = 2e −x+1
sin (x − 1), the rate of change of y with respect to x when x = 1 is
A. −1 E. −2
MC
B. 1 C. 4 D. 2
6.8 Newton’s method

LEARNING INTENTION
• use Newton’s method to calculate roots of an equation.
6.8.1 Approximate solutions to equations using tangents

Newton’s method, also known as the Newton–Raphson method, is a numerical method for solving equations
iteratively. It involves using the x-intercepts of tangent lines to best approximate the roots or solutions of a curve.
Consider the curve y = f(x) as shown. We want to find the value of p, the solution to the equation f(x) = 0.
y
0 p x
Step 1: Choose a starting value, x0 , that is an estimate of the root of the equation. In this example, there is only
one solution visible, but f(x) may have more than one solution, so it is important to choose the starting value
carefully.
Step 2: At the point (x0 , f(x0 )) the tangent is drawn, and the x-intercept of this tangent is found. This point is
called x1 and is a better estimate for the root of the equation than x0 .
y
(x , f (x ))
0 0
0 p x1 x0 x

Step 3: At the point (x1 , f(x1 )) the tangent is drawn, and the x-intercept of this tangent is found. This point is
called x2 and is a better estimate for the root of the equation than x1 .
(x , f (x ))
0 0
(x , f (x ))
1 1
0 p x1 x0 x
x2
This process is repeated until the specified degree of accuracy is obtained.
The iterative formula

Going back to step 2, the equation of the tangent needs to be determined.
The point is (x0 , f(x0 )), and the gradient at this point is f ′(x0 ).
The equation of the tangent is:
y − f (x0 ) = f ′(x0 ) (x − x0 )
y = f (x0 ) + f′(x0 ) (x − x0 )
The value of x1 is the x-intercept of this tangent. Let y = 0 .
0 = f (x0 ) + f′(x0 ) (x1 − x0 )
−f (x0 ) = f ′(x0 ) (x1 − x0 )
x1 − x 0 = −
f (x0 )
f′(x0 )
x1 = x0 −
f (x0 )
f′(x0 )
In step 3 the process is repeated and the value of x2 is found by
x2 = x1 −
f ′(x1 )
f (x1 )
We can generalise the rule as follows:
Iterative formula for Newton’s method

xn+1 = xn − , where n = 0, 1, 2...
f ′(xn )
f (xn )
WORKED EXAMPLE 16 Using Newton’s method
Use Newton’s method to calculate the root of the equation x3 − x2 − 2 = 0 with starting value x0 = 2.
Express your answer to an accuracy of 4 decimal places.
1. Define f(x) and state f ′(x). f(x) = x3 − x2 − 2

THINK WRITE
f ′(x) = 3x2 − 2x
x1 = 2 −
f ′(2)
f(2)
calculate x1 from x0 .
2. Using the formula for Newton’s method,
f(2) = 23 − 22 − 2
=2
f ′(2) = 3(2)2 − 2(2)
=8
∴ x1 = 2 −
2
= 1.75
8
3. Now calculate x2 from x1 . f(1.75) = (1.75)3 − (1.75)2 − 2

= 0.296 875
f ′(1.75) = 3(1.75)2 − 2(1.75)
= 5.6875
∴ x2 = 1.75 −
0.296 875
= 1.697 802 2
5.6875
∴ x3 = Ans −
f(Ans)
4. It may be more efficient to define the function
= 1.695 624 5
and derivative in your calculator, and use the f′(Ans)
Ans function to carry the previous answer into
the next iteration.
∴ x4 = Ans −
f ′(Ans)
f(Ans)
5. Continue the process until the 4th decimal
= 1.695 620 8
place is constant.
Both x3 and x4 are the same value for the required
To 4 decimal places, the solution to x3 − x2 − 2 = 0

accuracy of 4 decimal places.
is x = 1.6956.
6. State the solution.

Newton’s method does not always work

1. If the initial estimate chosen, x0 , is a stationary point, then the tangent at this point will be horizontal;
therefore, it will not produce an x-intercept or x1 value.
2. If the initial estimate chosen is on the other side of a stationary point to where the root is located, Newton’s
Method may (a) find a different solution or (b) move further away and not locate the root.
a. y
x1 x0 p
x
b. y
p x0 x1 x
3. There is an oscillating sequence where the x-intercepts of the tangents oscillate between x1 , x0 , x1 , x0
x1
x
x0, x2
6.8 Exercise

1. WE16 Use Newton’s method to calculate the root of the equation x3 + x − 5 = 0 with a starting value, x0 = 1.
Technology active
Express your answer to an accuracy of 4 decimal places.

2. The equation 0 = x3 − 6x − 12 has only one solution. Determine between which two integer values the
solution lies, then calculate the solution to an accuracy of 3 decimal places.
3. Determine the root of 0 = 2 loge (x − 2) + 1, accurate to 3 decimal places.
3
√
4. Use a suitable equation to calculate 10, accurate to 2 decimal places.
If Newton’s method is used to find the solutions to cos (3x) = sin (x), and x0 = 0, then x3 will be:
A. −0.900 524 B. −0.716 125 E. −0.785 398
5. MC
C. 0.392 699 D. 1.184 399
6. Determine the root of 2x2 + 5 = ex in the interval [3, 4], to an accuracy of 3 decimal places.
6.8 Exam questions
Determine the root of 2 − x2 = sin (x) in the interval [1, 2] to an accuracy of 3 decimal places.

4
√
Use a suitable equation to calculate 12, accurate to 2 decimal places.
The equation 0 = x − 5x − 8 has only one negative solution. Determine between which two integer values the
4
solution lies, then calculate the solution to an accuracy of 3 decimal places.


6.9 Review
6.9.1 Summary
doc-37035
6.9 Exercise
1. A curve is represented by the equation y = ax cos (3x), where a is a constant.

= −5 when x = 𝜋, calculate the value of a.

dy
𝜋
a. If
b. Determine the equation of the line perpendicular to the curve at x = .

dx
2. Let f ∶ [0, 2] → R, f(x) = 4x3 − 6x2 + 3.

3
a. Calculate the coordinates of the end points of this function.

b. Determine the coordinates of all stationary points and specify their nature.
c. Sketch a graph of this function over the specified domain.
d. State the absolute maximum and minimum of this function (if they exist).
3. The graph shown is of y = x4 − 2x2 + 5, x ∈ [−1, 2].
a. Calculate the average rate of change over the interval x ∈ [0, 2].
y
(2, 13)
b. Determine the domain over which the function is strictly
increasing.
4. The function f ∶ R → R, f(x) = 6 loge (x2 − 4x + 8) has one
stationary point.
a. Use calculus to determine the coordinates of this stationary
point. (0, 5)
b. Determine the nature of this stationary point.
5. a. If the function f has a rule f(x) = x2 − 1 and the function g has

(–1, 4)
(1, 4)
√ = x + 3, calculate the integers m and n such that

√
f(g(x)) = (x + m)(x + n), where m > n.

the rule g(x)
b. If h(x) = f(g(x)), determine h′ (x).

0 x
6. a. Consider the function f ∶ R → R, f(x) = x4 e−3x . The derivative f ′ (x) may be written in the form
f ′ (x) = e−3x mx4 + nx3 , where m and n are real constants.
( )
Calculate the exact values of m and n.

b. The graph of f is shown. Locate the coordinates of the stationary points.
y
y = f (x)
0 x

7. MC If y = e3 cos(5x) , then
dy
is:
C. −15 sin (5x)e3 cos(5x)

dx
E. −15 cos (5x)e−3 sin(5x)

A. 15 sin (5x)e3 cos(5x) B. e3 cos(5x)
D. e−15 sin(5x)
If y = eax sin (bx), where a and b are constants, then

dy
8. MC is:
A. aeax sin (bx) + beax cos (bx) B. aeax sin (bx) − beax cos (bx)
dx
C. abeax cos (bx)
D. eax sin (bx) + beax cos (bx)

1 ax
E. e cos (bx)
ab
cos (7t)
9. MC The derivative of with respect to t is:
−7t2 sin (7t) − 2t cos (7t) −7 sin (7t) − 2 cos (7t) 7t2 sin (7t) − 2t cos (7t)
t2
A. B. C.
2t cos (7t) + 2t2 sin (7t) −t sin (7t) − 2t cos (7t)

t4 t2 t4
2
D. E.
t4 t4
If y = x loge (5x), then

dy
10. MC is equal to:
dx
C. 1 + loge (5x) D. 5 + loge (5x) + loge (5x)
1 1 1
A. B. E.
5 5x 5
11. MC Let f: R → R be a differentiable function. For all real values of x, the derivative of f(e4x ) with respect to x
will be:
A. 4e4x f ′ (x) B. e4x f ′ (x) C. 4e4x f ′ e4x D. 4f ′ e4x E. f ′ e4x
( ) ( ) ( )
For y = 7 − 2f(x),
√ dy
12. MC is equal to:
−1 −f ′ (x)
dx
2f ′ (x)
7 − 2f ′ (x)
7 − 2f(x) 2 7 − 2f(x) 2 (7 − 2f ′ (x)) 7 − 2f ′ (x)
1√ 7
A. √ B. √ C. D. E. √
2

13. MC Consider the function f(x) = x3 + 2x2 − 15x + 7. It has stationary points with coordinates:
,−
5 211
( )
A. (−3, 43) and B. (0, 7) C. (−3, 43) and (5, 107)
3 27
,0 ,
5 5 211
( ) ( )
D. (−3, 0) and E. (3, 43) and
3 3 27
The graph of f(x) = (1 − x)(x − 3)(x − 5) is shown.

1
14. MC
f (x)
5 (0, 3)
−3
The absolute maximum is:
−0.616
A. f (x) = 1– (1 – x)(x – 3)(x – 5)
5
B.
C. 3 (4.155, 0.616)
D. 0.616
E. There is no absolute maximum. 0 x
(1.845, –0.616)
(6, –3)
If f(x) = (x − a)3 g(x), then the derivative of f(x) is equal to:

A. 3(x − a)g(x) B. 3(x − a)g′ (x) C. 3(x − a) g′ (x)
15. MC
E. 3(x − a) g(x) + (x − a) g′ (x)

2
D. 3g′ (x)
2 3
16. MC If Newton’s method is used to find the solutions to f(x) = x cos (x) − x2 , and x0 = 1, then x2 will be:
A. 0.943 861 B. 0.800 232 C. 0.739 085 D. 0.744 094 E. 0.762 334

17. An amusement park has constructed a new super roller-coaster ride. The profile of the ride is shown.
(–10, 0) (200, 0) (210, 0)

(0, 0)
x
100 200
The thrill ride can be modelled by the equation
𝜋(x − 67)
h = 10 cos + 5, 0 ≤ x ≤ 200
( )
100
where h metres is the height of the track above or below

the platform where riders climb on or off the ride, and
x metres is the horizontal distance from the start of the
ride. There are flat sections at the beginning and end of the
ride so that riders can climb on or off.
a. Determine an expression for the gradient of the track at
any point during the ride.
b. Determine the greatest and least heights above the platform that the car reaches during the duration of
the ride.
c. Calculate the gradient of the track when x is equal to:
i. 50 metres
ii. 100 metres.
Give your answers correct to 2 decimal places.
18. Metal box guttering has to be formed on a common wall between two adjacent town houses. The cross
section of the box guttering is shown.
For the most efficient elimination of rain water, this box b cm
guttering needs to have a maximum cross-sectional area within
the given dimensions.
a. Determine an expression for h, the height of the trapezium,
in terms of the angle x in radians, as shown.
b. Determine an expression for b, the base length of the 20 cm h cm 20 cm
trapezium, in terms of x.
A cm2 , is given by A = 200 sin (x)(2 cos (x) + 1).

c. Show that the cross-sectional area of the box guttering,
x x
d. Calculate, correct to 3 decimal places, the value of x
that gives maximum cross-sectional area, and find this 10 cm
maximum area correct to the nearest cm2 .
19. A vessel is leaking its liquid contents out very slowly through a small hole. The volume of liquid, V mL,
remaining in the vessel after t hours is modelled by the equation
V = −0.5t2 − t + 1.5, t ∈ [0, 1].
a. Determine the rate at which liquid is leaking from the vessel after 0.2 hours.
b. Determine the time at which the vessel has lost half its initial volume. Give your answer correct to
2 decimal places.
c. Calculate the average rate of change in the volume over this time. Give your answer correct to
2 decimal places.
d. Determine when the rate of flow is greatest.

20. A swimming pool consists of a rectangle and a semicircle as shown.

The radius of the semi-circular section is r metres, and the length of
the rectangular section is L metres. The total surface area of the pool
is 145 m2 .
290 − 𝜋r2
a. Show that the equation representing the perimeter of the pool,
P metres, is P = + (2 + 𝜋)r.
r
2r
b. Determine an expression for r that will cause this perimeter to be a
minimum.
c. Calculate the minimum perimeter and the values of r and L that L
produce this minimum. Give all answers correct to 1 decimal
place.
6.9 Exam questions
If y = −3x3 + x2 − 64 , find .
( )3 dy
dx
If y = x2 sin (x), find

dy
.
dx
A right-angled triangle, OBC, is formed using the horizontal axis and the point C(m, 9 − m2 ) m ∈ (0, 3),
where, on the parabola y = 9 − x2 , as shown below.

MC
y = 9 – x2
C(m, 9 – m2)
x
O B(m, 0)
The maximum area of the triangle OBC is

√ √
3 2 3 √ √ √
A. B. C. 3 D. 3 3 E. 9 3
3 3
The average rate of change of the function f with rule f (x) = 3x2 − 2 x + 1 , between x = 0 and x = 3, is
√
MC
53 25 13
A. 8 B. 25 C. D. E.
9 3 9

Source: VCE 2019, Mathematical Methods Exam 2, Section B, Q2; © VCAA.
An amusement park is planning to build a zip-line above a hill on its property.
3x(x − 30)2
The hill is modelled by y = , x ∈ [0, 30], where x is the horizontal distance, in metres, from an origin
2000
and y is the height, in metres, above this origin, as shown in the graph below.
y
10
4 hill
x
O 5 10 15 20 25 30
dy
a. Find . (1 mark)
dx
b. State the set of values for which the gradient of the hill is strictly decreasing. (1 mark)

0 ≤ x ≤ a, where 10 ≤ a ≤ 20. The straight section joins the curved section at A(a, b). The cable is then exactly
The cable for the zip-line is connected to a pole at the origin at a height of 10 m and is straight for
3 m vertically above the hill from a ≤ x ≤ 30, as shown in the graph below.
y
10
A(a, b)
8
3m
cable
6
4
hill
2
3m
x
O 5 10 15 20 25 30
c. State the rule, in terms of x, for the height of the cable above the horizontal axis for x [a, 30]. (1 mark)
hill for x ∈ [10, 30]

d. Find the values of x for which the gradient of the cable is equal to the average gradient of the
(3 marks)
The gradients of the straight and curved sections of the cable approach the same value at x = a, so there is a
continuous and smooth join at A.
e. i. State the gradient of the cable at A, in terms of a. (1 mark)
ii. Find the coordinates of A, with each value correct to two decimal places. (3 marks)
iii. Find the value of the gradient at A, correct to one decimal place. (1 mark)


2h′ (x)
Answers f ′ (x) =
3(2h(x) + 3) 3
c. 2
Topic 6 Further differentiation and f ′ (x) = −2h′ (x)eh(x)+4

10. f( f(x)) = x , g (x) = 4x
′
d.
applications 4 3
=− y = −4x + 5
(2x − 1)3
dy 4
6.2 The chain rule 11. a. b.
dx
2x − 7 f(g(x)) = (ex − 1)3 b. h (x) = 3e (e − 1)

′
6.2 Exercise
6(3x + 1) 3x2 + 2x − 1 y=0
x x 2
12. a.
2 x2 − 7x + 1
( )2
1. a. b.
𝜋 𝜋
c.
−3 sin(3x)ecos(3x) ,1 , ,0 , , 1 , (𝜋, 0)
√
3𝜋
( ) ( ) ( )
c. 2 cos(x) sin (x) d. 13. (0, 0),
− − sin (x)ecos(x)
4 2 4
(x2 + 1)2
6x
15. a. i. f(h(x)) = 2 sin (e )

2. a. b. 14. 24 cos(3x) sin (3x)
x+1 −2 cos(x)
ii. h( f(x)) = e
x
x2 + 2x + 3
2 sin(x)
c. √ d.
x−2
sin3 (x)
f. −6x sin x − 1
b. 1.555, 2.105, 2.372
+4x−5
x2 − 4x + 5
( 2 2
3x
)
e. √ 16. a. b. 6.5916
17. a. g(x) = (2x − 1)2

√
3
−1
2
g′ (x) = √
30xe3x
6x5 + 8
3. a.
b. − (
4
3 2x − 1
b.
x3 x3 − 2
3
2 3
At (1, 1): y = x−
)
x 4 1
c.
1 3 3
2(2 − x) 2 At (0, 1): y = − x + 1

c. 4
3
−6 sin(2x + 1) cos2 (2x + 1)

3
,
d. 1 1
( )
1 d.
(2x − 3) loge (3 − 2x) 18. a. (1, 0) and (e , 1)

4. a. √ 2 3
0.5
= 0.
dy
4(x − 2)
1 b. For f: at (1, 0),
b. dx
= 2.
= 3 cos (x)sin2 (x); =
dy
dy dy 9 For g: at (1, 0),
5. dx
𝜋
dx dx 8
6. a. f (x) = , =4
c.
′ ′
y
cos (4x + 𝜋)
4
( )
2
f
4
b. f (x) = , =
′ ′
(2 − x)
2 1 16
( )
y = (2 loge (x))2
3
f
2 27
f ′ (x) = 4xe2x , f ′ (−1) = −4e2

2
f ′ (x) = 8x 3x2 − 2, f ′ (1) = 8

c. y = 2 loge (x)
3
√
d.
= 2 cos (x) sin (x)esin (x) ; = e2 = e

dy 2 dy 1 √ 0 (1, 0) x
7. a.
𝜋
dx dx
f (x) = −15 sin (3x)(cos (3x) − 1)) ; f

′ 4 ′
= 15
( )
b.
f (x) = − sin (x)g [cos (x)]

2
′ ′
f ′ (x) = 6x2 g′ 2x3

8. a.
f ′ (x) = 6e2x+1 g′ 3e2x+1

( )
b.
( )
c.
(4x − 1)g′ 2x2 − x

f ′ (x) =
(√ )
2 2x2 − x
x=0
{x ∶ 1 < x < e0.5 }

d.
f ′ (x) = −2h′ (x)[h(x)]−3

√
d.
f ′ (x) = 2h′ (x) sin [h(x)]

9. a.
b.

m = −7, n = 1 {x ∶ x ≤ −1} ∪ {x ∶ x ≥ 7} 2(1 − x) tan (x)

f ′ (x) = − tan2 (x),
x−3
19. a. b.
d. −
c.
𝜋 𝜋
5 cos2 (x)
x − 6x − 7 f′ = 8 3 1− −3
c. √
( ) ( )
3
√
2
a = −3
3 3
8x2 cos 2x2 sin 2x2 + sin 2x2
d. f (x) = ,
20.
′
( ) ( ) ( )
𝜋 =0
6.2 Exam questions
√
2 x
f′
(√ )
f ′ (x) = sin (x) + (x + 1) cos (x); f ′ (0) = 1
solutions online.
7. a.
2. 35 (5x + 1) 4𝜋 + 6 3
1. C √
6
b.
1 9
3. 8. 2.06
2
9. C
,
6.3 The product rule (
2 216
)
10. (0, 0), (1, 0),
x = 0, 𝜋, 2𝜋, 3𝜋
6.3 Exercise 5 3125
f ′ (x) = 3 cos2 (3x) − 3 sin2 (3x)
x = 1.11, 4.25, 7.39
11. a.
f ′ (x) = 3x2 e3x + 2xe3x

1. a.
b.
f ′ (x) = 5x2 + 17x − 22 e5x Simplified y = −sin (x); = −cos (x)

b.
( ) dy
c. 12. a.
f ′ (x) = 3 x2 − 1sec2 (3x) + √ −cos (x)

dx
x tan (3x)
x2 − 1 f ′ (x) = (x − a)2 g′ (x) + 2(x − a)g(x)
√
d. b.
5x e + 2xe
13. a.
2e2x+1 sec2 (2x) + 2e2x+1 tan (2x)

2 5x 5x
𝜋
2. a. 6
b.
2(x − 1)(2x + 1)2

b.
= 2xe3x + 3 x2 + 1 e3x ; = 3. The equation of the

dy ( ) dy
14.
tangent is y = 3x + 1.
c. dx dx
d. −x sin (x) + cos (x)
x3
Tangent y =(2ex − e; )
4 − 3x
15. perpendicular line
y=− + +e
e. √ x 1
x
−3e−3x sin (2x − 𝜋) + 2e−3x cos (2x − 𝜋)
2e 2e
(1.366, −0.057) and (−0.366, 1.195)

(0, 1) and (1, 0)
6ex x2 − 1
f. 16. a.
2 (
b.
)
y=− x+
3. a. 1 1
2e 4x + 2x − 1
x3 c.
y=x+1
2x
( 2 ) e e
4x2 − 1
b. √ d.
2x sin (2x)[3x cos (2x) + sin (2x)]

e. (−0.46, 0.54)
2
The decision is appropriate because the road goes
2(x − 5)(x − 1)
c. 17. a.
3 through the point.
(x − 3)3 ,0
d. (
5
)
(3x − 2)((3x − 2)g′ (x) + 6g(x))

b.
(0.804, −3.205)
4
e.
−e5x g′ x + 10 xg a = 3, b = 3, c = −2
( (√ ) √ (√ )) c.
x 18. a.
f.
,
2(x2 − 3x + 7)
√
2 x 3 81
( )
4. a. (2x − 3) loge (2x − 1) + ,x∈ ,∞

b. (0, 0) and
2x − 1
1 2 8e3
( )
y=
2
x cos(x) loge (x2 ) + 2 sin(x)
3
x
, x ∈ (0, ∞)
c.
19. a. i. CD = 3 sin (𝜃)

e2
ii. BD = 3 cos (𝜃)

b.
′ 𝜋
x
5. f (x) = 8x cos (2x) − 4x sin (2x); f = −𝜋 3 b. S = area of 4 triangles + area of square base
′
( )
3 4
f ′ (x) = ex (x + 1), f ′ (−1) = 0 S = 4 × × 6 cos (𝜃) × 3 sin (𝜃) + (6 cos (𝜃))2

2
1
b. f (x) = x + x 9x + 5x , f ′ (1) = 112 = 36 cos (𝜃) sin (𝜃) + 36 cos2 (𝜃)

6. a.
′
( 2 )3 ( 2 ) 2
= 36 cos2 (𝜃) + cos (𝜃) sin (𝜃) as required

( )
= 72 cos2 (𝜃) − 72 sin(𝜃) cos (𝜃) − 36

dS
c.
d𝜃
−5
6.3 Exam questions
7
Note: Mark allocations are available with the fully worked 8. a. 0 b. 2 c. d.
64
1. x (x cos (x) + 2 sin (x))
solutions online.
− y= x+
1 1 1
9. a. b.
x 1 + 2 loge (x)
5 32 2 2
−6x2 + 6x + 2
2. 7e( )
3.
(3x2 + 1)2
10. a.
x = −0.1466, 0.5746
6.4 The quotient rule
a = −1.088, b = 2.655, c = 0.483, d = −0.552
b.
e3x + 2e2x −3(t sin(3t) + cos (3t))

6.4 Exercise 11. a.
1 + cos (x)
(ex + 1)2
b. 0.707
12. y = , u = 1 + cos (x), v = 1 − cos (x),

1 − cos (x)
1. a. b.
t4
−
(x − 1)2 = − sin (x),
1
2. du
2x cos (x) − sin(x)

dx
= sin (x)
3. a. dv
2 − sin (2x) cos (2x)

√
2x x
dx
− u dx
=
dv
b. dy v du
dx
ex cos2 (2x)
3 5−x
(1 − cos (x)) × − sin (x) − (1 + cos (x)) × sin (x)
v2
c. −
dx
=
√
(1 − cos (x))2
4x sin x2 cos x2 − sin2 x2
2
− sin (x)(1 − cos (x) + 1 + cos (x))

2
=
( ) ( ) ( )
(1 − cos (x))2
d.
−6x2 + 4x − 9
x2
−2 sin (x)
(2x2 − 3)2 =
e.
(1 − cos (x))2
f. √ − 3 x
−2 sin (x)
1
=
√
ex cos (2x + 1) + 2ex sin (2x + 1) (−(cos (x) − 1))2

4 x
cos2 (2x + 1) −2 sin (x)

=
4. a.
−x
(cos (x) − 1)2
−
(x − 1)2
xe
b.
6 − 3x a = −5, b = −3
13. B
dy 10 1 − x2
14.
2 x(x + 2)2
=
c. ( )
(x2 + 1)2
√
−
15. ; negative gradient when
x ∈ (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞)

3 dx
d.
16. a. Undefined function when x = 2, −7

2
sin (3x)
−
(2x + 3)2
2
b. −1,
e.
1 1
( ) ( )
−4e2x
and 11,
3 27
(1 + e2x )2 y= x+
f. 5 3
2(2x − 1) − 2x loge x2
c.
( ) 16 16
x(2x − 1)2
5. a. 6.4 Exam questions
2e2x + 2 − 4e2x x loge (2x)
x(e2x + 1)2 1. f (x) = −e

′ 𝜋
b.
solutions online.
sin[g(x)] − (x + 2)g′ (x) cos[g(x)]

f ′ (x) = f ′ (x) = , for x > −2
(x + 2)2
2
6. a. 2.
− x2 + 2 sin (x) − 2x cos (x)

2
sin [g(x)]
−2e g e
−2x ′ −2x
− g e−2x
f ′ (x) = =
( )
(x2 + 2)2
dy
( ) ( )
3.
cos (x) − 2 sin(x)

b.
ex dx
= ; x = 0, =1
dy dy
7.
dx e 2x dx

6.5 Curve sketching b. y

y = f (x)
6.5 Exercise (1, 1)
, , minimum turning point; −2,

1. a.
(
1 83
)
26
,
( )
(0, 0)
(–12 , 0)
2 24 3 0 x
maximum turning point
b. a = −3, b = −6, c = −8
(–13 , – —251 )
− ,−
2 32
( )
2. a. (−2, 0) maximum turning point,
3 27
minimum turning point
(−4, 85) maximum turning point, (2, −23) minimum
(–1, –3)
b.
c. (−2, −4) maximum turning point, (0, 0) minimum

turning point
c. y
y = f(x)
turning point
−2
( 3
5
– 1– , 10 –
27 )
f ′ (x) = 32x − 4x3
( )
d. 2, e maximum turning point
(0, 10)
0 = 32 − 4x3
3. a. (1, 9)
= 4x 8√− x2
= 4x(2 √ 2 − x)(2 2 + x)
( )
(−2, 0)
x = 0, ± 2 2
√
0 x
f(2 2) = 16(2 2) − (2 2)
√ 2 √ 4
= 16 × 8 − 16 × 4
√
= 64
d. y
y = f(x)
∴ 2 2, 64 is a stationary point.
(0, 8)
( √ )
−2 2, 64 maximum turning point, (0, 0) minimum

b. Maximum )
( √ (– 2, 0) ( 2, 0)
c.
4. a. a = −4, b = 5
turning point 0 x
(–2, 0) (2, 0)
(1, −9), maximum turning point

(– 3, –1) ( 3, –1)
5 −247
b.
,
( )
, minimum turning point
3 27
5. a. y e. y
(1–2, 0) ( 9 , 64
– —–
4 256
827
)
y = f(x) (0, 108)
y = f(x)
(0, 0)
x (–3, 0) (4, 0)
0 x
( )
1– , – –
3 27
1
x ∈ 0,
1
[ ]
b.
3
6. a. y
(0, 18)
y = f(x)
(4, 2)
(6, 0)
0 x
,
3 3
( )
f. y
c. Local maximum at
e e
( 1 , 338
) (0, 12)
, + loge (2)
–– —–
3 27
5 5 1
( )
d. Local minimum at
2 2 2
11. a. y
(– 3, 0) ( 3, 0) y = f(x)
0 (4, 0) x
y = f(x)
(3, –6)
7. a. y 0 (3, 0) x
–1
(–2, 36) (3, 36)

b. y
(–1, 2)
(–3, 0) (0, 0) (1, 0) (4, 0)
0 x 0 x
( 1 , – 49
–
2 16
– ) y = f(x) y = f(x)
b = −12, c = 8 b. a = 4, b = −12
x ∈ (−∞, −2] ∪ ,3 b = 6, c = 9, d = −10
1 12. a.
[ ]
b. c.
2
13. a. −2, − , − ,−
17 1 5
( ) ( )
8. a. y
( 7
– , 63.02 ) 8 4 4
b. − , −1 , maximum turning point

18
1
( )
81
( )
0, –
2 2
c. y
0 x
(
– 1– , –1
2 )
y = f(x)
(–1, 0)
0 x
(
– 1– , – 5–
4 4 )
( )
3– , 0
2 (–2, – 17
–
8 )
b. x ∈ ,
7 3
[ ]
9. Minimum turning point at (0.1, 1 − loge (10)) Absolute minimum − ; absolute maximum is −1.
18 2
17
d.
,−
8
1 2
( )
10. a. Local minimum at 32
e e 14. No absolute minimum; absolute maximum is √ .
,
3 3
e 2
( )
b. Local maximum at
2 e

15. a. y 18. a. y
(5, 6)
(0, 1)
0 (3, 0) x 0 y=0 x
( )
x ∈ (−∞, −1]
3
0, – –
2
x = −1.841, −0.795
(1, –2) b.
b. At (−1.841, 0), y = −1.1989x − 2.2072.

19. a.
At (−0.795, 0), y = 3.0735x + 2.4434.

c. Minimum turning point = (−1.2134, −0.4814).
Absolute maximum = 6, absolute minimum = −2 20. a. x = 0.3407, 0.8364
= 27.09; at (0.8364, 0), = −6.15.

dy dy
b. y b. At (0.3407, 0),
c. Tangent: y = −6x + 5
(3, 9) dx dx
Perpendicular line: y = x − or x − 6y = 7
1 7
(0, 0) (2, 0) 6 6
= 0.
0 x dy
d. The turning point occurs where
( )
4– , – 3– dx
2 − 8x2
3 2
=0
2 − 8x2 = 0
x3
1 − 4x2 = 0
(1 − 2x)(1 + 2x) = 0
(–2, –16)
Absolute maximum = 9, absolute minimum = −16 x = , − but x > 0

1 1
2 2
x = , y = − ( )2 − 8 loge
1 1 1
( )
c. y
2 1 2
= − 1 − 8 loge 2−1
2
(0, 4) 1 ( )
= −4 + 8 loge (2)
2
(3 4, 0)
The maximum turning point is at
, −4 + 8 loge (2) .
0 x
1
( )
a + 4 4(a − 2)3
2
,
( )
(2, –4) 21. a. Stationary points (a, 0),
3 27
No absolute maximum; absolute minimum = −4 a + 4 4(a − 2)3

b. Minimum turning point (a, 0), maximum turning point
,
16. a. A (0, 25, 5), B (1, 3), C 5, 2 5 + 0.2
( )
a=5
( )
3 27
√
c. Absolute minimum = 3, absolute maximum = 5

b. A c.
22. a. (a, 0), (b, 0)
3a + b −27(a − b)4
17. a. −1, − ,
1
( ) ( )
, minimum turning point b. (b, 0),
x ∈ (−1, ∞)
e 4 256
3a + b −27(a − b)4
b. c. (b, 0) is a stationary point of inflection;
c. Absolute minimum = − , no absolute maximum ,

1
( )
is a minimum turning point.
a = 2, b = 6
e 4 256
d.
𝜋R
6.5 Exam questions Substitute
( for l into)the perimeter formula:
P=2 − + 2R + 𝜋R
Note: Mark allocations are available with the fully worked A
2R 4
A 𝜋R
solutions online.
= − + 2R + 𝜋R
1. D
2. D
,− , − ,
R 2
A 𝜋R
(√ √ ) ( √ √ )
= + + 2R
15 10 15 15 10 15
3. a.
3 9 3 9
y = −4x
R 2
= 0.
b. i. dP
For minimum perimeter, solve
𝜋
√
ii. 2 17 dR
= − 2 + +2
dP A
6.6 Maximum and minimum problems dR R 2
𝜋+4
0=− +
6.6 Exercise
√ point on the curve is (2, −1). The minimum distance is
A
R2 2
𝜋+4
1. The
=
5 units. A
( √ )
R2 2
2. The point on the line is 3, 2 3 . Minimum distance is
R2 =
4 units.
𝜋+4
2A
4. a. V = x(16 − 2x)(10 − 2x)

3. Both numbers are 16.
b. x = 2; therefore, height is 2 cm, length is 12 cm and R=±

𝜋+4
2A
√
width is 6 cm. Volume is 144 cm3 .
= ,R>0
5. a.
𝜋+4
2A
√
c
x
𝜋R
Substitute R into the length equation to determine l:
l= −
A
theorem, c2 = x2 + x2 , so the sloping

x x
2R 4
2A − 𝜋R2
Using Pythagoras’ √
=
sides have lengths 2x cm.
2x + 2y + 2 2x = 150
Since the perimeter of the figure is 150 cm, 4R
2A − 𝜋+4
∴ y = 75 − x − 2x =
√
2A𝜋
√
4 𝜋+4
√
The area of the figure is the sum of the areas of the 2A
rectangle and the triangle with base 2x, height x.
A = 2xy + (2x)x
=
1
𝜋+4
2A(𝜋+4)−2A𝜋
∴ A = 2x 75 − x − 2x + x2
( 2
𝜋+4
√ ) √
= 150 − 2x(2 − 2 2x)2 + x2

2A
4
√
∴ A = 150x − 1 + 2 2 x2 = √
𝜋+4
√ 8A𝜋
Width = 39.2 cm and height = 47.3 cm 4 𝜋+4

2A
Width = 30 cm and height = 53.8 cm

b.
4 × 𝜋+4
6. a. l = 137.5 m, w = 55 m = √
c. 2A𝜋
b. Amax = 7562.5 m 4 𝜋+4

7. a. a = 12, b = 9.6 b. Amax = 403.2 m
2 2A
P = 2l + 2R + 𝜋R =
𝜋+4
2A
√
8.
𝜋R2
A = 2Rl +
𝜋+4
2A
√
2 If I and R are both m, the perimeter is a minimum
𝜋R2
A− = 2Rl
(as required).
t = 4, so after 4 months (i.e. end of December)

9. a. 400
2
𝜋R
l= −
b.
A
10. a. $1000 b. Aleast = $980.34
c. 694 birds
d. $1000
2R 4
c. May 2017

r = 6.06 cm, h = 12.11 cm and Vmax = 1395.04 cm3

12. h = 16 cm, Vmax = 2145 cm
11. e. 156.25 metres
3
f. 12.5 seconds, 50 m/s
h= cm, r = cm and Vmax = 298 cm3

−2t2 + 0.5
10 16 9. a. 0.5 hundred thousand or 50 000
N′ (t) =
13.
(t + 0.5)4
3 3
b.
Nmax = 1.5 hundred thousand or 150 000 after half an

14. Row to a point that is 3.2 km to the right of O.
c.
6.6 Exam questions
d. −1641 viruses/hour
hour.
solutions online.
10. a. 4 years, 6 butterflies per year
1. E (
,−
8 4
) b. 2.54 years
As t → ∞, N → 220 and → 0.
2. a.
5 5 dN
c.
√ dt
−12 m/s
4 5 11. a. 42 metres to the left b. 8 m/s
b.
5 c. d. 9 seconds, 20 m/s
t = 0, x = (0)3 − 4(0)2
3. D
2
12. a.
=0m
6.7 Rates of change 3
𝜋h3 v= = 2t2 − 8t
6.7 Exercise
r= V=
dx
h
t = 0, v = 2(0)2 − 8(0)
1. a. b. dt
= 0 m/s
3 27
= cm3 /cm
dV 25𝜋
c.
2. a. 400𝜋 cm3 /cm −72 mm2 /mm

dh 9
1
b. b. 4 seconds, 21 metres left of origin
3
V = 333 mL = 20t − 2t2

1 dV c. 6 seconds
3. a. b.
400𝜋h 𝜋h3
3 dt d. 24 m/s, 16 m/s2
= 42 mL/s d. t = 5 s, = 50 mL/s 13. a. r = 400 − h2 V= −

dV dV √
c. b.
dt dt 3 3
= cm3 /cm
dV 208𝜋
v = 4t − 8; the initial velocity is −8 m/s, so the object is
4. a. 0m c.
b. dh 3
moving left at a speed of 8 m/s.
√
14. a. 2x metres
2t2 − 8t = 0
c. After 2 seconds, 8 m to the left of the origin √
2x
2t(t − 4) = 0
d. b. Right-angled triangle with lengths h, and
t = 0, 4
2
hypotenuse 12
h2 + = 144
( √ )2
The distance travelled is 16 m. 2x
e. 4 m/s 2
= 144 − h2
f. 0 m/s 2x2
x2 = 288 − 2h2
5. a. 1 m right, 8 m/s 4
2
b. 27 m
−6 m/s2
(as required)
V= 288h − 2h3
3
1(
−4.4 rabbits/month
)
c.
42 m3 /m
3
−22 rabbits/month
6. a.
c.
t → ∞, N → 0. Effectively, the population of rabbits will 9𝜋 cm3 /cm 12 × 3 3 𝜋 cm3 /cm

b. 1
c. 15. a. b.
3 4 − t2
be zero in the long term.
= 30 L/ min b. −51.6 L/ min
( )
(4 + t2 )2
dV 16. a.
7. a.
t=0 b. ymax = 0.75 mg/L after 2 hours

dt
c.
8. a. 26 m/s c. Next dose after 5.24 hours
t = 2.45 h and t = 6 h
b. 10 m/s d. 0.36 mg/L/h
c. 7.75 seconds, travelling down towards the ground e.
d. 6.25 seconds
𝜋 𝜋(x − 67)
6.7 Exam questions Technology active: extended response
= − sin
dh
( )
17. a.
solutions online. dx 10 100
ii. −0.27
1. E 2. D 3. A b. 5 m below the platform, 15 m above the platform
h = 20 sin (x)
c. i. 0.16
b = 40 cos (x) + 10
6.8 Newton’s method 18. a.
b.
A= (40 cos (x) + 10 + 10) × 20 sin (x)

6.8 Exercise
x = 1.5160
1
x = 3.135
1. c.
A = 10 sin (x)(40 cos (x) + 20)

2
x√= 2.607
2.
A = 200 sin (x)(2 cos (x) + 1) as required

10 = 2.15
3.
352 cm2 when x = 0.936

3
4.
6. x = 3.276
5. B d.
c. −1.29 mL/h
19. a. 1.2 mL/h b. 0.58 h
d. After 1 hour
145 = 2Lr + 𝜋r2

20. a.
Note: Mark allocations are available with the fully worked 2
145 − 𝜋r = 2Lr
solutions online. 1 2
x√= 1.062
290 − 𝜋r2 = 4Lr
2
12 = 1.86
1.
3. x = −1.194 290 − 𝜋r2

4
=L
2.
4r
P = 2L + 2r + × 2𝜋r
6.9 Review 1
P = 2L + 2r + 𝜋r
2
6.9 Exercise
290 − 𝜋r2
P=2 + (2 + 𝜋)r
y= x−
( )
1 26𝜋
290 − 𝜋r2
1. a. 5 b. 4r
P= + (2 + 𝜋)r as required
5 15
2. a. (0, 3) and (2, 11)
𝜋 145
2r
b. 0 = 2 + − 2
b. There is a minimum turning point at (1, 1) and a
maximum turning point at (0, 3).
c. Pmin = 45.5 m when r = 6.4 m and

c. f(x)
2 r
L = 6.4 m
(2, 11)
6.9 Exam questions

1. −3 9x − 2x 3x − x + 64
solutions
( online. )2
2
)( 3 2
= x (x cos (x) + 2 sin (x))

(0, 3) dy
2.
dx
(1, 1) 3. D
Absolute maximum = 11, absolute minimum = 1. 9 (x − 10) (x − 30)

x 4. D
=
0
b. x ∈ −1, 0 ∪ 1, 2
d. dy
5. a.
b. x ∈
dx 2000
[ ] [ ]
3. a. 4
]
(0, 20
3x (x − 30)2
( )
4. a. 2, 12 loge (2) b. Local minimum
x+3 +3
m = 2, n = 4 h (x) = √
′
(x + 2)(x + 4)
c.
5. a. b. 2000
d. x = 6± 3
10
m = −3, n = 4 ,
( √ )
4 256
9 (a − 10) (a − 30)
( )
6. a. b. (0, 0) and 3
3 81e4
e. i.
Technology active: multiple choice 2000
iii. −0.1
ii. A (11.12, 8.95)
7. C 8. A 9. A 10. C 11. C
12. E 13. A 14. C 15. E 16. D

“c07AntiDifferentiation_PrintPDF” — 2022/7/11 — 13:20 — page 425 — #1
7 Anti-differentiation
LEARNING SEQUENCE
7.1 Overview ................................................................................................................................................................. 426
7.2 Anti-differentiation ............................................................................................................................................... 427
7.3 Anti-derivatives of exponential and trigonometric functions .............................................................. 435
7.4 The anti-derivative of f (x) = ........................................................................................................................ 440

1
x
7.5 Families of curves ................................................................................................................................................444
7.6 Applications ........................................................................................................................................................... 452
7.7 Review ..................................................................................................................................................................... 458

7.1 Overview
7.1.1 Introduction
Anti-differentiation or integration is the opposite of differentiation. These are
the two main operations of calculus. This topic introduces the concept and
the basic rules of anti-differentiating particular functions. Topic 8 extends
this further to cover applications.
We have to go right back to around 350 BCE for the first documented system
of determining integrals. This was developed by Eudoxus, an ancient Greek
astronomer. A similar method was developed independently in China around
300 CE. But further significant advances would not occur after this until the
17th century via the individual work of Cavalieri and Fermat.
Newton was the one who first created symbols for integration — a small
vertical bar above the variable or a box around the variable. However, these
symbols were not widely used as they were too easily confused with other
mathematical symbols already in use, such as the dot above the variable, x.
∫
Leibniz, in 1675, created the symbol for integration that we know today, .
He based it on the letter f (long s) as a representation of standing the Latin
word summa, meaning ‘sum’ or ‘total’.
KEY CONCEPTS
• deducing the graph of the derivative function from the graph of a given function and deducing the graph
• anti-derivatives of polynomial functions and functions of the form f(ax + b) where f is xn , for
of an anti-derivative function from the graph of a given function
n ∈ Q, ex , sin(x), cos(x), and linear combinations of these

• anti-differentiation by recognition that F′ (x) = f(x) implies f(x)dx = F(x) + c and the informal
∫
f(x)dx = F(b) − F(a)

b
∫
treatment of the fundamental theorem of calculus,
a
• properties of anti-derivatives and definite integrals
• application of integration to problems involving finding a function from a known rate of change given a
boundary condition, calculation of the area of a region under a curve and simple cases of areas between
curves, average value of a function and other situations.
7.2 Anti-differentiation
7.2.1 Introduction
LEARNING INTENTION
• anti-differentiate functions
• recognise patterns between differentiation and anti-differentiation.
allows us to find f(x) when we are given f ′ (x).

Anti-differentiation, also known as integration, is the reverse process of differentiation. Anti-differentiation
x = 2x. Alternatively, this can be expressed in function notation: if f(x) = x2 ,

d ( 2)
then f ′ (x) = 2x. So if you were given f ′ (x) = 2x and asked to find f(x), you might expect that f(x) = x2 .
In Topic 5, you learned that
dx
However, this is not quite as simple as it first appears. Consider each of the following derivatives.
x + 7 = 2x
d ( 2 )
x + 2 = 2x
dx
d ( 2 )
x − 1 = 2x
dx
d ( 2 )
x − 5 = 2x
dx
d ( 2 )
y = x2 + 2 y = x2 + 7
dx
y
If we are asked to find f(x) given that f ′ (x) = 2x, how do we know which
of the equations above is the correct answer? To give a totally correct (0, 7)
answer, additional information about the function must be given.
If f (x) = 2x, then f(x) = x + c, where c is an arbitrary constant. This
y = x2 – 1
′
y = x2 – 5
2 (0, 2)
0 x
means we have a family of curves that fit the criteria for the function f. (0, –1)
To know which specific curve matches f, we must know additional

(0, –5)
information such as a point through which the curve passes.
Notation
The notation that is commonly used for anti-differentiation was introduced by the German mathematician
Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716). An example of this notation is:
2x dx = x2 + c
∫
This equation indicates that the anti-derivative of 2x with respect to x is equal to x2 plus an unknown
∫
constant, c. f(x)dx is known as the indefinite integral. It is read as ‘the integral of f(x) with respect to x’.
∫
The tells us to anti-differentiate and the dx tells us that x is the variable.
TOPIC 7 Anti-differentiation 427

Remembering that the reverse process of differentiation is integration, consider the following:
x = 3x2 ∴ 3x2 dx = x3 + c
d ( 3)
∫
x = 4x3 ∴ 4x3 dx = x4 + c
dx
d ( 4)
∫
2x = 10x4 ∴ 10x4 dx = 2x5 + c
dx
d ( 5)
∫
3x = 18x5 ∴ 18x5 dx = 3x6 + c
dx
d ( 6)
dx ∫
From this series of derivatives and integrals, two important observations can be made.
Anti-derivatives of xn and axn
xn dx = + c, n ≠ −1
n+1
xn+1
∫
axn dx = a xn dx = + c, n ≠ −1
n+1
axn+1
∫ ∫
WORKED EXAMPLE 1 Anti-derivative of axn

Determine:
−4 3 x dx
5
∫ ∫ ∫ x3
3x4 dx
√
a. b. c. dx
THINK WRITE
axn dx = +c 3x4 dx = +c
n+1
axn+1
3x4+1
∫ ∫
a. 1. Apply the rule
5
= +c
3x5
5
−4 3 xdx = −4x 3 dx
1
∫ ∫ ∫
axn dx.
√
b. 1. Write the integral in the form
4x 3 +1
2. Apply the rule axn dx = + c. =− +c
1
n+1
axn+1
∫ 4
3
= −3x 3 + c
4
dx = 5x−3 dx
5
∫ ∫ x3 ∫
c. 1. Write the integral in the form axn dx.
5x−3+1
axn dx = + c. = +c
n+1 −2
axn+1
∫
2. Apply the rule
5x−2
=− +c
2
=− +c
5
2x2
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Integration of axn (int-6419)
7.2.2 Properties of integrals

As differentiation is a linear operation, so too is anti-differentiation.
Properties of anti-differentiation
( f (x) ± g (x)) dx = f (x) dx ± g (x) dx
∫ ∫ ∫
af (x) dx = a f (x) dx, where a is a constant.
∫ ∫
That is, we can anti-differentiate the separate components of an expression. For example:
4x3 + 6x2 − 9x + 7 dx = + − + 7x + c
4x3+1 6x2+1 9x1+1
∫
( )
4 3 2
= x4 + 2x3 − x2 + 7x + c
9
2
To check your anti-derivative is correct, it is always good to differentiate your answer to see if the derivative
matches the original expression.
Note: If you are asked to find ‘the’ anti-derivative of an expression, then the ‘+c’ component must be part of
the answer. However, if you are asked to find ‘an’ anti-derivative, then you can choose what the value of c is.
derivative of x4 + 2x3 − x2 + 7x.

The convention when finding ‘an’ anti-derivative is to let c equal 0. So the example above would have an anti-
9
2
WORKED EXAMPLE 2 Applying anti-derivative properties
(3x4 − x3 + 2) dx.
∫
a. Evaluate
b. If f ′(x) = 2 x+
− 7, determine the rule for f.
1√
c. Determine an anti-derivative of (2x − 3) (4 − x).

x2
x4 − 2x3 + 5
∫
d. Determine dx.
x3
THINK WRITE
(3x4 − x3 + 2) dx = − + 2x + c
3x5 x4
∫
a. Anti-differentiate each term separately by a.
applying the rule. 5 4
b. f(x) = 2 x + 2 − 7 dx
1
) (
∫
√
b. 1. First rewrite any surds as fractional powers,
and rewrite any powers in the denominator as x
= 2x 2 + x − 7 dx
−2
negative powers. That is, write each term in 1
( )
the form axn . ∫

x−1
= + − 7x + c
3
−1
2x 2
2. Anti-differentiate each term separately by
3
applying the rule. 2
= − − 7x + c
3
4x 2 1
3. Simplify.
c. (2x − 3)(4 − x) = 8x − 2x2 − 12 + 3x

3 x
= −2x2 + 11x − 12
c. 1. First expand the expression.
(−2x2 + 11x − 12) dx = − + − 12x

2x3 11x2
∫
applying the rule. 3 2
Note: The ‘+ c’ is not needed as the question
asked for ‘an’ anti-derivative.
x4 − 2x3 + 5
dx = − +
d. 1. Rewrite the expression as separate fractions. d. x4 2x3 5
( )
∫ ∫
dx
x3 x3 x3 x3
= x − 2 + 5x−3 dx
∫
( )
applying the rule.
5x−2
= − 2x + +c
−2
x2
3. Simplify.
2
= − 2x − 2 + c
Note: Simplest form usually assumes positive
indices only. x2 5
2 2x

d. 1. On a Calculator page, d. 1. On the Main screen, select:
press MENU, then • Action
select: • Calculation
∫
4: Calculus •
3: Integral
x4 − 2x3 + 5
Complete the entry Complete the entry line as:
x4 − 2x3 + 5
line as:
∫
dx
x3
∫
dx
x3 then press EXE.
then press ENTER.
x4 − 2x3 + 5 x4 − 2x3 + 5
= − 2x − 2 + c
x2 5
∫ ∫
2. The answer appears on dx 2. The answer appears on the dx
x4 − 4x3 − 5
3
the screen. x 2 2x screen. x3
= +c
Note: Remember to include the
constant, c, as the calculator will not
2x2
include it.
Note: Remember to
include the constant, c,
as the calculator will
not include it.
Note: It is extremely useful to differentiate the answer of an anti-derivative in order to check its validity.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Properties of integrals (int-6420)
f ax + b dx, n ≠ 1
∫
7.2.3 Integrals of the form
( )
Consider the function f ∶ R → R, f(x) = (ax + b)n .

Using the chain rule, f ′ (x) = an(ax + b)n−1 .
Hence,
an(ax + b)n−1 dx = (ax + b)n

∫
an (ax + b)n−1 dx = (ax + b)n

∫
(ax + b)n−1 dx = (ax + b)n + c

1
∫ an
Thus we obtain the general rule that follows.
Anti-derivative of (ax + b)n

(ax + b)n+1
(ax + b)n dx = + c, n ≠ −1
∫ a (n + 1)
WORKED EXAMPLE 3 Anti-derivative of (ax + b)n
a. (2x + 3) b. 2(3x − 1)
−2
Anti-differentiate:
5
(ax + b)
THINK WRITE
(ax + b)n dx = + c. (2x + 3)5 dx

a(n + 1)
n+1
∫ ∫
a. Apply the rule a.
(2x + 3)6
= +c
(2x + 3)6
2(6)
= +c
12
2(3x − 1)−2 dx
∫
b. 1. Take 2 out as a factor. b.
= 2 (3x − 1)−2 dx
∫
(ax + b)n+1 2(3x − 1)−1
(ax + b)n dx = + c. = +c
∫ a(n + 1)
2. Apply the rule
2 (3x − 1)−1
3 (−1)
= +c
−3
=− +c
3 (3x − 1)
2

Note: The rules described above only apply if the expression inside the brackets is linear. If the expression is
of any other kind, it must be expanded, if possible, before integrating, or you must use CAS to integrate the
expression.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4 Expansion and anti-differentiation
x+
)2
1
(
∫
Determine dx.
x
THINK WRITE
x+
)2
1
(
∫
1. As the inner function is not linear, there is no dx
anti-differentiation rule we can apply, so the x
= x2 + 2x +
( ( ) ( )2 )
expression must first be expanded. 1 1
∫
dx
x x
= x + 2 + 2 dx
1
( )
∫
2
x
= (x2 + 2 + x−2 ) dx
∫
2. Write all terms in the form axn .
x−1
= + 2x − +c
x3
3. Apply the rules for anti-differentiation.
3 1
= x3 + 2x − + c
1 1
3 x
7.2.4 Integration by recognition

Sometimes you may be required to find an anti-derivative of a very complex function. In order to complete this
task, you will first be given a function to differentiate. The technique is then to recognise the patterns between
the derivative you have found and the function you have been given to anti-differentiate.
In general, if f(x) = g′(x) , then g′(x) dx = f(x) + c .

∫
WORKED EXAMPLE 5 Integration by recognition
If y = (3x2 + 4x − 7) , find . Hence, determine an anti-derivative of 20(3x + 2)(3x2 + 4x − 7) .

5 dy 4
dx
THINK WRITE
y = (3x2 + 4x − 7)
5
1. Use the chain rule to differentiate the given
= 5(6x + 4)(3x2 + 4x − 7)
function. dy 4
dx
= 10(3x + 2)(3x2 + 4x − 7)
4
2. Remove 2 as a factor from the linear bracket.
10(3x + 2)(3x2 + 4x − 7) dx = (3x2 + 4x − 7)

∫
4 5
3. Rewrite the result as an integral.
2 10(3x + 2)(3x2 + 4x − 7) dx = 2(3x2 + 4x − 7)

∫
4 5
4. Adjust the left-hand side so that it matches
the expression to be integrated. In this case,
multiply both sides of the equation by 2.
20(3x + 2)(3x2 + 4x − 7) dx = 2(3x2 + 4x − 7)

∫
4 5
Note: c is not required because ‘an’
anti-derivative was required.
7.2 Exercise

Technology free
1. WE1 Determine:
−2x3 dx −
1√ 3 4
∫ ∫ 2 ∫ ∫ √
4
a. b. xdx c. dx d. dx
2x2 3 2
x
Determine:
a. f(x) if f ′ (x) = x − 4x2 + 2x3 b. an anti-derivative of √ − 4x3 +
2. WE2
3 3 2
5x3
3x − x
2 x
x(x − 3)(2x + 5) dx
3
∫ ∫ 2√x
c. d. dx
3. Determine:
√ + 2− 3 (x + 1)(2x2 − 3x + 4) dx
( )
2 3 1
∫ ∫
a. dx b.
x x 2x
4. Given that f ′ (x) = x2 −

1
, express the rule for f.
x2
5. Determine:
7x2 −
2
∫ ∫
a. x3 dx b. dx
5x3
(4x3 − 7x2 + 2x − 1) dx
( √ )3
∫ ∫
c. d. 2 x dx
6. Anti-differentiate:
a. (3x − 5)
WE3
1
(2x − 3) 2
5
b.
5
c. (2x + 3) d. (1 − 2x)
4 −5

Technology active
= x3 − 3 x. The general rule for the
dy √
7. MC The gradient function for a particular curve is given by
dx
function, y, is:
A. y = 3x2 − √ + c B. y = x − 2x x + c C. y = x − 3x + c
3 1 4 √ 1 4
2 x 4 3
D. y = x − x x + c E. y = x4 − x x + c
1 4 9 √ 1 2 √
4 2 4 9
x3 + 3x2 − 3
8. MC The general equation of the curve, whose gradient at any point is given by , is:
x2
A. y = x + 3 − 3x−2 + c B. y = 1 + +c C. y = 2x2 + 3x − + c
6 3
x3 x
D. y = x + 3x + + c E. y = x2 + 3x + + c
1 2 3 6
2 x x
9. Determine the indefinite integral of each of the following functions.
a. (3x − 1) c. x 2 − 3x 5
1 5 2
3
b.
x4 − 2x
4x3
x(2x − x) 4−x
√ √ √
d. e. f.
x3
x + √ , is:
√ 1
10. MC The general equation of the curve, whose gradient at any point on the curve is given by
x
A. y =x x+ x+c B. y = √ − √ + c C. y = x x+2 x+c

2 √ 1√ 1 1 3 √ √
3 2 2 x 2x x 2
D. y = x x + x + c E. y = x x + 2 x + c
2 √ √ 2 √ √
3 3
2x +
)3
1
(
∫
2
11. WE4 Determine dx.
x
12. Determine:
x−x x+ √
( )3
)2 1
∫ ∫
(√ √
a. dx b. dx
x
x3 + x2 + 1
13. Determine an anti-derivative for each of the following functions.
a. (2x + 3)(3x − 2) x− √
√ 4
b. c. 2
x2 x
x − 3 e. 2(1 − 4x)
−3
)2
2 2
(
(2x − 3) 2
3
d. f.
5
x
x2
∫ x3 + 1
14. Determine √ dx.
2(3x + 5) 2 (7x2 + 4x − 1) dx.

1
∫
15. Determine
If y = (3x2 + 2x − 4) , find . Hence, find an anti-derivative of (3x + 1)(3x2 + 2x − 4) .

3 dy 2
16. WE5
dx
17. If y = 7x + x− √ , find . Hence, find an anti-derivative of y = 7 + √ + √ 7x + x − √

( )4 ( )( )3
√ 1 dy 1 1 √ 1
.
x dx 2 x 2 x3 x
18. If y = x2 + 1, find
dy
x2 + 1
√ 5x
and hence find the anti-derivative of √ .
dx
19. If y = (5x2 + 2x − 1) , find and hence find an anti-derivative of 16(5x + 1)(5x2 + 2x − 1) .

4 dy 3
dx
15x2 + 8x
20. If y = 5x3 + 4x2 , find
dy
5x3 + 4x2
√
and hence find an anti-derivative of √ .
dx
7.2 Exam questions
Find an anti-derivative of (4 − 2x)−5 with respect to x.

Let f(x) = axm and g(x) = bxn , where a, b, m and n are positive integers. The domain of f = domain of g = R.
If f ′(x) is an anti-derivative of g(x), then which one of the following must be true?
MC
m n a
A. is an integer B. is an integer C. is an integer
n m b
E. n − m = 2
b
D. is an integer
a
3x4 − 2
Question
( 3 (1 mark) TECH-FREE
2
)
∫
Find dx.
x
7.3 Anti-derivatives of exponential and

trigonometric functions
LEARNING INTENTION
• anti-differentiate exponential functions
• anti-differentiate trigonometric functions.
7.3.1 The anti-derivative of ex

(e ) = ex and (ekx ) = kekx .
d x d
As we have seen in Topic 5,
dx dx

Therefore, the following properties hold.
Anti-derivative of ex
ex dx = ex + c
∫
and
ekx dx = ekx + c
1
∫ k
WORKED EXAMPLE 6 Anti-derivative of ex
a. (x7 − e3x ) dx
Determine:
∫ ∫
b. 8e2x dx
THINK WRITE
(x7 − e3x ) dx
∫
a. Integrate each term separately. a.
= x − e +c
1 8 1 3x
8 3
ekx dx = ekx + c.
1
∫ ∫
b. 1. Apply the rule b. 8e2x dx
k
= 8 e2x dx
∫
= 8 × e2x + c
1
2
2. Simplify. = 4e2x + c
Algebraic expansion may also be necessary for questions involving ekx .
WORKED EXAMPLE 7 Further anti-differentiation
= (ex + e−x )3 .
dy
Determine y if it is known that
dx
THINK WRITE
= (ex + e−x )3
dy
1. Expand the brackets.
= (ex )3 + 3(ex )2 (e−x ) + 3(ex )(e−x )2 + (e−x )3

dx
= e3x + 3e2x e−x + 3ex e−2x + e−3x

= e3x + 3ex + 3e−x + e−3x
y = (e3x + 3ex + 3e−x + e−3x )dx

∫
2. Anti-differentiate each term separately.
= e3x + 3ex − 3e−x − e−3x + c

1 1
3 3
7.3.2 Anti-derivatives of sin(x) and cos(x)
• if y = sin(x), then = cos(x)

We know that:
dy
dx
• if y = sin(ax + b), then = a cos(ax + b)
dy
dx
• if y = cos(x), then = − sin(x)
dy
dx
• if y = cos(ax + b), then = −a sin(ax + b).
dy
dx
Hence, we can state the following properties.
Anti-derivative of sin(x) Anti-derivative of cos(x)
sin(x) dx = −cos(x) + c cos(x) dx = sin(x) + c

∫ ∫
and and
sin(ax + b) dx = − cos(ax + b) + c cos(ax + b) dx = sin(ax + b) + c

1 1
∫ a ∫ a
WORKED EXAMPLE 8 Anti-derivatives of sin(x) and cos(x)
Determine an anti-derivative of f(x) = 2 sin(5x) + 3 cos

x
( )
.
3
THINK WRITE
2 sin (5x) + 3 cos

x
( ( ))
∫
1. Separate the two terms. dx
3
= 2 sin (5x) dx + 3 cos

x
( )
∫ ∫
dx
3
= 2 sin(5x) dx + 3 cos
x
( )
∫ ∫
2. Take out 2 and 3 as factors. dx
3
= − cos(5x) + 9 sin
2 x
( )
3. Apply the anti-differentiation rules for sin
and cos. 5 3
For particularly difficult anti-differentiation problems, you may first be asked to differentiate a function so that
you can use this result to carry out the anti-differentiation. This technique is called integration by recognition.
Recall that if f(x) = g′(x), then g′(x) dx = f(x) + c.

∫

Given that y = ex , find and hence find an anti-derivative of xex .

2 dy 2
dx
THINK WRITE
y = ex
2
1. Use the chain rule to differentiate the given
= 2xex
function. dy 2
dx
2xex dx = ex
∫
2 2
2. Rewrite the result as an integral.
2 xex dx = ex
∫
2 2
3. Adjust the left-hand side so that it matches the
sides need to multiplied by . × 2 xex dx = × ex

expression to be integrated. In this case, both
1 1 1
∫
2 2
2 2 2
xex dx = ex
1 2
∫
2
2
7.3 Exercise

Technology free
1. WE6 Determine:
(x − e e − e 2 dx
−4x 1 2x 2 − 1 x
( )
∫ ∫
4
a. )dx b.
2 3
(e2x − e−3x ) dx.

∫
3
2. WE7 Determine
− x
)2
x 1
(
3. Determine the indefinite integral of e2 .
e
cos(3x + 4) − 4 sin
1 x
( )
4. WE8 a. Determine the indefinite integral of .
2 2
− sin(5 − 2x).
2x 1
( )
b. Determine an anti-derivative of cos
3 4
− 3 cos
x x
( ( ) ( ))
∫
5. a. Determine sin dx.
b. If f ′ (x) = 7 cos(2x) − sin(3x), determine a general rule for f.

2 2
6. Express the indefinite integral of:
+ sin + b. cos(4x) + 3e−3x

x x x
( )
a. e3
3 3
+ sin
1 3𝜋x
( )
7. Determine an anti-derivative of .
4x2 2
= cos(2x) − e−3x . Determine a possible general rule for

dy
8. The gradient of a tangent to a curve is given by
dx
the curve y.
e2x + 3e−5x
9. Determine the following.
(2e3x − sin(2x)) dx
∫ ∫
a. b. dx
2ex
(0.5 cos(2x + 5) − e−x ) dx (ex − e2x ) dx
∫ ∫
2
c. d.
e2x + ex − 1
Technology active
∫ ex + 1
10. Determine dx.
aebx dx = −3e3x + c, calculate the values of the constants a and b.

∫
11. If it is known that
12. If f ′ (x) = a sin(mx) − benx and f(x) = cos(2x) − 2e−2x + 3, calculate the value of the constants a, b, m and n.
13. Heat escapes from a storage tank at a rate of kilojoules per day. This rate can be modelled by
𝜋2 𝜋t
=1+ , 0 ≤ t ≤ 100
dH
( )
sin
dt 9 45
where H(t) is the total accumulated heat loss in kilojoules, t days after June 1.
a. Determine H(t).
b. Calculate the total accumulated heat loss after 15 days. Give your answer correct to 3 decimal places.
14. Calculate {x ∶ ex sin(x) dx = ex cos(x) dx, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2𝜋}.

∫ ∫
𝜋t dy 𝜋
15. If x(t) = 20 + cos = x(t) − 𝜋, determine a possible rule for y in terms of t.
( )
and
4 dt 20
2 2
16. WE9 Find the derivative of ecos (x)
and hence find an anti-derivative of sin(x) cos(x) ecos (x)
.
9(x + 1)2 e(x+1) dx.

∫
3 3
17. Find the derivative of e(x+1) and hence find
18. Differentiate y = 2xe3x . Hence, an anti-derivative of xe3x is:

A. xe3x − e3x B. xe3x − e3x e − e
MC
1 1 1 1 1 3x 1 3x
C.
D. − xe − e E. xe + e
3 9 9 3 3 9
1 3x 1 3x 1 3x 1 3x
3 9 3 9
19. Given that y = e2x +3x−1 , find and hence find an anti-derivative of 2(4x + 3)e2x +3x−1 .
2 dy 2
dx
d
20. Find (x cos(x)) and hence find an anti-derivative of x sin(x).
dx

7.3 Exam questions

= (kx + 1) ekx , then

d xekx
( )
∫
Given that xekx dx is equal to
kx + 1 kx
MC
+c e +c
dx
kx(+ 1
xekx 1
( )
k∫
A. B. C. ekx dx
k
xe − e dx + c xe − ekx + c
1 1 ( kx
)
∫
kx kx
)
D. E.
k 2
k
The gradient of a curve is given by 2 sin(2x) − 4e−2x . The curve passes through the origin. The equation of
MC
A. 2e−3x − 1 − cos(2x) B. 1 + cos(2x) − 2e−2x C. cos(2x) + 2e−2x − 3

the curve is given by
D. 4 cos(2x) − 8e −2x
+4 E. −4 cos(2x) + 8e −2x
−4
aebx dx = −2e2x + c, then

∫
If
A. a = 4 and b = −2 B. a = −2 and b = 2 C. a = −1 and b = 2
MC
D. a = −4 and b = 2 E. a = −4 and b = −2
7.4 The anti-derivative of f(x) = 1

x
LEARNING INTENTION
• anti-differentiate logarithmic functions.
7.4.1 The anti-derivative of 1

x
In Topic 5, we found that if y = loge (x), then = .
dy 1
dx x
Therefore, we can find the anti-derivative of f (x) = as follows.

1
x
Anti-derivative of f(x) =
1
x
dx = loge (x) + c, x > 0
1
∫ x
and
dx = loge (ax + b) + c, x > −

∫ ax + b
1 1 b
a a
WORKED EXAMPLE 10 The anti-derivative of f (x) =

1
x
Determine:
∫ 2x + 1
3 4
∫ 2x
a. dx b. dx
THINK WRITE
dx =
3 3 3 1
∫ 2x 2∫ x
a. 1. Remove as a factor. dx
2
= loge (x) + c, x > 0

3
2. Apply the integration rule.
2
dx = 4
∫ 2x + 1 ∫ 2x + 1
4 1
b. 1. Remove 4 as a factor. dx
= 4× loge (2x + 1), x > −

1 1
2. Apply the integration rule.
= 2 loge (2x + 1), x > −

2 2
1
2

select: • Interactive
4: Calculus • Calculation
3: Integral
∫
•
Complete the entry
line as: Select ‘Indefinite
3 integral’, then
∫ 2x
dx complete the fields
as:
then press ENTER. 3
Expression:
2x
Variable: x
then select OK.
dx = + c, x > 0 dx = + c, x > 0
3 3 loge (x) 3 3 loge (x)
∫ 2x ∫ 2x
2. The answer appears on 2. The answer appears
the screen. 2 on the screen. 2
Note: Remember to Note: Remember to
include the constant, c, include the constant,
as the calculator will not c, as the calculator
include it. will not include it.

7.4.2 Integration by recognition

Integration by recognition is used when we want to anti-differentiate more complex functions that we don’t
have an anti-derivative rule for. This method involves finding the derivative of a related function and using this
derivative to find the anti-derivative.
Differentiate y =
x2
∫
loge (x) and hence determine x loge (x) dx.
4
THINK WRITE
y=
x2
1. Use the product rule to differentiate the loge (x)
Let u = , so = .
given function. 4
x2 du x
Let v = loge (x), so = .

4 dx 2
dv 1
dx x
= u +v
dy dv du
dx dx dx
= × + loge (x) ×
x2 1 x
4 x 2
= + loge (x)
x x
4 2
+ loge (x) dx = loge (x), x > 0

x x x2
( )
∫
2. Express the answer in integral form.
+ c as the question asked for ‘an’

Note: There is no need to include 4 2 4
anti-derivative.
dx + loge (x) dx = loge (x)

x x x2
( ) ( )
∫ 4 ∫ 2
3. Separate the two parts of the integral.
4
loge (x)dx = loge (x) −

x x x2 x
( ) ( )
∫ 4 ∫ 2 ∫
4. Subtract dx from both sides to dx
4 4
x
∫ 2
make loge (x) dx the subject.
(Remember we are determining
∫
x loge (x) dx.)
loge (x)dx = loge (x) −

x x2 x2
∫ 2
5. Anti-differentiate the function on the
x 4 8
right-hand side of the equation, .
4
x loge (x)dx = loge (x) −

1 1 x2 x2
2∫
6. Remove as a factor so that the
2 4 8
function to be integrated matches the
one in the question.
2× x loge (x)dx = 2 loge (x) −

1 x2 x2
( )
2∫
7. Multiply the equation through by 2.
4 8
x loge (x)dx = loge (x) − , x > 0

x2 x2
∫
8. State the answer.
2 4
7.4 Exercise

Technology free
1. WE10 Determine:
∫ 4x − 1
2 3
∫ 5x
a. dx b. dx
x3 + 2x2 + 3x − 1
2. Anti-differentiate the following.
a. − + cos(4x)
4x + 7 2−x
4 3 3
b. c. d.
x x2
3. Determine:
∫ 1 − 2x ∫ x+4
3 2
a. dx b. dx
4. WE11 Differentiate y = 2 loge (cos(2x)) and hence determine an anti-derivative of tan(2x) with respect to x.
5. If f(x) = 2x loge (mx), state f ′ (x) and hence determine

∫
loge (mx)dx, where m is a constant.
6. Differentiate 3x loge (x) and hence find an anti-derivative for 2 loge (x).
Technology active
dx = a loge (b − x) + c, determine the values of the constants a and b.
∫ 4 − 2x
6
7. If
+ 3 sin (4x + 1) dx is:

∫ 2x + 3
2
8. MC
A. 2 loge (2x + 3) − cos (4x + 1) + c B. loge (2x + 3) − cos (4x + 1) + c

3 3
4 4
C. loge (2x + 3) − cos (4x + 1) + c D. loge (2x + 3) + cos (4x + 1) + c

1 3 3
2 4 4
E. 2 loge (2x + 3) + cos (4x + 1) + c

3
4
Differentiate y = (loge (x))2 . Hence, an anti-derivative for

4 loge (x)
∫
9. MC dx is:
x
1 2
A. 2 loge (x) B. (loge (x))2 C. D. 2 (loge (x))
2
E. 4 loge (x)
2 x
d − 2xb + x
dx = loge (x) − + + c, determine the values of the constants a, b and d.
5 x2 x
∫
10. If
ax 4 4 4
7.4 Exam questions
x + 2x − 3
∫
Determine dx.
x2
∫ x+5
6
MC dx is equal to
6dx +
∫ x+5 ∫ x+5 ∫ x+5
1 1 1
∫ ∫
A. 6 dx B. 6dx dx C. dx
∫
6dx
6
(x + 5)dx (x + 5)dx
D. E.
∫ ∫
If f(x) = x loge (x), find f ′(x) and hence

∫
loge (x)dx.
7.5 Families of curves

LEARNING INTENTION
• use anti-differentiation to graph f (x) from f ′ (x)

• recognise a family of curves

• calculate the value of c when given extra information.
7.5.1 Initial conditions

= 2e2x . Because y = e2x + c, this
dy
Suppose we are asked to investigate y
dx
a family of curves. The functions with c values of 1, 0, −2 and −4, as

is a series of an infinite number of exponential functions. We call this
shown in the diagram, are four of the possible functions for y = e2x + c. y = e2x + 1 (0, 2) y=1
y = e2x (0, 1)
A specific function can only be found if we are given some additional 0 y=0 x
information to allow us to evaluate the constant, c. For example, we y = e2x – 2 (0, –1)
that when x = 0, y = 0.
might be told that the curve passes through the origin. This lets us know (0, –3) y = –2
y = e2x – 4
y = e +c
y = –4
Hence,
(0, 0) ⇒ 0 = e2(0) + c
2x
0 = 1+c
c = −1
Therefore, y = e2x − 1.
‘If f ′ (x) = 2e2x , find f given that f(0) = 0.’

This additional information is referred to as an initial condition. The question could have been given as follows:
WORKED EXAMPLE 12 Sketching a family of curves
a. Sketch a family of curves that have the derivative function f ′(x) = 2cos(2x) for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2𝜋.
b. Determine the specific rule for this function if f(𝜋) = 2.
THINK WRITE
cos(ax) dx = sin(ax) + c to a. f(x) = 2 cos(2x)dx

1
∫ ∫
a. 1. Apply the rule
= sin(2x) + c
a
anti-differentiate the function.
2. Graph the function, first with c = 0. That is, f(x) = sin(2x) + c

sketch f(x) = sin(2x). Then translate this graph Amplitude = 1 and period =
2𝜋
=𝜋
up or down to sketch the graphs with different 2
y
c values. Any c values may be used.
y = sin(2x) + 2
(0, 2)
(0, 0)
x
π 2π
y = sin(2x)
(0, –3)
f(x) = sin(2x) + c
y = sin(2x) – 3
f(𝜋) = 2 ⇒ 2 = sin(2𝜋) + c
b. 1. Substitute the known point into the equation. b.
2 = 0+c
c=2
2. Simplify and determine the value for c.
3. State the rule for f(x). f(x) = sin(2x) + 2
WORKED EXAMPLE 13 Using initial conditions to find c
Determine the equation of the curve that passes through the point (1, 0) if the gradient is given by
= 3x2 − 2x + 2.
dy
dx
THINK WRITE
= 3x2 − 2x + 2
dy
1. Write the gradient rule and anti-differentiate
dx
y = (3x2 − 2x + 2) dx
to find y.
∫
= x3 − x2 + 2x + c
When x = 1, y = 0:
0 = 1−1+2+c
2. Substitute the known point into the equation.
c = −2
3. State the rule for y. y = x3 − x2 + 2x − 2


1. On a Calculator page, 1. On the Main screen, select:
press MENU, then select: • Interactive
4: Calculus • Advanced
D: Differential Equation • dSolve
Solve Select ‘Include condition’,
Equation: y′ = 3x2 − 2x + 2
Complete the fields as: then complete the fields as:
y′ = 3x2 − 2x + 2
Equation:
Inde var: x
Condition: y (1) = 0
Independent Var: x Depe var: y
Dependent Var: y
Condition: y(1) = 0 Select OK.
then press OK and then
ENTER.
2. The answer appears on y = x3 − x2 + 2x − 2 2. The answer appears on the y = x3 − x2 + 2x − 2

the screen. screen.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Families of curves (int-6421)
7.5.2 Sketching the graph of a function given the graph of f ′ (x)

When f ′ (x) represents the equation of a polynomial function, the graph of f(x) can be drawn by raising the
degree of f ′ (x) by one.
Note: When we sketch f(x) from the gradient function, the ‘+ c’ component is unknown, so there is not just one
single answer. Often we will choose c to be zero, but any vertical translation of this general graph is correct.
Gradient function, f ′(x)

A line parallel to the x-axis (y = m) is degree 0. A line of the form y = mx + c is degree 1 and its
Original function, f (x)
Example: gradient is m.
y Example:
f ʹ(x) = 2 y
2 f (x) = 2x + 1
(0, 2)
0 x (– –12 , 0) (0, 1)
0 x
A line of the form y = mx + c is degree 1. A quadratic of the form y = ax2 + bx + c is degree 2.

Example: The line shown has an x-intercept at x = 3.
x = 3.
Example: The function shown has a turning point at
y
(0, 3) f ʹ(x) = –x + 3 y 1
f (x) = – – x2 + 3x
2
(3, 0)
x (0, 0)
0
x
3
A quadratic of the form y = ax2 + bx + c is degree 2. A cubic of the form y = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d is
x = −1 and x = 5. Example: The graph has turning points at x = −1

Example: The graph shown has x-intercepts at degree 3.
f ʹ(x) = (x + 1)(x – 5) and x = 5.

y
y
1
f (x) = – x3 – 2x2 – 5x
3
(–1, 0) (5, 0)
0 x x
–1 0 5
(2, –9)
The derivative functions will not always be polynomial functions, so it is important to analyse the graph of the
derivative carefully, as it will give you key information about the anti-derivative graph.
Features of derivative graphs

• x-intercepts on the graph of y = f ′ (x) give the x-coordinates of stationary points on the graph of
y = f(x), that is, points where the derivative is zero.
• When the graph of y = f ′ (x) is above the x-axis, this indicates the graph of y = f(x) has a positive
• When the graph of y = f ′ (x) is below the x-axis, this indicates the graph of y = f(x) has a negative
gradient for these x-values.
gradient for these x-values.
WORKED EXAMPLE 14 Sketching f (x) from f ′ (x)
The graph of the gradient function y = f ′ (x) is shown. Analyse this

derivative function and sketch a possible graph for y = f (x).
y
y = f ʹ(x)
(–1, 0) (1, 0) (3, 0)

0 x

THINK WRITE
the key features of f — where f ′

1. Use the derivative graph to determine y
f ʹ(x) = 0, which
f ʹ is positive, indicates y = f ʹ(x)
lies above or below the x axis (this so f has a a stationary
indicates where f has positive or positive gradient point fʹ is positive,
negative gradient) and where the for –1 < x < 1. when x = 1. so f has a
x-intercepts are located (this indicates positive gradient
f ). As y = f ′ (x) is a positive cubic,

the position of stationary points on (1, 0) (3, 0) for x > 3.
y = f(x) will be a positive quartic.

0 x
f ʹ(x) = 0, which
f ʹ(x) = 0, which
indicates a stationary (–1, 0) indicates a stationary
point when x = –1.
point when x = 3.
f ʹ is negative, so f ʹ is negative, so f has
f has a negative a negative gradient
gradient for x < –1.
y = f(x) has stationary points when x = −1, 1, 3.

for 1 < x < 3.
The gradient of y = f(x) is positive when x ∈ (−1, 1) ∪ (3, ∞).

The gradient of y = f(x) is negative when x ∈ (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, 3).
function y = f(x).
2. Use this knowledge to sketch the y
Note: In this graph of y = f(x), we

have chosen c = 0. Your graph may
y = f (x)
Local maximum
have a different c value. However, it at x = 1
should be of the same basic shape,
just translated vertically.
–1 0 x
1 3
Local minimum Local minimum

at x = –1 at x = 3
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Sketching the anti-derivative graph (int-5965)
7.5 Exercise

1. WE12 a. Sketch a family of curves that have the derivative function f ′ (x) = 3x2 .
Technology free
b. Determine the rule for the function that belongs to this family of curves and passes through the point
(2, 16).
2. a. Sketch a family of curves related to the derivative function f ′ (x) = −2 cos(2x).
𝜋
,4 .
( )
2
3. a. Sketch a family of curves with the derivative function f ′ (x) = 3e−3x .
(0, 1).
4. WE13 Determine the equation of the curve that passes through the point (0, 3) if the gradient is given by
= 2e2x + e−x .
dy
dx
5. The gradient function of a particular curve is given by f ′ (x) = cos(2x) − sin(2x). Express the rule for this
function if it is known that the curve passes through the points (𝜋, 2).
6. Determine the anti-derivative of cos(2x) + 3e−3x if y = 4 when x = 0.
= e 2 x , given that it passes through the point (0, 5).

dy 1
7. Express the equation of the curve defined by
dx
8. Express the equation of the curve defined by f ′ (x) =

(1 − x)2
1
, given that it passes through the point (0, 4).
a. f ′ (x) = 5 − 2x and f(1) = 4

9. Determine f(x) for each of the following.
b. f ′ (x) = sin and f (𝜋) = 3

x
( )
10. Determine f(x) if f ′(x) = x3 − and f(1) = .

1 1
x 4
= and y = 3 when x = − , obtain an expression for y in terms of x.

dx 2x + 4
dy 5 3
11. a. Given that
2
= and y = 1 when x = , obtain an expression for y in terms of x.
dx 2 − 5x
dy 3 1
b. Given that
The graph of the gradient function y = f ′ (x) is shown. Analyse this derivative function and sketch the
5
given function y = f(x).

12. WE14
(0, 3) y = f ʹ(x)
(1, 0)
0 x

13. The graph of the gradient function y = f ′ (x) is shown. Analyse this derivative function and sketch the given
function y = f(x).
y
(2, 0) (–4, 0)
0 x
y = fʹ(x)
14. The graphs of some gradient functions are shown. Sketch the corresponding anti-derivative graphs.
a. y b. y
y = f ʹ(x)
y = f ʹ(x)
(–4, 0) (2, 0)
0 x
(–4, 0) (2, 0)
0 x
c. y d. y
y = f ʹ(x)
y = f ʹ(x)
(–2, 0) (0, 1)
0 x
0 (1, 0) x
(0, −1)
7.5 Exam questions
Let f ′ (x) = √
2x − 3
2
MC .
If f (6) = 4, then
A. f (x) = 2 2x − 3 B. f (x) = 2x − 3 − 2 C. f (x) = 2 2x − 3 − 2
√ √ √
D. f (x) = 2x − 3 + 2 E. f (x) = 2x − 3
√ √
Part of the graph of y = f ′(x) is shown below.

MC
The corresponding part of the graph of y = f (x) is best represented by

A. y B.
y
x
x
C. y D. y
x
x
E. y
π
If f (x) = 2 cos (x) − sin (2x) and f = , find f (x).
′ 1
( )
2 2

7.6 Applications
LEARNING INTENTION
• use anti-differentiation to solve problems involving finding a function from a known rate of change
given a boundary condition.
7.6.1 Applications involving rates of change

Application questions such as those involving rates of change may also be given in terms of the derivative
function. Integrating the equation for the rate of change allows us to determine the original function.
WORKED EXAMPLE 15 Rates of change application
A young boy bought an ant farm. It is known that the ant population is changing at a rate defined by
= 20e0.2t , 0 ≤ t ≤ 20, where N is the number of ants in the colony and t is the time in days since the
dN
dt
ant farm has been set up.
a. Determine a rule relating N to t if initially there were 50 ants.
b. Calculate how many ants make up the colony after 8 days.
THINK WRITE
= 20e0.2t
dN
a. 1. Write the rate rule and anti-differentiate to a.
dt
N = (20e0.2t ) dt
find the function for N.
= e +c
20 0.2t
= 100e0.2t + c
0.2
When t = 0, N = 50: 50 = 100e0.2×0 + c

50 = 100 + c
2. Use the initial condition to determine the
c = −50
value of c.
N = 100e0.2t − 50
b. 1. Substitute t = 8 into the population equation. b. When t = 8:
3. State the equation for N.
N = 100e0.2×8 − 50
= 100e1.6 − 50
= 445.3
2. Answer the question. Round to the nearest There are 445 ants after 8 days.
whole number.
7.6.2 Linear motion

From Topic 6 we know that the study of the motion of a particle in a straight line is called kinematics. When this
motion is only in a straight line, it is referred to as rectilinear motion.
Displacement–velocity–acceleration relationship
Because velocity is the derivative of position (displacement) with respect to time,
Displacement x(t)
it follows that position is the anti-derivative of velocity.
Consider a particle whose position, x metres, from the origin at time t seconds is
dx
defined by – ∫ v(t) dt
x(t) = t2 − 5t − 6, t ≥ 0
dt
Initially, at t = 0, the particle is 6 metres to the left of the origin. The velocity of
Velocity v(t)
the particle can be defined as v = x′(t) = 2t − 5 metres/second.

The initial velocity of the particle is −5 metres/second.
dv
– ∫ a(t) dt
dt
has an instantaneous velocity defined by v = x′(t) = 2t − 5 metres/second.

This same situation could have been approached in the following way. A particle Acceleration a(t)
If it is known that the particle is initially 6 metres to the left of the origin, then the displacement can be given by:
x = (2t − 5)dt
∫
= t2 − 5t + c
When t = 0, x = −6: −6 = 0 + c
c = −6
∴ x = t2 − 5t − 6
WORKED EXAMPLE 16 Determining displacement from velocity
In each of the following cases, express the displacement as a function of t if initially the particle is at
a. v = t3 − t b. v = (2t − 3) c. v =
the origin.
(t − 1)2
3 1
THINK WRITE
a. v = =t −t
dx 3
a. 1. Write the velocity equation and anti-
dt
x = (t3 − t) dt
differentiate to find the displacement
∫
function, x.
x = t4 − t2 + c
1 1
4 2
When t = 0, x = 0:
0 = 0+c
2. Substitute the initial condition into the
c=0
formula for x and determine c.
x = t4 − t2
1 1
3. State the rule.
4 2

b. v =
dx
b. 1. Write the velocity equation and
= (2t − 3)3
anti-differentiate to find the displacement dt
function, x.
x= (2t − 3)3 dt
∫
(2t − 3)4
= +c
= (2t − 3)4 + c
2(4)
1
8
2. Substitute the initial condition into the When t = 0, x = 0:

0 = (−3)4 + c
formula for x and determine c. 1
= +c
8
81
c=−
8
81
8
x = (2t − 3)4 −
1 81
3. State the rule.
8 8
c. v =
dx
c. 1. Write the velocity equation and
=
anti-differentiate to find the displacement dt
(t − 1)2
1
function, x.
= (t − 1)−2
x= (t − 1)−2 dt
∫
(t − 1)−1
= +c
−1
= −(t − 1)−1 + c
=− +c
(t − 1)
1
2. Substitute the initial condition into the When t = 0, x = 0:

0=− +c
formula for x and determine c. 1
0 = 1+c
(−1)
c = −1
x=− −1
(t − 1)
1
3. State the rule.
WORKED EXAMPLE 17 Linear motion
The velocity of a particle moving in a straight line along the x-axis is given by v = = 9 − 9e−3t
dx
dt
where t is the time in seconds and x is the displacement in metres.
a. Show that the particle is initially at rest.
b. Determine the equation relating x to t if it is known that initially the particle was 3 metres to the
left of the origin.
a. 1. Substitute t = 0 and evaluate. v = 9 − 9e−3t

THINK WRITE
t = 0 ⇒ v = 9 − 9e0
a.
= 9−9×1
= 0 m/s
2. Answer the question. Initially the particle is at rest as its velocity is
0 m/s.
b. v =
dx
b. 1. Write the velocity equation and
= 9 − 9e−3t
anti-differentiate to find the position dt
x = (9 − 9e−3t ) dt
equation, x.
∫
= 9t + 3e−3t + c
When t = 0, x = −3:
−3 = 9 × 0 + 3e0 + c
2. Substitute the initial condition to determine c.
−3 = 3 + c
Remember, left of the origin means the
c = −6
position is negative.
3. State the equation. x = 9t + 3e−3t − 6
7.6 Exercise

Technology free
1. WE16 In each of the following cases, express the displacement as a function of t if initially the particle is at
the origin.
a. v = (3t + 1) 2 b. v = c. v = (2t + 1)
(t + 2)2
1 1 3
d. v = e(3t −1) e. v = − sin(2t + 3). f. v = 2 cos (3t)
v = 3t2 + 7t, t ≥ 0. Determine the rule relating the position of the particle, x metres, to t, if it is known that
2. A particle moves in a straight line so that its velocity, in metres per second, can be defined by the rule
the particle started from the origin.
+ 6 metres per second after

(t − 1)2
12
3. A particle starting at the origin moves in a straight line with a velocity of
t seconds.
a. Determine the rule relating the position of the particle, x metres, to t.
b. Calculate the position of the particle after 3 seconds.

4. WE17 A particle is oscillating so that its velocity, v cm/s, can be defined by
v= = sin(2t) + cos(2t)
dx
dt
where t is the time in seconds and x centimetres is its displacement.

a. Show that initially the particle is moving at 1 cm/s.
b. Determine the equation relating x to t if it is known that initially the particle was at the origin.
Technology active
5. A particle attached to a spring moves up and down in a straight line so that at time t seconds its velocity,
v metres per second, is given by
𝜋t
v = 3𝜋 sin ,t≥0
( )
Initially the particle is stationary. Determine:

a. the rule relating the position of the particle, x centimetres, to t
b. the maximum displacement of the particle
c. where the particle is, relative to the stationary position, after 4 seconds.
6. When a bus travels along a straight road in heavy traffic from one
v = 0.25t(50 − t), where v is the velocity in m/s.

stop to another stop, the velocity at time t seconds is given by
a. Calculate the greatest velocity reached by the bus.

b. Determine the rule for the position of the bus, x metres, in
terms of t.
7. If v = 2t cos(t) metres per second, determine a rule relating the
position x metres to t if it is known the particle starts from rest at
the origin.
8. WE15 The rate of change of volume of a balloon as it is being
blown up can be modelled by
= 𝜋r2
dV
dr
where V cm3 is the volume of the balloon and r cm is the radius of

the balloon.
a. Determine the rule for the volume of the balloon.
b. Calculate the volume of the balloon when its radius is 4 cm.
9. A chemical factory has permission from the Environment Protection Authority to release particular toxic
gases into the atmosphere for a period of 20 seconds no more than once every 3 hours. This maintains safe
levels of the gases in the atmosphere. This rate of emission is given by
= 20t2 − t3 cm3 /s
dV
dt
where 0 ≤ t ≤ 20 and V cm3 is the total volume of toxic gases released over t seconds. Calculate the total
volume of toxic gases released during a 20-second release period.
10. A population of sea lions on a distant island is growing according

to the model
= 30e0.3t , 0 ≤ t ≤ 10
dP
dt
where P is the number of sea lions present after t years.
a. If initially there were 50 sea lions on the island, determine the
rule for the number of sea lions present, P, after t years.
b. Calculate the number of sea lions on the island after
10 years. Give your answer correct to the nearest whole
sea lion.
11. A newly established suburban area of Perth is growing at a rate
modelled by the rule
= 400 + 1000 t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 10
dN √
dt
where N is the number of families living in the suburb t years after
the suburb was established in 2015.
a. Determine a rule relating N and t if initially there were
40 families living in this suburb.
b. Calculate how many families will be living in the suburb
5 years after its establishment. Give your answer correct to the nearest number of families.
12. The rate of change of the depth of water in a canal is modelled by the rule
dh 𝜋 𝜋t
= cos
( )
dt 2 4
where h is the depth of the water in metres and t is the number of hours since 6 am.
a. Determine an equation for h in terms of t if the water is 3 metres deep at 6 am.
b. Determine the maximum and minimum depths of the water.
c. Determine how many hours a day the water level is 4 metres or more.
7.6 Exam questions
v = 2t3 − t + 1, t ≥ 0
A particle moves in a straight line so that its velocity, in metres per second, can be defined by the rule
a. Determine the rule for the position of the particle, if it is known the particle started 1 m to the left of the
origin. (1 mark)
b. Determine the velocity and position of the particle after 3 seconds. (2 marks)
A particle moves in a straight line so that its acceleration, after t seconds, is given by a = 4 − 2t, t ≥ 0 . If
v = 0 and x = 3 when t = 0, calculate the position and velocity of the particle when t = 2.
= 100t 2 , where b is the

db 3
The rate of growth of bacteria in a petri dish in a laboratory can be modelled by
dt
number of bacteria after t hours. Initially there were 80 bacteria cells.
a. Determine an equation for b in terms of t. (1 mark)
b. Determine how long, to the nearest minute, it would take the number of bacteria to reach 500. (1 mark)

7.7 Review
7.7.1 Summary
doc-37036
7.7 Exercise
Short answer: technology free
4x4 − 4
1. Determine:
∫ x2
a. dx
(ex − e−x )2 dx
∫
b.
e2x + 3ex + 2
∫ ex + 1
c. dx
− cos(4x − 3) − sin
1 x
( ( ))
∫
d. dx
3 2
+ sin (x) dx
3−x
4
( )
∫
e.
x + 4x − 1
2
∫
f. dx
x2
2. The rate of change of temperature of a kettle can be modelled by
= abe−bt
dT
dt
where T is the temperature in degrees Celsius and t is the time in minutes

since 12 noon.
b. If a = 100, b = 0.08 and c = 195, calculate the temperature of the kettle at

a. Determine the equation for T in terms of t, where c is an arbitrary constant.
12 noon.
3. a. Given that f ′ (x) = (e2x + 1) and f(0) = − , determine a rule for f.

2 5
4
= 3x − 5 and y = 0 when x = 2, determine the rule for y.
dy √
b. If
x3 + 4x
dx
c. Determine f(x) if f ′ (x) = and f(1) = loge (2) + .
1
x2 2
i. f ′ (x) = x2 − 2x ii. f ′ (x) = −6e−3x

4. a. Sketch the family of curves related to each of the following derivative functions.
b. Each of the following graphs shows a gradient function, y = f ′ (x). Sketch the function y = f (x) that
corresponds to each given gradient function.
i. y ii. y
y = f ʹ(x)
(1, 0) (0, 0) (2, 0)

0 x (–2, 0) 0 x
y = f ʹ(x)
5. An athlete inhales oxygen at a rate of 3.5 − (t − 0.5)

−2
litres
per minute. Determine how much oxygen the athlete inhales
after t minutes.
6. a. Given that y = e3x −2x+1 , find

2 dy
and hence find an
anti-derivative of (3x − 1)e3x −2x+1 .
2
dx
b. Given that y = x sin(2x), find

dy
and hence find an anti-
dx
derivative of x cos(2x).
5x2 − x + 2
Multiple choice: technology active
∫
7. MC √ dx is equal to:
4 x
− + +c − √ − √ +c + − x+c
5 3 √ √ 5 3
25x 2 3x 2 x 15 x 1 1 x2 x2 √
A. B. C.
8 8 4 8 8 x 43x 2 6
− + x+c − − x+c
5 3 5 3
x2 x2 √ 5x 2 x 2 √
D. E.
2 6 6 2
1
(4x − 1) 2
8. MC An anti-derivative of 3
is equal to:
A. − B. − C. − √ D. − √ E. − √
4x − 1 8 4x − 1 2 4x − 1
1 1 2 1 1
2 (4x − 1) 2 10 (4x − 1) 2
5 5
+ 3e−3x is:
x
( )
9. MC An anti-derivative of cos
5
−e −3x
B. −5 sin − 9e−3x C. − sin − e−3x
x x 1 x
( ) ( ) ( )
A. 5 sin
5 5 5 5
+e −3x
+ 9e−3x
x x
( ) ( )
D. 5 sin E. 5 sin
5 5

If f ′ (x) = g′(x) + 2, f(0) = 3 and g(0) = 1, then f(x) is given by:

A. f(x) = g(x) + 2x + 2 B. f(x) = g′(x) + 2 C. f(x) = g(x) + 2x
10. MC
D. f(x) = 2 E. f(x) = g(x) + 2
aebx dx = −3e4x + c, then:

∫
11. MC If
A. a = 12, b = −4 B. a = −3, b = 4 C. a = −4, b = 12

D. a = −12, b = 4 E. a = 3, b = −4
12. MC A particle starts from the origin. If the velocity of the particle, v m/s, is defined by v = 2t + 3, then the
A. x = 2t + 3 B. x = t2 + 3 C. x = t2 + 3t
position of the particle, x metres from the origin, is given by:
D. x = 2 E. x = t2 + 3t + 2
13. The velocity, v cm/s, of a particle moving up and down can be defined by v = − sin (2t), where t is
MC
measured in seconds. Initially the particle is 2 cm above its resting position. The rule relating its position,
x cm, to t could be given by:
A. x = cos (2t) + B. x = cos (2t) C. x = cos (2t) +
1 3 1 1 1
D. x = 2 cos (2t) + E. x = −2 cos (2t) +

2 2 2 2 2
3 1
2 2
𝜋
14. MC If f ′ (x) = + sin(2x) and f = , then f(x) equals:
𝜋
4x 1
( )
2 4 4
− cos (2x) − cos (2x) + − cos (2x)

𝜋2 2 𝜋 𝜋2 2
2x2 1 2x2 1 1 8x2 1
A. B. C.
2 2 8
− cos (2x) + + cos (2x) +
𝜋 𝜋
8x2 1 1 2x2 1 1
D. E.
2 2 8 2 2 8
= 4 cos (2x) + 2 sin (2x) is

dy
15. MC The equation of the curve that passes through the point (0, 0) and has
dx
given by:
A. y = 2 sin (2x) − cos (2x) + 1 B. y = 2 sin (2x) + cos (2x) − 1 C. y = 8 sin (2x) + 4 cos (2x) − 4
D. y = 2 sin (2x) − cos (2x) − 1 E. y = 2 sin (2x) − cos (2x) − 2
If f ′ (x) = cos (3x) − e−3x and f(0) = , then f(x) is equal to:
2
16. MC
A. sin (3x) + e−3x + 1 B. sin (3x) − e−3x − 1 sin (3x) − e−3x − 1

3
1( )
C.
sin (3x) + e−3x + 1 sin (3x) + e−3x

3
1( ) 1( )
D. E.
3 3
17. The velocity of a particle is given by v = 3 sin(3t) + 1, where x is the displacement in metres at time
Extended response: technology active
a. Show that the displacement of the particle is given by x = − cos(3t) + t + 1.

t seconds. Initially the particle is at the origin.
b. Determine how long it takes for the particle to first come to rest. Give your answer correct to 3 decimal
places.
c. Determine the maximum velocity of the particle.
d. Calculate where the particle is relative to the origin after 3 seconds. Give your answer correct to 3 decimal
places.
18. George went to his favourite coffee shop and ordered a large plunger of
his favourite South American black coffee.
The initial temperature of the coffee was 98 °C. George estimated the
coffee was cooling at a rate of 8 °C per minute, but after 10 minutes its
rate of cooling was 4 °C per minute. If T °C is the temperature of the
coffee t minutes after the coffee was made, then a model for the rate of
change of temperature is
= ment
dT
dt
a. Show that m = −8.

− loge (2)
b. Show that n = .
10
c. Determine a relationship between T and t.
d. Calculate the temperature of the coffee 5 minutes after it was made.
Give your answer correct to the nearest whole degree.
19. An investor has just bought six townhouses that they intend to rent out. Part of the sales pitch from their real
estate agent was that the experience of the previous owner suggested the rate of increase of the maintenance
cost for each townhouse could be approximated by
= 48a2 + 250
dM
da
where a is the age of the townhouse in years and M is the total accumulated cost of the maintenance over the
a years.
a. The townhouses are currently 5 years old. State what the investor should expect as an increase in the cost
of maintenance for each townhouse for the next year.
townhouse at the end of the first year was $350.

b. Determine a relationship between M and a if it was known that the total maintenance cost for each
c. Determine the total accumulated maintenance cost for one townhouse during the next 5 years.
20. An oil tanker off the coast of Queensland has sprung a leak, and the oil is threatening the marine life of the
Great Barrier Reef. The oil leak has produced a circular oil slick that is spreading at a rate approximated by
=√ ,t≥0
t+1
dr 30
dt
where r metres is the radius of the oil slick and t is the time in hours since the spill started.
a. Determine a relationship between r and t if the
radius of the circular oil slick was 45 metres after
3 hours.
b. Calculate the radius of the oil slick to the nearest
metre after 5 hours.
c. The captain and crew of the tanker are working
furiously to plug the hole to stop the oil leaking.
They aim to have the hole plugged so that the
radius of the circular slick does not exceed
75 metres. Determine how long they expect it will
take them to plug the hole.

7.7 Exam questions
Let f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 2x such that f (4) = 0.

Source: VCE 2019, Mathematical Methods Exam 2, Section A, Q5;
MC
A. f (x) = x3 − x2 B. f (x) = x3 − x2 + 48 C. f (x) = x3 − x2 − 48

The rule of f is
D. f (x) = 6x − 2 E. f (x) = 6x − 24
The graph of the function y = f(x) is shown.

MC
0 x
Select the graph from the following that could be the graph of the anti-derivative.
A. B. y C. y
y
0 x 0 x
0 x
D. y E. y
0 x 0 x
1
∫
(3x − 4) 2
MC An anti-derivative of 5
dx is
1 −3 −9 3 −2
3 (x − 4) 2 2(3x − 4) 2 2(3x − 4) 2 (3x − 4) 2 9(3x − 4) 2

A. B. C. D. E.
3 3 3 3 3
MC The gradient of a curve is given by 6x − 1. The curve passes through the point (2, 1). The equation of the
A. y = 3x2 − x B. y = 3x2 − x − 9 C. y = 3x2 − 11

curve is given by
D. y = 6 E. y = 2x2 − x − 3
Find the derivative of x sin (x) and hence find an anti-derivative of x cos (x).



Answers 2x3 + x2 − 6x x +x−

5 1 2 1
13. a. b.
2 2 x
c. x 2 − 8x 2 d. x − 4x −
4 3 1 1 7 4
Topic 7 Anti-differentiation 3 7 5x5
f. −
7.2 Anti-differentiation
4(1 − 4x)2
1 2
3(2x − 3) 2
e. 3
7.2 Exercise
− +c x4 + c x +1+c
x4 2 5 2√ 3
1. a. b. 14.
2 5 3
+c 12x 3 + c (3x + 5) 2 (135x2 − 72x + 35) + c
3 1
4 3
c. d. 15.
2x 405
− + +c 6 x − x4 − 2 = 6(3x + 1)(3x2 + 2x − 4)
3x2 4x3 x4 1 dy 2
16.
√
2. a. b.
dx
(3x + 1)(3x2 + 2x − 4) = (3x2 + 2x − 4)
4 3 2 5x
− − +c − +c
1
∫
7 3 2 3
x4 x3 15x2 3x 2 x2
c. d. 6
2 3 2 7 3
= 4 7+ √ + √ 7x + x − √
)3
4 x− + 2 +c
( )(
dy 1 1 1
3 1
√
√ 17.
3. a. dx 2 x 2 x3 x
x 4x
b. x − x + x + 4x + c 7+ √ + √ 7x + x − √
)3
1 4 1 3 1 2
( )(
1 1 1
∫
√
2 3 2 dx
4. f(x) = x + + c
2 x 2 x3 x
1 3 1
= 7x + x − √
( )4
3 x 1 1
5. a. x + c b. x + +c
√
1 4 7 3 1 4 x
=√
4 3 5x2
c. x − x + x − x + c d. x x+c
dy x
x +1
4 7 3 2 16 2 √ 18.
dx 2
3 5
(3x − 5)6 = 5 x2 + 1 + c
+c − +c
5x
x2 + 1
∫
√
1
3(2x − 3) 2
6. a. b.
√
18 3
(2x + 3)5 = 8(5x + 1)(5x2 + 2x − 1)

dy
+c +c
3
19.
8(1 − 2x)4
1
dx
16(5x + 1)(5x2 + 2x − 1) dx = 2(5x2 + 2x − 1)
c. d.
10
∫
3 4
15x2 + 8x
7. B
= √
8. D dy
x − 9x3 + x2 − x + c dx 2 5x3 + 4x2
27 4 9 20.
15x2 + 8x
9. a.
dx = 2 5x3 + 4x2
4 2
b. − +c ∫
5x3 + 4x2
√
1 √
8x2
c. x 2 − x5 + c
2 7 15 7 7.2 Exam questions
7 7 Note: Mark allocations are available with the fully worked
d. x + + c
1 2 2 solutions online.
+c
8(4 − 2x)4
2 x 1
1.
− x2 + c
5
4x 2 1
+ +c
e. 3x5 2
5 2
2(4 − x) 2
2.
5 x
− +c
3
f. 3. D
3
10. E 7.3 Anti-derivatives of exponential and
+ 3x4 + 6x − 2 + c
8x7 1 trigonometric functions
11.
7 2x
7.3 Exercise
− + +c + e +c e + e 2 +c
1 2x 4 − 1 x
5
x3 4x 2 x2 x5 1 −4x
12. a. 1. a. b.
3 5 2 5 4 4 3
x + 2x x + 6 x − √ + c e − 3ex − e−4x + e−9x + c
2 2√ √ √ 2 1 6x 3 1
b. x
5 2.
x 6 4 9
ex + 4e − e−2x + c = −x sin(x) + cos(x)

− 1 dy
x
3. 2 20.
2 dx
sin(3x + 4) + 8 cos +c x sin(x) dx = sin(x) − x cos(x)

∫
1 x
( )
4. a.
6 2
− cos(5 − 2x)
3 2x 1
( )
b. sin 7.3 Exam questions
2 3 8
5. a. −2 cos − 6 sin +c
x x
( ) ( )
solutions online.
2 2 D
b. f(x) = sin(2x) + cos(3x) + c
1.
7 1 2. A
2 3 3. D
6. a. 3e 2 − 3 cos + +c
7.4 The anti-derivative of f(x) =
x x x2
( )
1
3 6
sin(4x) − e−3x + c
x
1
b. 7.4 Exercise
loge (x) + c, x > 0 loge (4x − 1) + c
4
7. − −
2 3
1 2 3𝜋x
( )
1. a. b.
cos
−4 loge (x) + c, x > 0
5 4
4x 3𝜋 2
e−3x
y= sin(2x) + +c
2. a.
1
loge (4x + 7) + c, x > −
8. 3 7
2 3 b.
a. e + cos(2x) + c
2 3x 1 4 4
x + 2x + 3 loge (x) + + c, x > 0

9. 1 2 1
3 2
b. e − e +c
c.
1 x 1 −6x 2 x
d. −3 loge (2 − x) + sin(4x) + c, x < 2

2 4 1
sin(2x + 5) + e−x + c
1 4
3. a. − loge (1 − 2x) + c b. 2 loge (x + 4) + c
c. 3
4
d. e − e + e + c
1 2x 2 3x 1 4x 2
ex − x + loge (ex + 1) + c tan(2x) dx = − loge (cos(2x))

2 3 4 1
∫
a = −9, b = 3
10. 4.
f ′ (x) = 2 loge (mx) + 2 and

2
a = −2, b = −4, m = 2, n = −2
11.
5.
𝜋t loge (mx) dx = x loge (mx) − x + c

12.
a. H(t) = t − 5𝜋 cos ∫
( )
13.
b. H = 7.146 kilojoules
45
f ′ (x) = 3 + 3 log3 (x) and 2 loge (x) dx = 2x loge (x) − 2x
𝜋 3𝜋
∫
6.
14. x = , 7. a = −3, b = 2
𝜋 𝜋t 𝜋t
2 2
= y= +c
8. B
dy 1
( ) ( )
10. a = 4, b = 2, d = 5
15. cos sin 9. D
dt 20 4 5 4
= −2 sin(x) cos(x)ecos
dy 2
(x)
16.
dx 7.4 Exam questions
= − ecos (x)
1
∫
2 2
sin(x) cos(x)ecos (x) Note: Mark allocations are available with the fully worked
2
= 3(x + 1)2 e(x +1)

solutions online.
1. x + 2 loge (x) + + c, x > 0
dy 3 3
17.
dx x
9(x + 1)2 e(x+1) dx = 3e(x+1) + c

3. x loge (x) − x
2. A
∫
3 3
18. A
= (4x + 3)e2x +3x−1

dy 2
19.
dx
2(4x + 3)e2x +3x−1
dx = 2e2x +3x−1
∫
2 2

y = 2e 2 + 3
x
7.5 Families of curves 7.
f(x) = +3
1−x
1
7.5 Exercise
f(x) = x3 + c
8.
f(x) = 5x − x2
1. a.
9. a.
b. f(x) = 3 − 2 cos
y
x
( )
10. f(x) = x − loge (x), x > 0

(0, 3) 1 4
4
11. a. y = loge (2(x + 2)) + 3

y = x3 + 3 (0, 1) y = x3 – 4
5
x
(0, 0) 2
b. y = − loge (2 − 5x) + 1
y = x3 3
y = x3 + 1 (0, –2)
5
(0, –4) 12. y
y = x3 – 2
Local maximum
f(x) = x3 + 8
at x = 1
f(x) = − sin(2x) + c
b.
y = f(x)
2. a.
y
0 x
1
(0, 4) y = –sin(2x) + 4 Positive Negative

gradient gradient
(0, 2) y = –sin(2x) + 2
(0, 0) y = –sin(2x)
x
π
– π 3π
– 2π 13.
2 2 y = –sin(2x) – 2 Local y
(0, –2)
maximum
at
y = –sin(2x) – 5 x = –2
(0, –5)
(0, –7) y = –sin(2x) – 7 y = f(x)
f(x) = 4 − sin(2x)
0 x
f(x) = −e−3x + c
b. –2 4
3. a.
y Local
y = –e–3x + 2
minimum
(0, 1) y= –e–3x +1 at
(0, 0) y = –e–3x x=4
x
14. a. y
(0, –1)
y = –e–3x – 2
Local
(0, –3)
maximum
y = –e–3x – 4 at
y = f(x) x=2
(0, –5)
0 2 x
–4
f(x) = 2 − e−3x Local
e2x − e−x + 3
b.
minimum
4. at
sin(2x) + cos(2x) +
1 1 3 x = –4
5.
2 2 2
6. y = sin(2x) − e +5
1 −3x
2
x= −
2 t+2
b.
1 1
y b.
c. x = (2t + 1) −
1 4 1
8 8
d. x = e −
1 3t−1 1
3 3e
e. x = cos(2t + 3) − cos (3)
1 1
2 2
f. x = sin(3t)
2
3
2. x = t + t
0 x 7 2
–4 2 3
2
3. a. x = 6t − − 12
y = f(x)
(t − 1)
12
v = sin(2t) + cos(2t)
b. At the origin
t = 0 ⇒ v = sin(0) + cos(0)
4. a.
= 0+1
= 1 cm/s
b. x = − cos(2t) + sin(2t) +
c. y
y = f(x) 1 1 1
𝜋t
2 2 2
5. a. x = 24 − 24 cos
( )
8
b. Maximum displacement = 48 metres
c. After 4 seconds the particle is 24 metres above the
(0, 0) x
1 stationary position.
x = 6.25t2 −
1 3
6. a. 156.25 m/s b. t
x = 2t sin(t) + 2 cos(t) − 2
12
𝜋 3
7.
8. a. V = r
64𝜋 3
d. y
b. cm
3 3
V = 13 333
1
y = f(x) 9. cm3
P = 100e0.3t − 50
3
10. a.
b. 1959 seals
11. a. N = 400t + t + 40
0 x
–2 2000 √ 3
3
𝜋t
b. 9494 families
12. a. h = 2 sin +3
( )
4
7.5 Exam questions b. The minimum depth is 1 metre and the maximum depth
Note: Mark allocations are available with the fully worked is 5 metres.
solutions online. c. 8 hours a day
1. C
7.6 Exam questions
2. B
f (x) = 2 sin (x) + cos (2x) − 1

1
solutions online.
1. a. x = t − t + t − 1
3.
2 1 4 1 2
7.6 Applications 2 2
b. 34 m to the right of the origin, velocity 52 m/s
7.6 Exercise
x= (3t + 1)3 −
25
√
2 2 2. m to the right of the origin, velocity 4 m/s
1. a. 3
b = 40t 2 + 80
9 9 5
3. a.
b. 2 hours, 34 minutes

7.7 Review b. i. y
7.7 Exercise
y = f(x)
+ +c
4x3 4 (1, 0)
1. a.
3 x 0 x
− 2x − 2x + c
e2x 1
b.
c. e + 2x + c
2 2e
x
− sin (4x − 3) + c
x 1
( )
d. 2 cos ii. y
−4 loge (x − 3) − cos(x) + c
2 12
e. y = f (x)
4 loge (x) + x + +c
1
f.
T = −ae−bt + c 95 °C
x
2. a. b.
3. a. f(x) = e + e + x −
0 x
1 4x 2x 5 (–2, 0) (2, 0)
4 2
b. y = (3x − 5)3 −
2 2
√
V = 3.5t + +2
9 9
c. f(x) = 4 loge (x) + + loge (2) (t − 0.5)

1
x2 5.
= 2(3x − 1)e3x
2
−2x+1
4. a. i. y
dy 2
6. a. ,
dx
(3x − 1)e3x −2x+1

dx = e3x −2x+1
1 2
∫
x3 – x2 – 2 2
y=–
3 2
= 2x cos(2x) + sin(2x),
x3 – x2 – 5
y=– dy
(0, 3) 3 b.
dx
x cos(2x) dx = +
x sin(2x) cos(2x)
∫
(0, 0)
x 2 4
x3 – x 2 + 3
y=–
3 (0, –2) Technology active: multiple choice
7. D
x3 – x2
y=–
3
(0, –5) 8. E
9. A
10. A
11. D
ii. y 12. C
13. A
14. B
15. A
(0, 4) 16. D
y=2 y = 2e–3x + 2
17. a. v = = 3 sin(3t) + 1
(0, 2)
y = 2e–3x
dx
y=0
dt
x= (3 sin(3t) + 1) dt
0 x
∫
(0, –1)
= − cos(3t) + t + c
y = –3 y = 2e–3x – 3
When t = 0, x = 0:
0 = − cos(0) + 0 + c
(0, –3)
y = –5 y = 2e–3x – 5
0 = −1 + c
c=1
x = − cos(3t) + t + 1 as required.
b. 1.160 s
$1978
M = 16a3 + 250a + 84
c. 4 m/s 19. a.
$15 250
d. 4.911 m from the origin b.
18. a. When t = 0, = −8.

r = 60 t + 1 − 75
dT c.
−8 = me
√
dt 20. a.
m × 1 = −8
0
b. 72 metres
m = −8
c. 5 hours and 15 minutes
= −8ent
dT 7.7 Exam questions
b.
dt Note: Mark allocations are available with the fully worked
When t = 10, = −4:
dT solutions online.
−4 = −8e10n
dt 1. C
−4
e10n =
2. A
−8
3. E
e =
4. B
(x sin (x)) = sin (x) + x cos (x)

10n 1
d
2 5.
10n = loge
dx
(x cos (x)) dx = x sin (x) − sin (x) dx
1
( )
∫ ∫
10n = loge (2−1 )
2
= x sin (x) + cos (x)
− loge (2)
n=
−t loge (2)
10
T= + 98 −
80e 10 80
c.
loge (2) loge (2)
d. 64 °C

“c08Integration_PrintPDF” — 2022/7/14 — 2:15 — page 471 — #1
8 Integral calculus
LEARNING SEQUENCE
8.1 Overview ................................................................................................................................................................. 472
8.2 The fundamental theorem of integral calculus ......................................................................................... 473
8.3 Areas under curves ............................................................................................................................................. 484
8.4 Areas between curves and average values ............................................................................................... 497
8.5 Applications ........................................................................................................................................................... 507
8.6 Review ..................................................................................................................................................................... 522

8.1 Overview
8.1.1 Introduction
Integrals, in particular definite integrals, can be used Y
to describe concepts such as displacement, area and
volume.
Isaac Newton and Gottfried Leibniz both
independently discovered the fundamental theorem
of calculus in the late seventeenth century. They
thought of the integral as an infinite sum of
rectangles of infinitesimal width. The theorem also
demonstrates the connection between integration and
differentiation.
Following on from this, Riemann formalised
integration using limits in 1854. Since then, it has
been shown that his definition does not apply to
all functions; however, he was the first to introduce
rigour to the approach of integration.
X
Integrals are used extensively in mathematics, notably
in the field of probability, where integrals are needed
to calculate the probability of a value falling within a certain range. Volumes of three-dimensional objects with
a curved boundary can be calculated, as well as the centre of mass of an object. Integration is also important in
physics, as it is used to find displacement, velocity, time and work.
KEY CONCEPTS
• informal consideration of the definite integral as a limiting value of a sum involving quantities such as
• anti-differentiation by recognition that F′(x) = f(x) implies f(x)dx = F(x) + c and informal treatment of
area under a curve and approximation of definite integrals using the trapezium rule
f(x)dx = F(b) − F(a)

b
∫
the fundamental theorem of calculus,
a
• properties of anti-derivatives and definite integrals
• application of integration to problems involving finding a function from a known rate of change given a
boundary condition, calculation of the area of a region under a curve and simple cases of areas between
curves, average value of a function and other situations.
8.2 The fundamental theorem of integral calculus

LEARNING INTENTION
• use the trapezium rule to approximate definite integrals
• calculate definite integrals using the fundamental theorem of calculus f(x) dx = F(b) − F(a).
b
∫
a
8.2.1 Estimation of the area under a curve

There are several different ways to approximate or estimate the area between a curve and the x-axis. This section
will cover the trapezium rule.
Consider the curve defined by the rule f:R → R, f(x) = x2 + 2. Suppose we wish to know the area between this curve
and the x-axis from x = 0 to x = 3. This can be achieved by constructing trapeziums of width 1 unit.
y
(3, f (3))
y = f (x)
(2, f (2))
(1, f (1))
(0, f (0))
T1 T2 T3
0 x
1 2 3 4
Remember that the formula for the area of a trapezium is A = (a + b)h, where a and b are the lengths of the two
1
2
parallel sides. The value of h is constant.
In the example, h = 1. The values of a and b are calculated by evaluating f(0) and f(1) for the first trapezium, f(1)
and f(2) for the second trapezium, and f(2) and f(3) for the third trapezium.
A = T1 + T2 + T3
= ( f(0) + f(1)) × 1 + ( f(1) + f(2)) × 1 + ( f(2) + f(3)) × 1

1 1 1
2 2 2
= (2 + 3) × 1 + (3 + 6) × 1 + (6 + 11) × 1
1 1 1
2 2 2
= + +
5 9 17
2 2 2
=
31
= 15.5 units2
2
TOPIC 8 Integral calculus 473

WORKED EXAMPLE 1 Approximating areas under curves
The graph of the function defined by the rule f(x) = ex is shown.
y = ex
(0, 1)
0 xy=0
–1 –0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
the x-axis from x = 0.5 to x = 2.5. Give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
Use the trapezium rule with interval widths of 0.5 to approximate the area bound by the curve and
THINK WRITE
1. Draw the trapeziums on the graph. Identify the y
key points needed for the trapeziums. (2.5, f (2.5))
f (x) = ex
(2, f (2))
(1.5, f (1.5))
(1, f (1))
(0.5, f (0.5))
(0, 1)
0 x y=0
–1 –0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
A = ( f(0.5) + f(1)) × 0.5 + ( f(1) + f(1.5)) × 0.5

1 1
2. Determine the total approximate area by
2 2
+ ( f(1.5) + f(2)) × 0.5 + ( f(2) + f(2.5)) × 0.5

adding the areas of all the trapeziums.
1 1
2 2
= e + e1 × 0.5 + e + e1.5 × 0.5

1 0.5
( ) 1 1
( )
2 2
+ e + e2 × 0.5 + e + e2.5 × 0.5

1 ( 1.5 ) 1( 2 )
= 10.75 units
2 2
2
8.2.2 The definite integral

b
∫ ∫
The definite integral, f(x) dx, is similar to the indefinite integral, f(x) dx, except that it has end points, or
a
terminals, a and b. The indefinite integral involves finding only an anti-derivative of f, but the presence of the
end points means that the definite integral requires further calculation involving these values. In fact, the end
points a and b indicate the range of the values of x over which the integral is taken.
The definite integral
f(x) dx = [F(x)]ba
b
∫
= F(b) − F(a)
a
1−x dx = x − x
1 ]1
1 3
[
∫
2
Consider
( )
3 −1
−1
= 1 − (1) − −1 − (−1)
1 3 1
( ) ( )
3
3 3
= 1− +1−
1 1
3 3
=
4
3
Note: For the definite integral, no arbitrary constant is required for the anti-differentiation, as this would only be
eliminated once the end points were used in the calculation.
1−x dx = x − x + c
1 ]1
1 3
[
∫
2
( )
−1
−1
3
= 1 − (1) + c − −1 − (−1) + c
1 3 1
( ) ( )
3
3 3
= 1− +c+1− −c
1 1
3 3
= 2−
2
3
=
4
3

WORKED EXAMPLE 2 Calculating definite integrals
Evaluate:
𝜋
e−x + 2 dx
2 2
∫ ∫
cos(x) dx
( )
a. b.
0 0
THINK WRITE
𝜋
𝜋
cos(x) dx = [sin(x)]02
2
∫
a. 1. Anti-differentiate the given function and a.
specify the end points for the calculation 0
𝜋
using square brackets.
= sin − sin(0)
( )
2. Substitute the upper and lower end points into
=1
the anti-derivative and calculate the difference 2
between the two values.
(e−x + 2) dx = [−e−x + 2x]20

2
∫
b. 1. Anti-differentiate the given function and b.
specify the end points for the calculation 0
using square brackets.
2. Substitute the upper and lower end points into = −e−2 + 2(2) − −e0 + 2(0)
( ) ( )
=− +5
the anti-derivative and calculate the difference
between the two values. 1
e2
3: Integral
∫
•
Complete the entry
𝜋
line as: Select ‘Definite’, then
2
complete the fields as:
Expression: cos(x)
∫
cos(x)dx Variable: x
Upper: 𝜋/2
0 Lower: 0
then press
ENTER. and select OK.
Note: Make sure
your calculator is
in Radians (RAD)
mode.
𝜋 𝜋
cos(x) dx = 1 cos(x) dx = 1
2 2
∫ ∫
2. The answer appears 2. The answer appears
on the screen. 0
on the screen. 0
b. 1. On a Calculator page, b. 1. On the Main screen,

3: Integral
∫
•
Complete the entry
line as: Select ‘Definite’, then
(e−x + 2) dx Expression: e−x + 2

2
complete the fields as:
∫ Variable: x
0
then press ENTER. Lower: 0
Upper: 2
and select OK.
+ 2) dx = 5 − e (e−x + 2) dx = −e−2 + 5
2 2
−x −2
∫ ∫
2. The answer appears (e 2. The answer appears
on the screen. 0
on the screen. 0
8.2.3 Properties of the definite integral

If f and g are continuous functions on an interval where a < x < b and k is a constant, then the following rules
apply.
Properties of the definite integral
f(x) dx = 0
a
∫
a
f(x) dx = − f(x) dx
b a
∫ ∫
a b
kf(x) dx = k f(x) dx
b b
∫ ∫
a a
( f(x) ± g(x)) dx = f(x) dx ± g(x) dx

b b b
∫ ∫ ∫
a a a
f(x) dx = f(x) dx + f(x) dx, providing a < c < b

b c b
∫ ∫ ∫
a a c
Sometimes, definite integral questions take more of a theoretical approach to problem solving. Even if the
function is unknown, we can use the properties of definite integrals to find the values of related integrals.

WORKED EXAMPLE 3 Definite integral properties
f(x) dx = 8, evaluate:
3
∫
a. Given that
1
( f(x) + 1) dx ( f(x) − x) dx.

3 3 1 3
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
i. 2 f(x) dx ii. iii. f(x) dx iv.
1 1 3 1
(x + 2) dx = 0.
k
∫
b. Determine the value of k if
1
THINK WRITE
2f(x) dx = 2 f(x) dx
3 3
∫ ∫
a. i. Apply the definite integral property a. i.
kf(x) dx = k f(x) dx. = 2×8

b b
1 1
= 16
∫ ∫
a a
( f(x) + 1) dx = f(x) dx + 1 dx
3 3 3
∫ ∫ ∫
ii. 1. Apply the definite integral property ii.
( f(x) ± g(x)) dx = f(x) dx ± g(x) dx.

b b b
1 1 1
∫ ∫ ∫
a a a
= 8 + [x]31
= 8 + (3 − 1)
2. Integrate the second function and evaluate.
= 10
f(x) dx = − f(x) dx
1 3
∫ ∫
iii. Apply the definite integral property iii.
f(x) dx = − f(x) dx = −8
b a
3 1
∫ ∫
a b
( f(x) − x) dx = f(x) dx − x dx
3 3 3
∫ ∫ ∫
iv. 1. Apply the definite integral property iv.
( f(x) ± g(x)) dx = f(x) dx ± g(x) dx

b b b
1 1 1
∫ ∫ ∫
a a a
=8− x
]3
1 2
[
2. Integrate the second function and evaluate.
2 1
=8− (3) − (1)

1 2 1 2
( )
2 2
=8− −
9 1
( )
=8−4
2 2
=4
b. 0 = (x + 2) dx
k
∫
b. 1. Anti-differentiate and substitute the values of 1
and k.
0 = x + 2x
[1 ]k
1 2
2
0= k + 2k − (1) + 2(1)
)1 (
1 2 1 2
( )
2 2
0 = k2 + 2k −
1 5
2. Simplify and solve for k.
0 = k2 + 4k − 5
2 2
0 = (k + 5)(k − 1)
k = −5 or k = 1
3. Write the answer. k = 1, −5
The fundamental theorem of integral calculus
where x ∈ [a, b]. A(x) is defined as

In this section, the variable t is used and the function f is defined as a continuous function on the interval [a, b]
A (x) = f(t) dt
x
∫
a
where A(x) is the area between the curve y = f(x) and the t-axis from t = a to t = x. A(x + 𝛿x) represents the area
between the curve y = f(t) and the t-axis from t = a to t = x + 𝛿x.
y y
y = f (t) y = f (t)
A(x + δx)
A(x)
0 t 0 a x x + δx t
a x
t = a and t = x t = a and t = x + 𝛿x
Area between the curve, the t-axis and the lines Area between the curve, the t-axis and the lines
The difference between the areas is therefore A(x + 𝛿x) − A(x). As 𝛿x → 0, this results in an increasingly accurate
area calculation between the curve and the t-axis. This concept is a limiting situation.
By definition,
A (x + 𝛿x) − A (x)
=
𝛿x
d
𝛿x→0
lim (A (x))
dx
and as 𝛿x → 0, then f(x + 𝛿x) → f(x).

Consequently, we can say that
(A (x)) = f(x)
d
dx
If we then integrate both sides with respect to x, we have
(A(x)) dx = f(x) dx A(x) = f(x) dx

d
∫ dx ∫ ∫
or
To further investigate this theorem, we will let F be any anti-derivative of f, and A be the special anti-derivative
x
∫
defined as f(t) dt.
a
From our knowledge of anti-differentiation,

A(x) − F(x) = c where c is a number.
f(t) dt − F(x) = c.
x
∫
Therefore,
a
If we let x = a, then f(t) dt = 0, so

a
∫
a
0 − F(a) = c or − F(a) = c.
f(t) dt − F(x) = −F(a).

x
∫
Therefore,
If we now let x = b, then

a
f(t) dt − F(b) = −F(a) f(t) dt = F(b) − F(a).

b b
∫ ∫
or
It is customary that F(b) − F(a) is represented by

a a
[F(x)]ba .
Therefore,
f(t)dt = [F(x)]ba
b
∫
= F(b) − F(a)
a
as stated previously in section 8.2.2.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity The fundamental theorem of integral calculus (int-6423)
8.2 Exercise

Technology free
The graph of y = , x > 0 is shown.
1
1. WE1
y
x
the area bound by the curve and the x-axis from x = 0.5 to
Use the trapezium rule with interval widths of 0.5 to approximate
x = 2.5.
2. Given the function f: [0, 4] → R, f(x) = −(x − 1)2 + 9, use the
1
y = –x
the x-axis from x = 0 to x = 4. Use interval widths of 1 unit.

trapezium rule to approximate the area between the curve and
y=0
0 x
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
x=0
3. The graph of the function f(x) = 4 −

1 2
x is shown. y
4 4
(0, 4)
1
Approximate the area bound by the curve and the x-axis using the f (x) = 4 – – x2
4
trapezium rule with interval widths of 1 unit.
Evaluate:
𝜋
4. WE2 (–4, 0) (4, 0)
(4x3 + 3x2 + 2x + 1) dx (cos(x) + sin(x)) dx.

1 x
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
∫ ∫
a. b.
0 −𝜋
5. Evaluate:
(x + 1)3 dx (ex + e−x )2 dx.

2 1
∫ ∫
a. b.
−3 0
6. Evaluate the following.
2x3 + 3x2
(3x − 2x + 3) dx e2x − e−2x dx
3 2 1
∫ ∫ ∫
2
dx
( )
a. b. c.
−1
x
𝜋
0 1
−1
cos(2x) − sin
4𝜋 2
∫ √1 − 3x
x 2 x
( ) [ ( )]
∫ ∫
d. sin dx e. dx f. dx.
−3 𝜋
3 2
2𝜋 −
3
7. Differentiate loge (3x3 − 4) and hence evaluate

3
∫ 3x3 − 4
x2
dx.
2

Technology active
f:R → R, f(x) = −0.01x3 (x − 5)(x + 5), x ≥ 0.

8. MC Consider the function defined by the rule y
y = –0.01x3(x – 5)(x + 5)
The graph of the function is shown.
Use the trapezium rule with interval widths of 1 unit to approximate the
area bound by the curve and the x-axis.
The area is: (5, 0)
2 x
A. 9.12 units (0, 0) 1 2 3 4 5 6
B. 12 units2
C. 11.52 units2
D. 12.48 units2
E. 13 units2
9. The graph of f(x) = x(4 − x) for x ∈ [0, a] is shown.
√
y
a. The graph intersects the x-axis at the point (a, 0) as shown. Find the
value of the constant a.
curve and the x-axis from x = 0 to x = a. Use width intervals of 1 unit

b. Use the trapezium rule to determine the approximate area between the
f (x) = x(4 – x)
and give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
m(x) dx = 7 and n(x) dx = 3, evaluate:

5 5
∫ ∫
10. WE3 a. Given that
2 2
(2m(x) − 1) dx
5 5 (0, 0) (a, 0)
∫ ∫
0 x
i. 3m(x) dx ii.
2 2
(m(x) + 3) dx (2m(x) + n(x) − 3) dx.

2 5
∫ ∫
iii. iv.
5 2
4x3 − 3x2 + 1 dx = 0.
1
∫
b. Determine the value of k if
( )
f(x) dx = 7.5 and g(x) dx = 12.5, find:

5 5
∫ ∫
11. Given that
0 0
−2f (x) dx (3f (x) + 2) dx

5 0 5
∫ ∫ ∫
a. b. g (x) dx c.
0 5 0
(g(x) + f(x)) dx (8g(x) − 10f(x)) dx g(x) dx + g(x) dx.

5 5 3 5
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
d. e. f.
0 0 0 3
dx = − , the value of h is:

h
3 12
∫ x2
12. MC If
5
1
9 5 5 81
A. B. C. 3 D. E.
5 81 9 5
dx = 1− 8 . (2x − 3) dx = 7 − 3 5, find k, given k > 1.

a
−2x
k
1 1
( )
∫ ∫
√
13. a. Determine a if e b. If
2 e
0 1
14. The graph of the function f: R → R, f(x) = x3 − 8x2 + 21x − 14 is shown. y

a. The graph cuts the x-axis at the point (a, 0). Determine the value of
the constant a.
x3 − 8x2 + 21x − 14 dx.

5
∫
b. Evaluate
( )
f (x) = x3 – 8x2 + 21x – 14
a
1 + e2x − 2xe2x
0
∫ (e2x + 1)2
15. Determine dx, correct to 3 decimal places. (a, 0)
−2
0 x
𝜋
16. a. If y = x sin(x), find

2
dy
∫
. b. Hence, find the value of 2x cos(x) dx.
−𝜋
dx
17. a. If y = e + 2, find x2 − 2x ex −3x dx.

1
x −3x dy
∫
3 2 ) 3 2
. b. Hence, find the value of
(
dx
0
Differentiate y = loge (x) . Hence, the value of

e
4 loge (x)
∫
)2
dx is:
(
18. MC
x
C. −1
1
A. 4 B. 1 D. 2 E. 0
19. Differentiate loge (e + 1) and hence find

5
∫ ex + 1
x 2 ex
dx, correct to 4 decimal places.
1
8.2 Exam questions

f (x) dx = 5, then f (2 (x + 2)) dx is equal to

8 2
∫ ∫
MC If
4 0
1 5
A. 12 B. 10 C. 8 D. E.
2 2
g(x) dx = 5 and g(x) dx = −6, then

12 5 5
∫ ∫ ∫
MC If g(x) dx is equal to
A. −11 B. −1
1 12 1
C. 1 D. 3 E. 11

4 ( )
1
∫
Evaluate √ dx.
x
1

8.3 Areas under curves

LEARNING INTENTION
• identify the relationship between a definite integral and area under a curve
• apply definite integrals to calculate the area under a curve over a specified interval.
8.3.1 Areas under curves
continuous function, y = f(x), and the x-axis between x = a

If we are interested in the area between a curve that is a y
and x = b, then the following graph shows us exactly what

we require. y = f (x)
This area can be approximated by dividing it into a series of
thin vertical strips or rectangles. The approximate value of
the area is the sum of the areas of all the rectangles.
rectangular strips between x = a and x = b, where each strip

Suppose A represents the sum of the areas of all the
has a width of 𝛿x.
so that 𝛿x is extremely small,

Providing there is a very large number of rectangular strips
0 x=a x=b x
A = lim ∑ y 𝛿x
x=b y
𝛿x→0
[1]
x=a
where ∑ means ‘the sum from x = a to x = b’.

x=b y = f (x)
x=a
𝛿A ≃ 𝛿x × y,
Also, since each strip can have its area defined as
𝛿A
≃y
𝛿x
Therefore, if the area under the curve is divided into a very

large number of strips, then
0 x=a δx x=b x
𝛿A
=y
𝛿x→0 𝛿x
lim
=y
dA
dx
This leads to the statement that
A = y dx
∫
But since x = a and x = b are the boundary points or end points, then
A = y dx
b
∫
[2]
a
Equating [1] and [2], we have the following rule for the area under a curve.
Area under the curve
A = lim y 𝛿x = y dx
b
𝛿x→0 ∑
x=b
x=a
∫
a
This statement allows us to calculate the area between a curve and the x-axis from x = a to x = b.
Consider the function defined by the rule f: [0, 4] → R, f(x) = −(x − 1)2 + 9.
A= −(x − 1) + 9 dx
4 y
∫
2
(x − 1)3
= − + 9x
[0 ]4 (0, 8) f (x) = – (x – 1)2 + 9
3
= − + 9(4) − − + 9(0)
)0 (
(3)3 (−1)3
( )
= −9 + 36 − + 0
3 3
1
= 27 −
3
1
= 26 units2
3
2 (4, 0)
3 0 x
WORKED EXAMPLE 4 Determining areas under curves
Determine the area bound by the curve defined by the rule y = e−x + 3 and the x-axis from x = 0 to
x = 3.
THINK WRITE
1. Sketch the graph of the given function and y
shade the required area.
(0, 4)
y = e–x + 3
x=0 x=3
0 x
3

A = (e−x + 3) dx
3
∫
2. Write the integral needed to find the area.
A = [−e−x + 3x]30
0
= −e−3 + 3(3) − −e0 + 3(0)

3. Anti-differentiate the function and evaluate.
= −e−3 + 9 + 1
( ) ( )
= −e−3 + 10
4. Write the answer. The area is −e−3 + 10 square units.

1. On a Graphs page, 1. On a Graph & Table screen,
f 1(x) = e−x + 3 y1 = e−x + 3


Select the ‘Graph’ icon to
draw the graph.

7: Integral • G-Solve
Type ‘0’ when prompted • Integral
for the lower bound, then
∫
• dx
press ENTER. Type ‘3’
when prompted for the Press ‘0’ to bring up the
upper bound, then press dialogue box, then complete
ENTER. the fields as:
Lower: 0
Upper: 3
and select OK.
3. The answer appears on The area is approximately 3. The answer appears on the The area is approximately
the screen. 9.95 square units (to 2 decimal screen. 9.95 square units (to
places). 2 decimal places).
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Area under a curve (int-5966)
8.3.2 Signed areas

When we calculate the area between a graph y = f(x) and the x-axis from x = a to x = b using the definite integral
b
∫
f(x) dx, the result can either be positive or negative.
Consider the function defined by the rule f: R → R,

a
f(x) = x(3 − x)(x + 2), which is shown.

y
We can evaluate the area between x = −2 and x = 0 as follows.

f (x) = x (3 – x) (x + 2)
x(3 − x)(x + 2)~ dx = 6x + x2 − x3 dx

0 0
∫ ∫
( )
−2 −2
= 3x + x − x
]0
1 3 1 4
[
2
3 4 −2
= 0 − 3(−2) + (−2) − (−2)

(
1 1
)
(−2, 0) (0, 0) (3, 0) x
2 3 4
3 4
= 0 − 12 − − 4
8
( )
= − 8−
8
( )
3
=−
16
3
This area is negative because the region lies below the x-axis.
x(3 − x)(x + 2) dx = 6x + x2 − x3 dx
3 3
∫ ∫
However,
( )
= 3x + x − x
0 [0 ]3
1 3 1 42
3 4 0
= 3(3) + (3) + (3) − 0

1 1 4
( )
2 3
3 4
= 27 + 9 − −0
81
( )
4
=
63
4
This area is positive as the region lies above the x-axis.
If we want an accurate answer for the area bound by the curve from x = −2 to x = 3, we counteract the
negative region by subtracting it from the positive region. By subtracting the negative area, we are actually
adding the area.
A= x(3 − x)(x + 2) dx − x(3 − x)(x + 2) dx

3 0
∫ ∫
−2
= − −
0
63 16
( )
4 3
=
253
12
= 21 units2
1
12

The total area bound by the curve, the x-axis and the lines x = −2 and x = 3 is 21
1
square units.
This confirms the theory that if f(x) > 0, then the region above the x-axis has a positive area, but if f(x) < 0, then
12
the region below the x-axis has a negative area.
6x + x2 − x3 dx, the result would have been

3
∫
Had we not broken up the interval and calculated
( )
−2
6x + x − x dx = 3x + x − x
3 ]3
1 3 1 4
[
∫
2 3 2
( )
4 −2
−2
3
= (3) + (3) + (3) − 3 (−2) + (−2) − (−2)

1 3 1 4 1 1
( ) ( )
2 2 3 4
3 4 3 4
= −
63 16
4 3
= 10
5
12
5
This result would not have given us the required area. The value of 10 is the value of the definite integral but
12
not the area under the curve.
This shows that it is imperative to have a ‘picture’ of the function to determine when f(x) > 0 and when f(x) < 0;
otherwise, we are just evaluating the definite integral rather than finding the necessary area.
The other method to account for the negative area is to switch the terminals within the integral for the
negative region.
y
Calculation of area under a curve
The total area between the function y = f(x) and the
x-axis from x = a to x = b is given by:
Atotal = f(x)dx − f(x)dx

b c
∫ ∫ A2
= A2 − A1
c a
a 0 c b x
or
A1 y = f (x)
Atotal = f(x)dx + f(x)dx

b a
∫ ∫
= A2 + A1
c c
WORKED EXAMPLE 5 Calculating areas under curves
Determine the area bound by the curve y = x2 − 1 x2 − 4 and the x-axis from x = −2 to x = 2.
( )( )
The graph cuts the y-axis where x = 0.

THINK WRITE
∴ the y-intercept is (0, 4).

1. Make a careful sketch of the given
The graph(cuts the) x-axis where y = 0:

function. Shade the required region.
x2 − 1 (x − 4)2 = 0
(x − 1)(x + 1)(x − 2)(x + 2) = 0
x = ±1, x = ±2
y
(0, 4) y = (x2 – 1)(x2 – 4)
(–2, 0) 0 (1, 0) (2, 0) x

(–1, 0)
A= x2 − 1 x2 − 4 dx − 2 x2 − 1 x2 − 4 dx
1 2
∫ ∫
2. Express the area using definite integrals.
(
)( ) ( )( )
Account for the negative regions by −1 1
Note that the region from x = −2 to = x4 − 5x2 + 4 dx − 2 x4 − 5x2 + 4 dx

subtracting these from the positive areas. 1 2
x = −1 is the same as the region from ∫ ∫

( ) ( )
x = 1 to x = 2 due to the symmetry of the

−1 1
= x − x + 4x − 2 x5 − x3 + 4x
graph. ]1 ]2
1 5 5 3 1 5
[ [
3. Anti-differentiate and evaluate.
5 3 −1 5 3
= (1) − (1) + 4(1) − (−1)5 − (−1) + 4(−1)

1
1 5 5 3 1 5
( ) ( )
5 3 5 3
−2 (2) − (2) + 4(2) − (1) − (1) + 4(1)

1 5 5 3 1 5 5 3
[( ) ( )]
5 3 5 3
= − +4 − − + −4
1 5 1 5
( ) ( )
5 3 5 3
−2 − +8 − − +4
32 40 1 5
[( ) ( )]
5 3 5 3
= − +4+ − +4−2 − +8− + −4

1 5 1 5 32 40 1 5
( )
5 3 5 3 5 3 5 3
=− +
60 60
=8
5 3
4. Write the answer. The area is 8 units2 .

WORKED EXAMPLE 6 Determining the area under a curve
Using calculus, calculate the area enclosed between the curve y = , the x-axis and the lines x = −3
2
and x = −1.
x
THINK WRITE
1. Sketch a graph of the required area. y
2
y=–
x
y=0
0 x
–3 –1
x=0
−1 (
2. State the integral needed to find the area under A = −

2
)
∫
the curve from x = −3 to x = −1.
dx
−3
x
3. The integral of y = is y = loge (x). Negative A=

3
1 2
( )
∫ x
dx
x
values cannot be substituted, so symmetry 1
must be used to find the area.
= 2 loge (x)
]3
= 2 loge (3) − 2 loge (1)

[
1
= 2 loge (3) units2
8.3 Exercise

1. WE4 Determine the area bound by the curve defined by the rule y = 2 x, x ≥ 0 and the x-axis from x = 0 to
Technology free
x = 25.
√
2. Determine the area bounded by the curve y = 2 sin(2x) + 3, the x-axis and the lines x = 0 and x = 𝜋.
3. The graph of y = , x < 0 is shown.

1
Calculate the area of the shaded region (i.e. for −2.5 ≤ x ≤ −0.5).
y
x2
Determine the area bound by the curve y = 1 − e−x and the x-axis
from x = −1 to x = 1.
4. WE5
5. Sketch the graph of y = 3 x and hence calculate the area between the curve
and the x-axis from x = −8 to x = 8.
√
1
y = –2
x
Using calculus, calculate the area enclosed between the curve y =

+ 2, the x-axis and the lines x = −2 and x = −1.
6. WE6
x−1
1
x 0
–2.5 –2 –1.5 –1 –0.5
Technology active
7. Consider the function defined by the rule f:R \ {0} → R, f(x) = √ .
1
a. Sketch the graph of f for x > 0.

x
b. Using calculus, determine the area enclosed by the function, the lines x = 1 and x = 3, and the x-axis.
8. Consider the function f: R → R, f(x) = − x2 − 1 x2 − 9 .

( )( )
b. Using calculus, calculate the area enclosed by the function, the lines x = −3 and x = 3, and the x-axis,
a. Sketch the graph of f, showing the axis intercepts and turning points.
Using calculus, the area, in units2 , enclosed between the curve y = , the x-axis and the lines x = −4
1
and x = −2 is:
9. MC
x
A. − loge (2)
B. 1
C. loge (2)
D. loge (8)
E. undefined
10. The graph of the function y = 2 sin(x) + 3 cos(x) is shown. Using calculus, determine the area between the
curve and the x-axis from x = 0 to x = 4𝜋.
y y = 2 sin(x) + 3 cos(x)
(0, 0) (4π, 0)
x
π 3π 5π 7π
– π — 2π — 3π — 4π
2 2 2 2

11. The graph of y = −0.5(x + 2)(x + 1)(x − 2)(x − 3) is y

shown. (b, 0) y = −0.5(x + 2)(x + 1)(x – 2)(x – 3)
a. The graph intersects the x-axis at (a, 0), (b, 0), (c, 0)
and (d, 0). Determine the values of the constants a,
(a, 0) (c, 0) (d, 0)
b, c and d. x
from x = a to x = d, correct to 2 decimal places.

0
b. Calculate the area between the curve and the x-axis
12. The graph of y = 2 sin(x) + cos(x) for 0 ≤ x ≤ 𝜋 is

shown.
y
(0, –6)
y = 2 sin(x) + cos(x)
(0, 1)
(m, 0)
0 π x
(π, –1)
a. The graph intersects the x-axis at (m, 0). Determine the value of the constant m, correct to 4 decimal
places.
(2 sin(x) + cos(x)) dx, correct to 4 decimal places.

m
∫
b. Calculate
13. a. The graph of y = e−x is shown. Determine the area

0
between the curve and the x-axis from x = −2 to x = 2,

2
y
giving your answer correct to 4 decimal places. 2

(0, 1) y = e–x
y=0
–2 –1 0 1 2 x
x2 + 3x − 4
b. The graph of the function y =
x2 + 1
is shown. y
the curve and the x-axis from x = −2 to x = 3.

Calculate the area, correct to 3 decimal places, between
(1, 0)
0 x
x2 + 3x – 4
y = ———
x2 +1
(0, –4)
14. The graph of y = 2xex is shown.

2
2
y = 2xex
0 x
–1.5 –1 –0.5 0.5 1 1.5
d ( x2 )
a. Calculate e .
b. Hence, find the exact area between the curve y = 2xex and the x-axis from x = −1 to x = 1.
dx
2
3
metres
0 x
2 metres
15. The ‘Octagon Digital’ store on the corner of two main roads in the north-eastern suburbs of a large
Australian city has two very distinctive parabolic windows, each one facing one of the main roads. In the
early hours of a Sunday morning, a motorist smashed through one of the windows. The owner decided it
would be beneficial to replace both windows with strongly reinforced and quite heavily tinted glass. Each
window has the dimensions shown in the diagram.
a. Determine the equation of the parabola that defines the shape of each window.
c. If the cost per square metre of the replacement reinforced and tinted glass is $55, evaluate the cost of
b. Calculate the area of glass required to replace each window.
replacing the two windows.

16. The graph of f: R → R, f(x) = 3x3 is shown.
a. Determine the area bounded by the curve and the x-axis from x = 0 to
y
x = 1.
f (x) = 3x3
3
b. Hence, or otherwise, calculate the area of the shaded region.
0 x
1

17. The graph of y = 2 sin(x), − ≤x≤

3𝜋 3𝜋
is shown. y
2 2
𝜋
2
2 y = 2 sin(x)
∫
a. Calculate 2 sin(x) dx.
0
b. Hence, or otherwise, determine the area of the 3π –π π 0 π π 3π x
–— –– – —
shaded region. 2 2 2 2
–2
18. The graph of the function f: (1, ∞) → R, f(x) = 2 loge (x − 1) is shown.
y = 2 loge (x – 1)
0 (a, 0) x
x=1
c. Determine the area between the curve and the x-axis from x = a to x = 5, correct to 4 decimal places.
b. Calculate the value of the constant a, given that (a, 0) is the x-axis intercept.
19. The graph of y =

5 + x2
10x
is shown.
y
10x
y = —2
5+x
(0, 0)
x
6
a. Locate the exact coordinates of the minimum and maximum turning points.
b. State the derivative of loge (5 + x2 ) and hence determine an anti-derivative for

5 + x2
10x
.
maximum turning point, and the line x = 6.

c. Calculate the area enclosed between the curve, the x-axis, the line where x equals the x-coordinate of the
20. The graph of the function f: (3, ∞) → R, f(x) = 5 loge (x − 3) is shown.
y
y = 5 loge (3)
0 (4, 0) x
6
y = f (x)
x=3
b. Determine the rule for the inverse function, y = f −1 (x).

a. Calculate the area of the shaded region, correct to 3 decimal places.
c. Verify your answer to part a by calculating the area enclosed between the curve y = f −1 (x), the y-axis and
the line y = 6.
21. The Red Fish Restaurant is a new restaurant about to open.
The owners commissioned a graphic artist to design a logo FIGURE 1
that will be seen on the menus and on advertisements for the
y
restaurant, and will also be etched into the front window of the
restaurant. The logo is shown in Figure 1.
As the logo is to appear in a number of different scenarios,
the owners need to know the area of the original to allow (4, 2)
for enlargement or diminishing processes. The graphic artist
formed the shape by using the rule
y = x(x − 3)2 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 4
0 x
√ 3
(4, –2)
for the upper part of the fish and
y = − x(x − 3)2 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 4
√
for the lower part of the fish.

The original outline is shown in Figure 2.
FIGURE 2
from x = 0 to x = 4, correct to 4 decimal places.

a. Calculate the area between the upper curve and the x-axis
y
b. Calculate the area of the entire fish logo. (All measurements
are in centimetres.) Give your answer correct to 1 decimal
place.
c. The etched fish on the front window of the restaurant has (4, 2)
an area of 0.348 75 m2 . Determine the scale factor, to the
nearest integer, that was used to enlarge the fish motif.
0 x
3
(4, –2)

8.3 Exam questions
Let f: R\ {1} → R, f(x) = + 1.

(x − 1)2
2
a. i. Evaluate f(−1). (1 mark)

ii. Sketch the graph of f on the axes below, labelling all asymptotes with their equations. (2 marks)
y
5
4
3
2
1
x
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 O 1 2 3 4 5
−1
−2
−3
−4
b. Find the area bounded by the graph of f, the x-axis, and the line x = −1 and the line x = 0. (2 marks)
The graph of a function f, where f(−x) = f(x), is shown below.

MC
a b c d
x
The graph has x-intercepts at (a, 0), (b, 0), (c, 0) and (d, 0) only.
The area bound by the curve and the x-axis on the interval [a, d] is
f(x)dx − f(x)dx + f(x)dx f(x)dx + f(x)dx

d b b d b c
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
A. f(x)dx B. C. 2
a a c c a b
f(x)dx − 2 f(x)dx + f(x)dx + f(x)dx

b b+c b b c
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
D. 2 f(x)dx E.
a b a c d
𝜋 𝜋
→ R, f(x) = cos(x) and g: 0, → R, g(x) = 3 sin (x) are shown below.
[ ] [ ] √
MC The graphs of f: 0,
2 2
The graphs intersect at B.
y
y = 3 sin(x)
(–π2 , 3)
1 B
y = cos(x)
A
x
O π
–
2
The ratio of the area of the shaded region to the area of√triangle OAB is
A. 9 ∶ 8 3−1∶ 3 − 3 ∶ 3π
√ 3π √
B. C. 8
8
3−1∶ E. 1 ∶
√ √
√ 3π 3π
D.
4 8
8.4 Areas between curves and average values

LEARNING INTENTION
• apply definite integrals to calculate the area between curves over a specified interval
• calculate the average or mean value of a function.
8.4.1 Areas between curves

Consider the functions f and g, which are both continuous on the interval [a, e]. Sometimes f > g and on other
occasions f < g. It is absolutely critical to know when f > g or f < g, so a graphic representation of the situation is
essential, particularly to show the points of intersection of the graphs.
We can find the area between the curves, providing we take
each section one at a time. Within each section, the area y = f (x)
is found by subtracting the lower function from the higher
function. As we are finding the area between two curves, we
don’t need to worry about whether the region is above or below
the x-axis. y = g(x)
x
a b c d e

Calculation of areas between curves
A= (g(x) − f(x)) dx + ( f(x) − g(x)) dx + (g(x) − f(x)) dx + ( f(x) − g(x)) dx

b c d e
∫ ∫ ∫ ∫
f<g f>g f<g f>g
a b c d
WORKED EXAMPLE 7 Calculating the area between two graphs
The functions f: R → R, f(x) = (x + 2)(2 − x) and g: R → R,

g(x) = x + 2 are shown.
y
y = g(x)
a. The graphs intersect at (m, 0) and (p, q). Determine the values
of the constants m, p and q.
b. Calculate the area bound by the curve and the line. (p, q) y = f (x)
(m, 0)
x
x + 2 = (x + 2)(2 − x)
THINK WRITE
x + 2 = 4 − x2
a. 1. Points of intersection are a.
found by solving the equations
x2 + x − 2 = 0
simultaneously, so equate the
(x + 2)(x − 1) = 0
equations and solve for x.
x = −2, x = 1
When x = −2, y = −2 + 2 = 0.
When x = 1, y = 1 + 2 = 3.
2. Find the corresponding y-values.
m = −2, p = 1, q = 3
b. 1. Determine whether f > g or f < g. b. As f(x) = 4 − x2 lies above g(x) = x + 2, f > g.
3. State the solution.
A= ( f(x) − g(x)) dx
1
∫
2. Express the area in definite
integral notation and simplify −2
the expression within the
= 4 − x2 − (x + 2) dx
1
integral.
∫
( )
−2
= −x2 − x + 2 dx
1
∫
( )
−2
= − x − x + 2x
]1
1 3 1 2
[
3 2 −2
= − (1) − (1) + 2(1) − − (−2) − (−2) + 2(−2)

1 3 1 2 1 1
( ) ( )
3 2
3 2 3 2
= − − +2− +2+4
1 1 8
3 2 3
= −3 − + 8
1
2
=4
1
2
4. Write the answer. The area is 4.5 units2 .

a. 1. On a Graphs page, a. 1. On a Graph & Table
complete the entry line screen, complete the
f 1(x) = (x + 2)(2 − x) y1 = (x + 2)(2 − x)

for function 1 as: entry line for y1 as:

Complete the entry line
y2 = x + 2
for y2 as:
then press EXE. Select

the ‘Graph’ icon to draw
the graphs.
2. Complete the entry 2. To find the points of
f 2(x) = x + 2
line for function 2 as: intersection, select:
• Analysis
then press ENTER. • G-Solve
• Intersection
With the cursor on
the first point of
intersection, press EXE.
Use the left/right arrows
to move to the other
point of intersection,
then press EXE.
3. To find the points of b. 1. To find the area bounded

intersection, press by the two curves,
4: Intersection • G-Solve
When prompted, select • Integral
a point before and after
∫
• dx Intersection
an intersection point to
identify coordinates. With the cursor on
Repeat this process to the first point of
find the other point of intersection, press EXE.
intersection. Use the left/right arrows
to move to the other
then press EXE.

b. 1. To find the area

bounded by the two
curves, press MENU,
then select:
6: Analyze Graph
8: Bounded Area
Click on the left-most
then click on the
right-most point of
intersection.
2. The answer appears on The area is 4.5 square units. 2. The answer appears on The area is
the screen. the screen. 4.5 square units.
WORKED EXAMPLE 8 Calculating the area between two curves
The graphs of f(x) = 3 sin(2x) and g(x) = 3 cos(2x) are shown for
x ∈ [0, 𝜋].
y
(0, 3) (π, 3)
𝜋
y = g(x)
a. Determine the coordinates
[ ] of the point(s) of intersection of f and
(0, 0) (π, 0)
g for the interval 0, .
2 0 x
𝜋
π
–
b. Using calculus, [determine the area enclosed between the curves 2
] y = f (x)
on the interval 0, . –3
2
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Use simultaneous equations to a. 3 sin(2x) = 3 cos(2x)

𝜋
= 1, 0 ≤ x ≤
find where the graphs intersect,
3 sin(2x)
and equate the two equations.
tan (2x) = 1, 0 ≤ 2x ≤ 𝜋
3 cos(2x) 2
𝜋
2x =
2. Solve for 2x by changing the
domain.
𝜋
∴x=
4
𝜋 𝜋
= 3 sin
( ) ( )
3. Find the corresponding y-value. f
8 4
=
√
3 2
𝜋 3 2
2
,
( √ )
4. Write the solution. The coordinates are .
𝜋
8 2
b. 1. Determine when f > g and f < g. b. When 0 < x < , g > f.

𝜋 𝜋
8
When < x < , f > g.
8 2
2. Express each area individually in The area is equal to:
definite integral notation. 𝜋 𝜋
A = (3 cos(2x) − 3 sin(2x)) dx + (3 sin(2x) − 3 cos(2x)) dx

8 2
∫ ∫
0 𝜋
8
] 𝜋8 [ ] 𝜋2
= sin(2x) + cos(2x) + − cos(2x) − sin(2x)
3 3 3 3
[
𝜋
3. Use calculus to anti-differentiate
𝜋 𝜋
and evaluate. 2 2 2 2
= sin + cos − sin(0) + cos(0)

( 0) ( ) 8
3 3 3 3
( )
𝜋 𝜋
2 4 2 4 2 2
+ − cos(𝜋) − sin(𝜋) − − cos − sin

3 3 3 3
( ( ) ( ))
2 2 2 4 2 4
= × + × −0− + −0+ × + ×
√ √ √ √
3 2 3 2 3 3 3 2 3 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
= + + +
√ √ √ √
3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2
4 4 4 4
=3 2
√
√
4. Write the answer. The area is 3 2 square units.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Areas between curves (int-6425)
8.4.2 The average or mean value of a function

Geometrically, the average or mean value of a function is the height of a rectangle, yavg , with a width of (b − a),
that has the same area as the area under the curve y = f(x) for the interval [a, b].
y
y = f (x)
The average or mean value
Average =
b
b−a ∫
1
f(x)dx yavg
a
a b x
WORKED EXAMPLE 9 Calculating the average value
𝜋 3𝜋
Calculate the average value for the function defined by f(x) = sin(2x) for the interval x ∈ ,
[ ]
.
8 8
THINK WRITE
1. Write the rule for the average or mean value of Average =

b
−
1
∫
f(x) dx
a function. b a
a

3𝜋
= ( 3𝜋
8
− 𝜋8
1
∫
2. Substitute the appropriate values into the rule. sin(2x) dx
𝜋
)
8
8
3𝜋
=
8
𝜋 ∫
4
sin(2x) dx
𝜋
8
= − cos(2x)
] 3𝜋
𝜋
4 1 8
[
𝜋
2
𝜋
= − cos 2 × + cos 2 ×
( 8 )
𝜋
4 1 3𝜋 1
( ( ))
2 8 2 8
= − ×− + ×
𝜋
( √ √ )
4 1 2 1 2
2 2 2 2
= +
𝜋
(√ √ )
4 2 2
4 4
= ×
𝜋
√
4 2
2
=
𝜋
√
2 2
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Average value of a function (int-6424)
8.4 Exercise

1. WE7 The graphs of g(x) = x and the line f(x) = 4 are shown.
Technology free y
f (x) = 4
√
a. Determine the coordinates of the point(s) of intersection between f and g.

b. Calculate the area bound by the two graphs.
g(x) = x
0 x
2. Calculate the area enclosed between the curve f(x) = (x − 3) and the line g(x) = 9 − x.
2
a. Determine the coordinates of the point(s) of intersection of f(x) = sin(x) and g(x) = −cos(x) for the
interval [0, 𝜋].
3. WE8
b. Using calculus, determine the area enclosed between the curves on the interval [0, 𝜋].
Calculate the average value of the function defined by the rule f(x) = e for x ∈ 0, .
1
] [
3x
4. WE9
3
5. Calculate the average value of the function defined by the rule f(x) = x2 − 2x for x ∈ [0.5, 1].
6. The graphs of f(x) = 4e−x and g(x) = 4 − x are shown.

Technology active
Using calculus, determine the area enclosed between y = f(x), y =

y
g(x) and the lines x = 0 and x = 5. Give your answer correct to

4 decimal places.
(0, 4)
g(x) = 4 – x
f (x) = 4e –x (3.92, 0.08)

0 x
5
7. The graphs of f(x) = 0.5ex and g(x) = cos(x) are shown. The y
graphs intersect at (−1.5, 0.12) and (0.5, 0.86). (0, 1)
from x = −1.5 to x = 0.5. Give your answer correct to 4 decimal

(0.5, 0.86)
Using calculus, calculate the area enclosed between the curves
g(x) = cos(x) (0, 0.5)
places.
0 x
(–1.5, 0.12)
( –π2 , 0 )
f (x) = 0.5e x
The graphs of y = 0.25x2 (x − 3)(x + 3) and y = −0.5x2 (x − 3)

(x + 3) are shown.
8. MC
y = –0.5x2 (x – 3)(x + 3)
y
x = −3 and x = 3 is:
The area of the region enclosed between the curves and the lines
A. 60.75 units2
B. 48.6 units2
C. 121.5 units2
(–3, 0) (0, 0) (3, 0)
D. 24.3 units2 x
E. 97.2 units2
y = 0.25x2 (x – 3)(x + 3)

9. a. Sketch the graphs of y = 0.5(x + 4)(x − 1)(x − 3) and y = (3 − x)(x + 4) on the one set of axes.
b. Show that the three coordinate pairs of the points of intersection of the two graphs are (−4, 0), (−1, 12)
c. Calculate the area, correct to 2 decimal places, enclosed between the curves from x = −4 to x = 3.
and (3, 0).
10. Consider f(x) = − 1, x > −2.

x+2
1
b. Calculate the area between the curve and the x-axis from x = a to x = 2.
a. Calculate the value of the constant a, where (a, 0) is the x-axis intercept.
c. A straight line given by y = − x + intersects y = f(x) in two places. Determine the coordinates of the
1 1
2 4
points of intersection.
d. Use calculus to evaluate the area between the curve and the line.
11. The graph of y = is shown. The tangent to the curve at x = −0.5 is also shown.
x +1
5x
2
5x
y = ——
x2 + 1
0 x
–0.5
x = −0.5.
a. Determine the equation of the tangent to the curve at
b. State the derivative of loge (x2 + 1) and hence determine an anti-derivative for
x +1
5x
.
2
c. Using calculus, calculate the area of the shaded region. Give your answer correct to 4 decimal places.
12. The graph of the function y = + x3 − 4 is shown. The tangent to the curve at x = 1 is also shown.
1
x
y
1 + x3 – 4
y=–
x
0 x
1 2
a. Determine the equation of the tangent to the curve at x = 1.

b. Calculate the area of the shaded region.
13. The graphs of f(x) = 3x3 − x4 and g(x) = −x + 3 are shown. The y
graphs intersect at the points (a, b) and (c, 0).
b. Determine the area enclosed between the curves from x = a to

f (x) = 3x3 – x4
a. Find the constants a, b and c.
x = c.
f(x) = 3x3 − x4 for x ∈ [1, 2.5]. Give your answer correct to

c. Calculate the average value or mean value of the function
3 decimal places.
14. Consider the functions f(x) = sin (x) and g(x) = cos2 (x).
(a, b)
a. Sketch the graphs on the same set of axes for 0 ≤ x ≤ 𝜋.

2
b. Determine the area between the curves for 0 ≤ x ≤ 𝜋.

(c, 0)
0 x
g(x) = –x + 3
15. The graphs of y2 = 4 − x and y = x − 2 are shown. y

(0, 2) y=x–2
a. Determine the points of intersection of the two graphs.
b. Calculate the blue shaded area. y2 = 4 – x
c. Calculate the pink shaded area.
d. Hence, determine the area enclosed between the two graphs that is
represented by the blue and pink shaded regions.
0 x
(0, –2)
8.4 Exam questions
Part of the graph of a function f, where a > 0, is shown below.

MC
(–2a, 2a) f
(a, a)
x
O
(0, –a)
The average value of the function f over the interval [–2a, a] is

a a 3a
A. 0 B. C. D. E. a
3 2 4

𝜋x
The graphs f: R → R, f(x) = cos and g: R → R, g(x) = sin(𝜋x) are shown in the diagram below.
( )
MC
2
5
3 x
0
1 1 3
3
f
An integral expression that gives the total area of the shaded regions is
𝜋x
sin(𝜋x) − cos
3( ( ))
∫
A. dx
2
𝜋x
0
sin(𝜋x) − cos
( 3 ( ))
∫
B. 2 dx
2
5
3
𝜋x 𝜋x 𝜋x
1
− sin(𝜋x) dx − 2 − sin(𝜋x) dx − − sin(𝜋x) dx

3 ( ( ) ) 1( ( ) ) 3( ( ) )
∫ ∫ ∫
C. cos cos cos
2 2 2
0 1 5
3 3
𝜋x 𝜋x
5
− sin(𝜋x) dx − 2 − sin(𝜋x) dx
( ( )3 ) 3( ( ) )
∫ ∫
D. 2 cos cos
2 2
1 5
3
𝜋x 𝜋x 𝜋x
1
− sin(𝜋x) dx + 2 sin(𝜋x) − cos dx + − sin(𝜋x) dx

3 ( ( ) ) 1( ( )) 3( ( ) )
∫ ∫ ∫
E. cos cos
2 2 2
0 1 5
3 3
Let f: R → R, f(x) = x2 ekx , where k is a positive real constant.

a. Show that f ′ (x) = xekx (kx + 2).

b. Find the value of k for which the graphs of y = f(x) and y = f ′ (x) have exactly one point of
(1 mark)
intersection. (2 marks)
Let g(x) = − . The diagram below shows sections of the graphs of f and g for x ≥ 0.
2xekx
k
f
x=2
x
0 2
Let A be the area of the region bounded by the curves y = f(x), y = g(x) and the line x = 2.
c. Write down a definite integral that gives the value of A. (1 mark)
d. Using your result from part a, or otherwise, find the value of k such that A =
16
. (3 marks)
k
8.5 Applications
LEARNING INTENTION
• apply integration to real world problems.
8.5.1 Total change as the integral of instantaneous change

If we are given the equation for the rate of change and we want
to find the amount that has changed over a particular time
period, we would integrate the rate of change equation using
the starting and finishing times as the terminals.
dV
For example, if we know the rate of water flowing, in
dt
L/min, and we want to find the amount of liquid that has
30
dV
∫ dt
flowed in the first 30 minutes, we would evaluate dt.
0

WORKED EXAMPLE 10 Applications of areas under curves
It is common practice to include heating in concrete slabs when new residential homes or units are
being constructed, because it is more economical than installing heating later. A typical reinforced
concrete slab, 10–15 centimetres thick, has tubing installed on top of the reinforcement, then concrete
is poured on top. When the system is complete, hot water runs through the tubing. The concrete slab
absorbs the heat from the water and releases it into the area above.
The number of litres/minute of water flowing through dV
the tubing over t minutes can be modelled by the rule. — dt
𝜋t 𝜋t
dV
πt πt
( ( ) ( ) )
— = 2 cos — + sin — + 3
= 2 cos + sin +3
dt 3 9
dV
( ( ) ( ) )
dt 3 9 (0, 8)
The graph of this function is shown.

a. Calculate the rate of flow of water, correct to
2 decimal places, at:
i. 4 minutes
ii. 8 minutes.
b. State the period of the given function.
c. Determine the volume of water that flows through 0 t
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32
the tubing during the time period for one whole
cycle.
𝜋t 𝜋t
THINK WRITE
a. i. Substitute t = 4 into the given equation = 2 cos + sin +3

dV
( ( ) ( ) )
a. i.
and evaluate. dt 3 9
When t = 4, = 2 cos + sin +3

dV 4𝜋 4𝜋
( ( ) ( ) )
= 6.97
dt 3 9
The rate at 4 minutes is 6.97 litres/minute.
ii. Substitute t = 8 into the given equation ii. When t = 8,
= 2 cos + sin +3
and evaluate. dV 8𝜋 8𝜋
( ( ) ( ) )
= 5.68
dt 3 9
The rate at 8 minutes is 5.68 litres/minute.

b. A complete cycle for the function occurs between t = 6
and t = 24, so the period is 24 − 6 = 18 minutes.
b. Determine the cycle for the function by
analysing the shape of the graph.
𝜋t 𝜋t
c. A = 2 cos + sin + 3 dt
24
( ( ) ( ) )
∫
c. 1. The area under the curve of the equation
of the rate of flow gives the total volume 3 9
𝜋t 𝜋t
6
=2 + sin + 3 dt
24 (
that has flowed through the tubing. ) ( ( ) )
∫
cos
3 9
𝜋t
=2 − cos 𝜋t +
[6 ]24
𝜋 𝜋
3 9
( )
sin 3t
( )
9
3 6
=2 sin(8𝜋) − cos + 72
𝜋 𝜋
3 9 8𝜋
(( ( ) )
3
− sin(2𝜋) − cos + 18
𝜋 𝜋
3 9 2𝜋
( ( ) ))
= 2 − cos + 72 + cos − 18
𝜋 𝜋
9 2𝜋 9 2𝜋
( ( ) ( ) )
= 2 × 54
3 3
= 108
3. Write the answer. The volume of water that passes through the
tubing during one cycle is 108 litres.
8.5.2 Kinematics
You are already aware of the relationships between displacement, velocity and acceleration.
However, our knowledge about the definite integral and the area under curves now gives us additional skills for
the calculation of facts related to kinematics.
Applications using kinematics
∫v(t) dt ∫a(t) dt
Displacement x(t) Velocity v(t) Acceleration a(t)
dx dv
– –
dt dt
WORKED EXAMPLE 11 Applications using kinematics
A particle starting from rest accelerates according to the rule a = 3t(2 − t).
a. Determine a relationship between the velocity of the particle, v metres/second, and the time,
t seconds.
b. Calculate the displacement of the particle after 4 seconds.
c. Sketch the graph of velocity versus time for the first 4 seconds of the motion.
d. Calculate the distance travelled by the particle in the first 4 seconds.
THINK WRITE
a. v =
∫
a. 1. Anti-differentiate the acceleration a(t) dt
= (3t(2 − t)) dt
equation to find the velocity
∫
equation.
= 6t − 3t2 dt
∫
( )
= 3t2 − t3 + c
When t = 0, v = 0, so c = 0.
∴ v = 3t2 − t3
2. Apply the initial conditions to find
v in terms of t.

b. 1. Integrate v between t = 0 and t = 4. b. x = 3t2 − t3 dt

4
∫
( )
As we are finding displacement,
= t3 − t4
0
there is no need to sketch the [
1
]4
graph.
4 0
= 4 − (4) − 0 − (0)
1 4 1 4
( ) ( )
3 3
=0
4 4
2. Write the answer. After 4 seconds the displacement is zero.

c. Sketch a graph of v versus t. c. y-intercept: (0, 0)
0 = 3t2 − t3
t-intercepts:
= t2 (3 − t)
t = 0, 3
When t = 4,
v = 3 × 42 − 43
= −16.
v
(0, 0) (3, 0)
t
2
v = 3t2 – t3
(4, –16)
d. D = 3t2 − t dt − 3t2 − t3 dt
3 4
∫ ∫
3
d. 1. The area under the curve of a
( ) ( )
velocity-time graph gives the 0 3

distance covered. Set up the
integrals and subtract the negative
region.
= t − t − t − t
]3 [ ]4
14 14
[
3 3
4 0 4 3
= 33 − − 03 − − 43 − − 33 −
34 04 44 34
( ) ( ) (( ) ( ))
4 4 ∫ 4 4
= 27 − − 0 − 64 + 64 + 27 −
81 81
4 4
= 54 −
162
= 13.5
4
3. Write the answer. The distance travelled by the particle in 4 seconds is

13.5 metres.
8.5.3 Using the inverse function

Application problems can involve real-life applications of logarithms. We cannot anti-differentiate a logarithmic
function without technology, so if we want to find the area under a logarithmic curve, we require another
method.
One option is to use integration by recognition. Another y
is to link the areas bound by the curve of the inverse of
y = f –1(x)
the required function and the axes. 3
To find the inverse of a function, all components relating

to x of the original function will relate to y of the 2
inverse. Similarly, all components relating to y of the y = f (x)
original function will relate to x of the inverse. This is 1
also true for areas bound by the curve and the axes.
If f(x) = loge (x), f −1 (x) = ex .
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 x
x = 1 to x = 3 is shown. This area is equivalent to the

The area bound by the curve of f(x) and the x-axis from
area bound by the curve of f −1 (x) and the y-axis from

–1
y = 1 to y = 3. –2
–3
y=x
WORKED EXAMPLE 12 Using the inverse function to calculate areas
, ∞ → R, f(x) =
1
[ )
y
The graph of the function f:
3
−1
loge (3x) is shown.
a. Determine f (x). y = f (x)
1
f −1 (x) dx.
1
b. Calculate
∫
( ) e
–,1
3
0
c. Hence, calculate the exact area of the shaded
region.
0 e x
( )
1
–,0
3
– 1
3
THINK WRITE
a. To find the inverse, swap x and y, and solve for y. a. Let y = f(x).
⇒ x = loge (3y)
Swap x and y:
ex = 3y
y = ex
1
3
∴ f −1 (x) = ex
1
3

(x) dx =
1 1
−1 1 x
∫ ∫ 3
b. 1. Set up the appropriate integral and b. f e dx
anti-differentiate. 0 0
= e
]1
1 x
[
3 0
= e − e
1 1 1 0
2. Evaluate.
= −
3 3
e 1
e 3 3
3
∫
c. 1. The required shaded area is f(x) dx, the c. y
1 y = f (x)
3
bound by the curve of f −1 (x) and the y-axis

blue area. This is equivalent to the area e
( )
–, 1 y = f –1(x)
from y = to y = .
1 3
1 e e
–
3 3 3 (1 , –3e )
(0 , –13 )
0 e x
(–31 , 0) – 1
3
Arectangle = 1 ×
e
2. To find the area bound by the y-axis, the
=
green shaded area, we need to find the area 3
e
of
( the )rectangle)with coordinates (0, 0), 3
e e
(
0, , 1, , and (1, 0).
3 3
A = Arectangle − f −1 (x) dx
1
3. Subtract the area underneath f −1 (x), from

∫
x = 0 to x = 1 (worked out in part b). This
= − −
0
answer is the required green shaded area. e
(
e 1
)
3 3 3
=
1
3
e
f(x) dx =
3
1
∫
4. State the answer. units2
3
1
3
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Area under a curve (int-6426)
8.5 Exercise

Technology free
1. WE10 A number of apprentice bricklayers are competing
in a competition in which they are required to build a fence.
The competitors must produce a fence that is straight, neatly
constructed and level. The winner will also be judged on how
many bricks they have laid during a 30-minute period. The
winner laid bricks at a rate defined by the rule
= 0.8t + 2
dN
dt
a. Sketch the graph of the given function for 0 ≤ t ≤ 30.

where N is the number of bricks laid after t minutes.
b. Shade the region defined by 10 ≤ t ≤ 20.

c. Determine how many bricks in total the winner laid in the 10-minute period defined by 10 ≤ t ≤ 20.
v = 1 + 3 t + 1, where t is the time in seconds.

2. WE11 A√particle moves in a line so that its velocity v metres/second from a fixed point, O, is defined by
a. Determine the initial velocity of the particle.
i. t = 0
b. Calculate the acceleration of the particle when:
ii. t = 8
c. Sketch the graph of v versus t for the first 10 seconds.
d. Calculate the distance covered by the particle in the first 8 seconds.
3. A stone footbridge over a creek is shown along with the mathematical profile of the bridge.
y
7
0 x
–6 –5 5 6
The arch of the footbridge can be modelled by a quadratic function for x ∈ [−5, 5], with all measurements in
metres.
Calculate the area between the curve and the x-axis from x = −5 to x = 5.
a. Determine the equation for the arch of the bridge
b.
c. Calculate the area of the side of the bridge represented by the shaded area.
d. The width of the footbridge is 3 metres. Determine the volume of stones used in the construction of the
footbridge.
, ∞ → R, f(x) = 2 loge (4x) is shown.

1
[ ]
4. WE12 The graph of the function f: y
4
a. Determine f −1 (x). (2, 2loge (8))
y = f (x)
2 loge (8)
f −1 (x) dx.
∫
b. Calculate
0 x
0 1, (2, 0)
c. Hence, calculate the exact area of the shaded region. ( )
– 0
4
, ∞ → R, g(x) = − loge (5x). is

1
) [
5. Part of the graph of the function g: y
5
shown.
a. Calculate the coordinates of the point where the graph intersects
the x-axis.
b. If y = −x loge (5x) + x, determine
dy
.
dx y = –loge (5x)
c. Use your result from part b to calculate the area of the shaded (2, 0)
region. 0 x
x=0
Technology active
6. The edge of a garden bed can be modelled by the rule
y = 0.5 sin +2
x
( )
The bed has edges defined by y = 0, x = 0 and x = 4𝜋. All

measurements are in metres.
a. Sketch the graph of y = 0.5 sin + 2 along with

x
( )
y = 0, x = 0 and x = 4𝜋 as edges to show the shape

2
of the garden bed.

b. Calculate the area of the garden bed, correct to the nearest square metre.
c. Topsoil is going to be used on the garden bed in preparation for new planting for spring. The topsoil is to
be spread so that it is uniformly 50 cm thick. Find the amount of soil, in cubic metres, that will be needed
for the garden bed.
7. The average rate of increase, in cm/month, in the length of a baby boy from birth
until age 36 months is given by the rule
=√
dL 4
dt t
where t is the time in months since birth and L is the length in centimetres. Calculate
the average total increase in length of a baby boy from 6 months of age until
36 months of age. Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
8. The rate of growth of mobile phone subscribers with a

particular company in the Australia can be modelled by
the rule
= 0.853e0.1333t
dN
dt
where N million is the number of subscribers with the company
since 2004 and t is the number of years since 2004, the year
the company was established. Determine how many millions
of mobile phone subscribers have joined the company between
2004 and 2021, correct to 1 decimal place.
9. The maintenance costs for a car increase as the car gets older. It has been suggested that the increase in
maintenance costs of dollars per year could be modelled by
= 15t2 + 250
dC
dt
a. Sketch the graph of the given function for 0 ≤ t ≤ 10.

where t is the age of the car in years and C is the total accumulated cost of maintenance for t years.
b. Determine the total accumulated cost of maintenance for t = 5 to t = 10 years.
10. Part of the graph of the function h: (−5, ∞) → R, h(x) = 2 loge (x + 5) + 1 is shown.
y
y = 2 loge (x + 5) + 1
0 x
x = –5
b. State the rule and domain for h−1 , the inverse of h.

a. Calculate the coordinates of the axial intercepts.
c. On the one set of axes, sketch the graphs of y = h(x) and y = h−1 (x). Clearly label the axial intercepts with
d. Calculate the values of x, correct to 4 decimal places, for which h(x) = h−1 (x).
exact values and any asymptotes.
e. Calculate the area of the region enclosed by the graphs of h and h−1 . Give your answer correct to
4 decimal places.
11. a. If y = x loge (x), find

2
e
dy
∫
. Hence, find the exact value of loge (x) dx.
dx
b. If y = x loge (x) where m is a positive integer, determine

1
)m dy
.
(
dx
c. Let Im = dx for m > 1. Show that Im + mIm−1 = 2m e2 .

2
e
∫
)m
loge (x)
(
1
2
e
∫
)3
d. Hence, calculate the value of loge (x) dx.
(

12. The shaded area in the diagram is the plan of a mine site. All distances y
are in kilometres.
) equations f: R → R, f(x) = 2e and

Two of the boundaries of the mine site are in the shape of graphs
x
defined by the functions
(with
g: R+ → R, g(x) = loge
x
, where g(x) is the inverse function of f(x). (0, 2)
2 y = loge ( –2x )
y-axis and the lines x = 1 and y = −4. Give your answer correct to
y = 2ex
Calculate the area of the region bounded by the graphs of f and g, the
0 x
1 (2, 0)
1 decimal place.
y = –4
–4
x=1
13. A patient has just had a medical procedure that required a general
anaesthetic. Five minutes after the end of the procedure
was completed, the patient starts to show signs of awakening. The
procedure can be modelled by the rule A = 4.6 loge (t − 4).

alertness, A, of the patient t minutes after the completion of the
The graph of the function is shown.
a. Calculate the value of the constant a, given that (a, 0) is the

x-axis intercept.
b. When the patient has an alertness of 15, they are allowed to have A
water to sip, and 15 minutes later they can be given a warm drink and A = 4.6 loge (t – 4)
something to eat. Calculate how long it takes for the patient to reach an
alertness of 15. Give your answer correct to the nearest minute.
c. Calculate the rate at which the alertness of the patient is changing
10 minutes after the completion of the medical procedure.
d. Use the inverse function of A to determine the total change of alertness
calculate the area between the curve and the t axis from t = 5 to t = 30.
for 30 minutes after the completion of the medical procedure. That is,
14. An object travels in a line so that its velocity, v metres/second, at 0 (a, 0) t
t 𝜋
time t seconds is given
) by
v = 3 cos − , t ≥ 0.
(
Initially the object is −3 2 metres from the origin.

2 4
√
a. Determine the relationship between the displacement of the object, x metres, and time, t seconds.
Sketch the graph of v versus t for 0 ≤ t ≤ 4𝜋.

b. Calculate the displacement of the object when time is equal to 3𝜋 seconds.
c.
d. Calculate the distance travelled by the object after 3𝜋 seconds. Give your answer in metres, correct to
2 decimal places.
f. Calculate acceleration of the object when t = 3𝜋 seconds.

2
e. Determine a relationship between the acceleration of the object, a metres/second , and time, t seconds.
v metres per second, is defined by the rule v = e −0.5t

− 0.5, t ≥ 0. The
15. A particle moves in a straight line. At time t seconds its velocity, v
graph of the motion is shown.

(0, 0.5)
b. Calculate the displacement of the particle, x m, if x = 0 when t = 0.

a. Determine the acceleration of the particle, a m/s2 , in terms of t.
(2 loge (2), 0)
c. Calculate the displacement of the particle after 4 seconds, correct 0 t
to 4 decimal places. v = e–0.5t – 0.5
d. Determine the distance covered by the particle in the fourth
second. Give your answer correct to 4 decimal places.
16. The cross-section of a waterway is parabolic. Its depth is

3 metres, and the width across the top of the waterway is
4 metres. Determine the depth of the water in metres, to 2 decimal
places, when the waterway is one-third full.
17. At the Royal Botanical Gardens, a new area of garden is being

prepared for native Australian plants.
One of the paths can be modelled by the rule f(x) = e 2 (x −1) + 3.

The area of garden has two curved walking paths as borders.
1
inverse of f, f −1 . State the rule for f −1 .

a. The other curved walking path is defined by the rule for the
y 1 (x –1)
–
y = f (x) = e 2 +3
0 x
5
y = f –1(x)
–5
The other borders are given by x = 5 and y = −5 as shown. The remaining border is formed by the y-axis, as
shown. All measurements are in metres.
b. Determine the respective axis intercepts of the graphs of f and f −1 .

c. Calculate the area of the garden above the x-axis, as shown in the y 1 (x –1)
–
diagram below, by calculating y = f (x) = e 2 +3
e 2 (x −1) +3 dx − (2 loge (x − 3) + 1) dx.

5 5
1
( )
∫ ∫
0 e−0.5 +3
Give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
0 x
5
y = f –1(x)
–5
d. Calculate the area of the garden below the x-axis, as shown in the diagram below, correct to 2 decimal
places.
y
0 x
5
–5
y = f –1(x)
e. Hence, determine the total area of the garden correct to 1 decimal place.
y
y = f (x)
0 x
5
y = f –1(x)
–5
8.5 Exam questions

An area of parkland has a river running through it, as shown below. The river is shown shaded.
𝜋x
The north bank of the river is modelled by the function f1 : [0, 200] → R, f1 (x) = 20 cos + 40
( )
100
𝜋x
The south bank of the river is modelled by the function f2 : 200] → R, f2 (x) = 20 cos + 30
( )
[0,
100
The horizontal axis points east and the vertical axis points north.
All distances are measured in metres.
80
north
f1
60
west east
40 f2
south
P
20
0 x
0 50 100 150 200
A swimmer always starts at point P, which has coordinates (50, 30).

Assume that no movement of water in the river affects the motion or path of the swimmer, which is always a
straight line.
a. The swimmer swims north from point P.
Find the distance, in metres, that the swimmer needs to swim to get to the north bank of the river. (1 mark)
b. The swimmer swims east from point P.
Find the distance, in metres, that the swimmer needs to swim to get to the north bank of the river. (2 marks)
c. On another occasion, the swimmer swims the minimum distance from point P to the north bank of the river.
Find this minimum distance. Give your answer in metres, correct to one decimal place. (2 marks)
d. Calculate the surface area of the section of the river shown on the graph above in square metres. (1 mark)
e. A horizontal line is drawn through point P. The section of the river that is south of the line is declared a ‘no
swimming’ zone.
Find the area of the ‘no swimming’ zone, correct to the nearest square metre. (3 marks)
current position. They model its predicted new location using the function with rule y = k f1 (x), where k ≥ 1.
f. Scientists observe that the north bank of the river is changing over time. It is moving further north from its
Find the values of k for which the distance north across the river, for all parts of the river, is strictly less
than 20 m. (2 marks)


During a telephone call, a phone uses a dual-tone frequency electrical signal to communicate with the telephone
exchange.
πt πt
The strength, f, of a simple dual-tone frequency signal is given by the function f(t) = sin + sin
( ) ( )
,
where t is a measure of time and t ≥ 0.
3 6
Part of the graph of y = f(t) is shown below.
t
O 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
−1
−2
Find the values of t where f(t) = 0 for the interval t ∈ [0, 6].
a. State the period of the function. (1 mark)
b. (1 mark)
Find the area between the graph of f and the horizontal axis for t ∈ [0, 6].
c. Find the maximum strength of the dual-tone frequency signal, correct to two decimal places. (1 mark)
The rectangle bounded by the line y = k, k ∈ R+ , the horizontal axis, and the lines x = 0 and x = 12 has the
d. (2 marks)
e.
same area as the area between the graph of f and the horizontal axis for one period of the dual-tone frequency
signal.
Find the value of k. (2 marks)
A city is located on a river that runs through a gorge.
The gorge is 80 m across, 40 m high on one side and 30 m high on the other side.
A bridge is to be built that crosses the river and the gorge.
The main frame of the bridge has the shape of a parabola. The parabolic frame is modelled by y = 60 −
A diagram for the design of the bridge is shown below.
3 2
x and
80
is connected to concrete pads at B(40, 0) and A(– 40, 0).
60
Q N
X(–40, 40) E
P F Y (40, 30)
M
A O B x
–40 40
a. Find the angle, 𝜃, between the tangent to the parabolic frame and the horizontal at the point A(– 40, 0) to the
The road across the gorge is modelled by a cubic polynomial function.
nearest degree. (2 marks)

The road from X to Y across the gorge has gradient zero at X(– 40, 40) and at Y(40, 30), and has equation
y= − + 35.
x3 3x
b. Find the maximum downwards slope of the road. Give your answer in the form − where m and n are
25 600 16
m
n
positive integers. (2 marks)
Two vertical supporting columns, MN and PQ, connect the road with the parabolic frame.
The supporting column, MN, is at the point where the vertical distance between the road and the parabolic frame
is a maximum.
c. Find the coordinates (u, v) of the point M, stating your answers correct to two decimal places. (3 marks)
The second supporting column, PQ, has its lowest point at P(–u, w).
d. Find, correct to two decimal places, the value of w and the lengths of the supporting columns
MN and PQ. (3 marks)
For the opening of the bridge, a banner is erected on the bridge, as y
shown by the shaded region in the diagram at right.
e. Find the x-coordinates, correct to two decimal places, of E and F,
the points at which the road meets the parabolic frame of 60
the bridge. (3 marks)
f. Find the area of the banner (shaded region), giving your answer to
the nearest square metre. (1 mark) E
F
x
–40 O 40

8.6 Review
8.6.1 Summary
doc-37037
8.6 Exercise
1. a. Evaluate the following.
𝜋 1
(4 sin(2x) + cos(3x)) dx 3x + 6 x + 1 dx (ex + 1) (ex − 1) dx

2 2 2
∫ ∫ ∫
( √ )
i. ii. iii.
𝜋
− 0 0
6
f(x)dx = 4 and g(x)dx = 3, determine:

5 5
∫ ∫
b. Given that
1 1
(4f(x) + 1) dx (2f(x) − g(x)) dx (3f(x) + 2g(x) − 5) dx

5 5 5
∫ ∫ ∫
i. ii. iii.
1 1 1
2. a. Evaluate the following.

−1
x+2
2
∫ x+1 ∫ 2x + 1
3
i. dx ii. dx
0 −2
dx = 1 and a > 3, calculate the exact value of a.

a
∫ 3(x − 1)
1
b. If
3
6(2x − 1)2 dx = 1.
m
∫
3. a. Determine m if y
b. The graphs of y = 2 sin(x) + k and

1
2
y = k cos(x) are shown.

The shaded region is equal to (3𝜋 + 4)
y = 2 sin(x) + k
square units. Determine the value of the

constant k. ( )
3π
–, 0
2
0 π x
y = 2 cos(x)
4. The graphs with equations y = x and y = 2 − x are shown.

√
y= x
y=2–x
0 (0, 0) x
a. Calculate the average value of the function y = x for x ∈ [0, 2].

b. Determine the solution to the equation x = 2 − x.
√
√
c. Determine the area of the blue shaded region (the lower shaded region).
d. Hence or otherwise, calculate the area of the pink shaded region (the upper shaded region).
5. The graphs of y = 4x2 and y =

1
are shown.
4x2
y
y = 4x2
1
y = –2
4x
0 x
–2 –1 1 2
a. Determine the coordinates of the points of intersection of the two curves.

b. Calculate the area of the pink shaded region.
c. Calculate the area of the blue shaded region.
6. a. Determine any point(s) of intersection between the two curves f(x) = x3 − 3x + 2 and g(x) = x + 2.
b. Sketch f(x) and g(x) on the same set of axes. Label the point(s) of intersection and any x- and y-intercepts.
c. Evaluate the area between the two curves.
y-axis, the line x = −3 and the curve whose equation is y = e−x is approximated by:
7. MC Using the trapezium rule with interval widths of 1 unit, the area of the region bounded by the x-axis, the
A. e3 + 2e2 + 2e1 + 1 B. e3 + e2 + e1 + C. e3 + e2 + e1
1 1 1
D. e + 2e + 2e E. e + e + e
2 2 2
3 2 1 1 3 2 1
2

The graph of y = (4 − x) x2 − x + 1 is shown. The y

( )
8. MC
approximate area between the curve and the x- and y-axes

using four trapeziums of equal width is:
y = (4 – x)(x2 – x + 1)
A. 36 units2
B. 14.5 units2
C. 29 units2
D. 18 units2 (0, 4)
E. 20.5 units2
𝜋 0 4
x
− sin(2x) dx is equal to:

1 2 3
3
x
( ( ) )
∫
9. MC cos
𝜋
2
−
2+ 2+
2
√ 5 √ 3
A. B.
4 4
+ 2+ 2−
√
3 3 √ 1 √ 3
C. D.
E. − 2
4 2 4
1 √
4
The graph of y = x − 0.5 is shown.
The approximate area under the curve from x = 0.5 to
√
10. MC y
x = 3.5, using the trapezium method with interval widths y = x – 0.5

of 1 unit, is:
2 2
A. 2.8 units B. 6.6 units
2 2
C. 3.3 units D. 4.1 units
2
E. 5.6 units 0 x
(0.5, 0) 1 2 3
11. MC The graphs of y = f(x) and y = g(x) are shown. y

The area of the shaded region is given by:
(g(x) − f(x)) dx
n
∫
A.
y = f (x)
0
( f(x) − g(x)) dx
n
∫
B.
0
( f(x) − g(x)) dx + (g(x) − f(x)) dx

m n
∫ ∫
C. y = g(x)
0 m
(n, 0) x
( f(x) − g(x)) dx − (g(x) − f(x)) dx

m n 0 (m, 0)
∫ ∫
D.
0 m
( f(x) + g(x)) dx
n
∫
E.
0
The graph with equation y = k x2 + 2 is shown.

( )
12. MC y
The area of the shaded region is equal to 5 square units. The value of k is:
1 1 1 2
A. B. C. 1 D. E.
5 2 3 3
= 3e−0.2t , where V is the volume in litres and t is the time in minutes that
13. MC The rate of flow of water from a hose nozzle can be defined by
dV
dt
the hose has been turned on. The number of litres that has flowed out in
2 minutes is:
A. 10.05 B. 0.2 C. 2.01 D. 5 E. 4.95
0 x
1 2 3
The following information refers to Questions 14 and 15.

A particle starts at the origin and travels in a straight line with a velocity, v m/s, modelled by v = t2 − t − 2.
C. −4.5 m E. −1.5 m
14. MC The displacement of the particle after 3 seconds is:
A. 1.5 m B. 4.5 m D. 12 m
15. MC The distance covered by the particle in the first 2 seconds is:
5 2 1
A. 1 m B. 3 m C. 8 m D. 3 m E. 1 m
6 3 3
If k =
3
1
∫ x
16. MC dx, then ek is equal to:
1
A. loge (3) B. 1 C. 3 D. e E. e3
17. The graph of the curve f(x) = x2 + 3 is shown. Let A represent the area enclosed by the curve, the x- and y-
axes, and the line x = 2.

y
y = x2 + 3
(0, 3)
x
2 –1.5 –1 –0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
x=2
a. Determine an approximation for the area, A, using four trapeziums of width 0.5.
x2 + 3 dx.
2
∫
b. Find the exact value of A, that is
( )

18. The diagram shows a feeding trough for horses, with dimensions given in centimetres. The parabola is a
cross-sectional profile of each end of the trough.
y
(–25, 25) (25, 25)
25
0 x
–25 25
a. Determine the equation of the parabola.

b. Calculate the area of the parabolic cross-section.
c. Hence, calculate the volume of the trough if it is known to be 120 cm long.
19. The graph of y = m loge (n(x + p)) is shown. y
a. Determine the values of the non-zero constants m, n and p.
y = loge (x) to achieve this function.

b. Describe the transformations that have been applied to (–1, 2 loge (2))
c. On one set of axes, sketch the graph of y = f(x) and its inverse
function, y = f −1 (x). State the domain and range of each
(0, 0)
x
d. Calculate the point where f(x) = f −1 (x).

function, and give the equations of any asymptotes.
e. Calculate the area between the two functions from x = −1.5 to

x = 0. Give your answer correct to 4 decimal places.
x = –2
20. a. Let f : R+ → R, f(x) = e 3 (m cos(x) + n sin(x)). Given that f ′ (x) = e 3 sin(x), determine the constants m
− −
x x
and n.
e− 3 sin(x) dx.
2𝜋
x
∫
b. Calculate
c. The graph of y = e 3 sin(x) is shown. Calculate the area of the shaded region, correct to 4 decimal places.
−
0
x
x
–—
y = e 3 sin(x)
(0, 0)
0 x
8.6 Exam questions

f (x) dx = k, then (3f (x) + 2) dx is

a a
∫ ∫
MC If
A. 3k + 2a C. k + 2a D. k + 2 E. 3k + 2
0 0
B. 3k
Let y = x loge (3x).

dy
a. Find . (2 marks)
dx
(loge (3x) + 1)dx. Express your answer in the form loge (a), where a is a positive
2
∫
b. Hence, calculate
1
integer. (2 marks)
Let f: R\{1} → R, where f(x) = 2 +

x−1
3
.
a. Sketch the graph of f. Label the axis intercepts with their coordinates and label any asymptotes with the
b. Find the area enclosed by the graph of f, the lines x = 2 and x = 4, and the x-axis.
appropriate equation. (3 marks)
(2 marks)

f (x) dx = 4 and f (x) dx = −2, then ( f (x) + x) is equal to

4 4 2
∫ ∫ ∫
MC If
1 2 1
7 15
A. 2 B. 6 C. 8 D. E.
2 2
MC Let h be a function with an average value of 2 over the interval [0, 6].
The graph of h over this interval could be
A. y B. y
4 4
2 2
x x
O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

C. y D. y
6 8
4 6
2 4
x 2
O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
–2 x
O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
E. y
x
O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7


Answers 8.3 Areas under curves

8.3 Exercise
Topic 8 Integral calculus 2
1. 166 units2
8.2 The fundamental theorem of integral 3
calculus 2. 3𝜋 units2
4. e + e − 2 units
2
3. 1.6 units
−1
8.2 Exercise 2
51
1. units2 5. y
30
2
2. 26 units
2
3. 21 units
3
4. a. 4 b. 0 y= x
2 + 0.5e2 − 0.5e−2
65
5. a. b. (0, 0)
4 x
–8 8
55
6. a. 27 b.
6
c. 0 d. 0
10 − 2 2−
√
4 (√ ) √ 3 3
e. f.
3 4
24 units2
= dx = log3 +2
3
−4 3x − 4
2
dy 9x x 1 77 2
( ) ( )
∫
7. and 6. loge
dx 3x3 3 9 20 3
2
7. a. y
a=4
8. B
9. a. b. 7.56 units2
iii. −16
10. a. i. 21 ii. 11
k= ±1
iv. 8
11. a. −15 −12.5

b.
b.
1
c. 32.5 d. 20 y=–
x
e. 25 f. 12.5
a=4 k=
12. D √ 0 x
13. a. b. 5 1 3
a=1
1
b. 2 3 − 2 units
x=0
14. a. b. 21 units2
3 2
√
𝜋+2
1.964
= x cos(x) + sin(x)
15.
8. a.
dy b.
y
16. a. (–2.2361, 16) (2.2361, 16)
dx
= 3 x2 − 2x ex −3x
16
dy ( ) 3 2
17. a.
dx
e −1
1 ( −2 )
b.
3
18. D
= x dx = 3.6935
5
dx (e + 1) ∫ ex + 1
dy 2ex ex
19. and (–3, 0) (–1, 0) 0 (1, 0) (3, 0) x
1
8.2 Exam questions (0, –9)

solutions online. f (x) = –(x2 – 1)(x2 – 9)
1. E
b. 52.27 units2
2. B
9. C
3. 2
10. 16 units2

11. a. a = −2, b = −1, c = 2, d = 3 2. Area = 20 units2

5
6
12. a. m = 2.6779
2
b. 15.68 units
,
( √ )
2
b. 4.2361 units 3𝜋 2
2 2 units2
√
3. a. b.
13. a. 1.7642 units 2
b. 9.933 units 2 4 2
dy
= 2xex
2
2(e − 1) units2 4. e−1
5. −
14. a. b.
dx
y = −3x2 + 6x
11
15. a. 12
c. $440
b. 4 m
2 6. 4.6254 units2
2
7. 0.7641 units
3 1 8. B
16. a. units2 b. 2 units2
4 4
2(𝜋 − 2) units
9. a. y

2
17. a. 2 b. y = 0.5(x + 4)(x – 1)(x – 3)
b. a = 2
18. a. (0, 12)
19. a. Maximum turning point =

c. 5.0904 units
(√ √ )
5, 5 , (0, 6)
minimum turning point = − 5, − 5

( √ √ )
5 loge (5 + x )
(3, 0)
2 (−4, 0) 0 (1, 0) x
b.
41
( )
c. 5 loge units2 y = (3 – x)(x + 4)
y = 0.5(x + 4)(x − 1)(x − 3)

10
y = (3 − x)(x + 4)
2 b. [1]
20. a. 6.479 units
−1
(x) = e 5 + 3, x ∈ R [1] = [2]:
x [2]
f
0.5(x + 4)(x − 1)(x − 3) = (3 − x)(x + 4)
b.
Scale factor = 224 0.5(x + 4)(x − 1)(x − 3) − (3 − x)(x + 4) = 0

2
c. 6.479 units
0.5(x + 4)(x − 1)(x − 3) + (x − 3)(x + 4) = 0

21. a. 7.7714 cm2 b. 15.5 cm2 c.
(x − 3)(x + 4)(0.5(x − 1) + 1) = 0
(x − 3)(x + 4)(0.5x + 0.5) = 0
8.3 Exam questions
x − 3 = 0, x + 4 = 0 or 0.5x + 0.5 = 0
x = 3 x = −4 x = −1
solutions online.
When x = −4, y = (3 + 4)(−4 + 4) = 0.
3
When x = −1, y = (3 + 1)(−1 + 4) = 12.
1. a. i.
When x = 3, y = (3 − 1)(3 + 4) = 0.
2
ii. y
6 Therefore, the coordinates are (−4, 0), (−1, 12)
(0, 3)
5 and (3, 0).
10. a. a = −1 b. loge (4) − 3

4 2
c. 39.04 units
3
c. − , 1 , 2, − − 3 loge (2)
2
3 3 63
( ) ( )
1 y=1
d.
0 x 2 4 16
y= x − or 12x − 5y = 4
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1
–1 1 2 3 4 5
–2 12 4
11. a.
–3 5 5
loge (1 + x2 )
–4 5
b.
A = 2 units2
x=1 2
12. a. y = 2x − 4
b. 1.629 units2
c.
2. D
+ loge (2) units2

3. B 3
13. a. a = 1, b = 2, c = 3
b.
8.4 Areas between curves and average values 4
2
8.4 Exercise
Point of intersection = (16, 4)
b. 9.6 units
1. a. c. 6.144
Area = 21
1
b. units2
3
14. a. y c. v
y = cos2(x) y = sin2(x) (π, 1)
(0, 1)
(10, 10.95)
0.5 y=1+3 x+1
0 π π 3π x
– – – π
4 2 4 (0, 4)
(0, −2), (3, 1)

2
b. 2 units
15. a.
7 0 t
b. units2 10
6 60 m
y = 5 − 0.2x2
d.
1 2 1 2
c. 3 units 3. a. b. 33 m
3 3
d. 4.5 units2 2 2
c. 50 m d. 152 m3
3
f −1 (x) = e 2
8.4 Exam questions 1 x
4. a.
Note: Mark allocations are available with the fully worked 4
solutions online. 7
1. B b. units2
2
3. a. f (x) = xe (kx + 2) 4 loge (8) − units2

2. C
′
7
b. k = 1
kx c.
2
,0 = − loge (5x)
1 dy
( )
5. a. b.
c. A = x2 ekx +
2(
5 dx
2 loge (10) − units2

2xekx
)
∫
dx 9
k c.
k = loge (2)
0 5
d. 6. a. v
8.5 Applications x
()
y = 0.5 sin –
2 +2
(4π, 2)
8.5 Exercise (0, 2)
1. a and b.
dN
—
dt
(30, 26)
26
dN
— = 0.8t + 2 0 t
dt 2π 4π
2
b. 25 m
c. 12.5 m3
7. 28.4 cm
8. 55.3 million
(0, 2)
9. a. dC
—
0 t dt (10, 1750)
10 20 30 1750
c. 140 bricks
2. a. 4 m/s
a= √
3
2 t+1
b.
dC
i. 1.5 m/s2 – = 15t2 + 250
dt
ii. 0.5 m/s2
(0, 250)
$5625
0 t
10
b.

(0, 2 loge (5) + 1) and e−0.5 − 5, 0

13. a. a = 5
5.1 km2
−1 )
( )
10. a. 12.
h−1 : R → R, h−1 (x) = e 2 (x − 5.

1
b. b. 30 minutes
c. y 23
x = –5 c. units/minute
30
𝜋
d. 274.6683(units
14. a. x = 6 sin −
t
)
2 4
b. −3 2 m
(0, 2 loge(5) + 1) √
c. v
y = h(x) 3
v = 3 cos –t – –
2 4
π
( ( ( 3 2
4π, –
2
(
1 0
(2 loge(5) + 1, 0)
x
( 3 2
0, –
2 (
( ––
e 2– 5, 0)
y = h–1(x) t
0
( (
3π
–, 0
2
( (
7π
–, 0
2
4π
1
(0, e ––
2 – 4.3 )
y = –5
–3
x = −4.9489, 5.7498 𝜋
20.49 m
d.
e. a = − sin −
d. 3 t
( )
2
e. 72.7601 units 2 2 4
2
= loge (x) + 1 and loge (x) dx = e2 + 1

e √
dy 3 2
∫
11. a. f. m/s2
15. a. a = −0.5e
−0.5t
dx 4
b. x = −2e − 0.5t + 2
1
= loge (x) + m loge (x)

dy −0.5t
)m )m−1
c. −0.2707 m
( (
b.
dx
c. Consequentially d. 0.3244 m
17. a. f (x) = 2 loge (x − 3) + 1

2
(loge (x)) + m(loge (x)) dx = x(loge (x))

16. 1.44 m
−1
e 2
]e
∫
( ) [
m m−1 m
+ 3) and (e + 3, 0)
− −
1 1 1
1
2 2
b. (0, e 2 2
(loge (x))m dx + m(loge (x))m−1 dx = x(loge (x))m

e e 2
2
e
c. 26.58 m
∫ ∫
[ ]
d. 16.11 m2
1 2
1 1 e. 42.69 m
2 2
(loge (x))m dx + m(loge (x))m−1 dx = e2 (loge (e2 ))m

e e
8.5 Exam questions
∫ ∫
−(1)(loge (1))m
1 1
solutions online.
2 2 1. a. 10 m
(loge (x))m dx + m(loge (x))m−1 dx = e2 (2 loge (e))m − 0

e e
50
∫ ∫
b.
3
1 1
2 2 c. The minimum distance is 8.5 m (to 1 d.p.).
(loge (x))m dx + m(loge (x))m−1 dx = 2m e2

e e 2
d. 2000 m
∫ ∫
2
e. 837 m
f. Given that k ≥ 1, k ∈ 1, .
1 1 7
[ )
b. t = 0, 4, 6
2
If Im = (loge (x))m dx, then

e 6
∫
2. a. 12
𝜋
15
Im + mIm−1 = 2m e2 as required
1 c. 1.76 d.
e. k =
2
5
dx = 2e2 + 6
e
2𝜋
∫
( )3
d. log e(x)
1
3. a. 72° 1
19. a. m = −2, n = and p = 2
3 3 2
b. The maximum slope is − , that is downwards. b. y = loge x is reflected in the x-axis, dilated by a factor of
16 16
2 parallel to the y-axis or from the x-axis and dilated by
c. M (2.49, 34.53)
a factor of 2 parallel to the x-axis or from the y-axis, and
d. w = 35.47 m, PQ = 24.30 m, MN = 25.23 m then translated 2 units to the left.
e. E: x = −23.71 −
x
F: x = 28.00 c. f −1 : y = 2e 2 −2
f. 870 m 2 y
x y=x
–_
8.6 Review y = 2e 2 – 2
8.6 Exercise
(√ ) e (0, 0)
1. a. i. 3 ii. 8 2 + 1 iii. − 1 x
2
b. i. 20 ii. 5 iii. −2
2. a. i. loge (3) + 2
y = –2
3
ii. − loge (3)
2 x = –2
( )
1
2 (
y = –2 loge – (x + 2) )
b. a = 2e3 + 1 1
For f : y = −2 loge (x + 2) , domain = (−2, ∞) and
3. a. m=1 b. k=2 2
√ range = R.
2 2 x
−
4. a. favg = b. x=1 For f −1 : y = 2e 2 − 2, domain = R and
3 range = (−2, ∞).
1 5
c. 1 units2 d. units2 (0, 0)
d.
6 6
( ) ( ) 0.1457 units2
e. ( )
1 1 13 9 3 9 −2𝜋
5. a. − ,1 , ,1 b. units2 20. a. m = − , n=− b. 1−e 3
2 2 24 10 10 10
11
c. units 2 c. 1.6425 units2
12
6. a. (−2, 0), (0, 2), (2, 4) 8.6 Exam questions
b. y y = g(x) Note: Mark allocations are available with the fully worked
(2, 4) solutions online.
y = f (x)
1. A
2. a. loge (3x) + 1 b. loge (12)
(0, 2)
3. a.
(–2, 0) 0 (1, 0) x
c. 8 units2
7. B 8. D 9. A 10. C
11. B 12. D 13. E 14. E
15. D 16. C b. 4 + 3 loge (3)
Technology active: extended response 4. E
26 5. C
2
17. a. 8.75 units b. units2
3
1 2 1250
18. a. y = x b. cm2
25 3
3
c. 50 000 cm

“c09DiscreteRandomVariables_PrintPDF” — 2022/6/25 — 13:52 — page 537 — #1
Discrete random
9 variables
LEARNING SEQUENCE
9.1 Overview ................................................................................................................................................................. 538
9.2 Probability review ................................................................................................................................................ 539
9.3 Discrete random variables ............................................................................................................................... 546
9.4 Measures of centre and spread ..................................................................................................................... 556
9.5 Applications ........................................................................................................................................................... 567
9.6 Review ..................................................................................................................................................................... 575

9.1 Overview
9.1.1 Introduction
A random variable is a variable whose value is determined
by the outcome of a random procedure.
Continuous random variables deal with values that are
obtained by measuring, whereas discrete random variables
are values that are obtained by counting. For example, the
number of people attending a series of concerts is a discrete
random variable. A discrete random variable may assume
only certain values within a given range.
There are many different types of discrete distributions.
Topic 10 covers one particular type, the binomial
distribution. Others are the Poisson distribution, the
geometric distribution, the hypergeometric distribution
and the multinomial distribution. The Poisson distribution
was named after French mathematician Simeon Denis
Poisson. It gives the probability of a given number of
events occurring over a fixed time period. For example,
if a restaurant monitors its customers every day and for a particular week the average number each day is 200,
this can be used to predict the probability of a particular day having more diners. Businesses use the Poisson
distribution to make forecasts about the number of customers or sales so that they can accurately stock their
shelves without too much overstock or understock, or hotels can prepare for a predicted influx of visitors by
employing more staff.
KEY CONCEPTS
• random variables, including the concept of a random variable as a real function defined on a sample
space and examples of discrete random variables
• discrete random variables:
– specification of probability distributions for discrete random variables using graphs, tables and
– calculation and interpretation of mean, 𝜇, variance, 𝜎 and standard deviation of a discrete

probability mass functions
2
random variable and their use

– calculation of probabilities for specific values of a random variable and intervals defined in
terms of a random variable, including conditional probability
9.2 Probability review

LEARNING INTENTION
• use probability language and determine probabilities of events
• use Venn diagrams to represent two or more events
• use the additional rule of probability to solve problems
• determine mutually exclusive events.
9.2.1 Probability events

eles-xxxx
This section will review the key concepts and skills studied in Units 1 and 2 of Mathematical Methods. This is
assumed knowledge for Units 3 and 4.
The sample space is the set of all possible outcomes for an experiment, and is denoted by the symbol 𝜉. For
example, if rolling a standard die, 𝜉 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. The sample space can also be written as a tree diagram
or table.
The probability of an event is the likelihood of that event occurring. For example, the probability of rolling a
1
6 for a standard die is : one desired outcome from 6 possible outcomes. Probability values range between 0
6
(impossible) to 1 (certain). The higher the probability value of an event, the more likely it is to occur.
event A above, rolling a 6, A′ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.

The complement of an event, A, is everything other than the event occurring, ie. ‘not’ A. So, for the example of
Pr (A′ ) = 1 − Pr (A)
Probability rules
• Pr(A) =
number of favourable outcomes corresponding to event A
0 ≤ Pr (A) ≤ 1
total number of possible outcomes
•
Pr(∅) = 0. ∅ is the null set, which is a set with no elements in it.

• The sum of all probabilities of the outcomes for an experiment is 1.
Pr(A′ ) = 1 − Pr(A)
•
•
WORKED EXAMPLE 1 Determining probabilities
A bag contains 6 blue discs, 2 red discs and 7 green discs. A disc is drawn randomly from the bag.
Determine the probability that the disc drawn is:
a. blue b. not red c. either green or red.
Let B = a blue disc.

THINK WRITE
a. 1. Define the event.
Pr (B) =
6
Pr (B) =
2. Substitute the values into the probability rule:
number of blue discs 15
.
total number discs
TOPIC 9 Discrete random variables 539

=
2
3. Simplify.
Let R = not a red disc.

′
5
Pr (R′ ) = 1 − Pr (R)
b. 1. Define the event.
2. State the complementary rule.
=1−
2
3. Substitute values into the probability rule.
15
=
13
4. Evaluate.
Let R = a red disc and let G = a green disc.

15
2+7
c. 1. Define the events.
2. Substitute values into the probability rule. Pr (R or G) =

Add the total number of red and green discs. 15
=
9
3. Evaluate.
15
=
3
4. Simplify.
5
9.2. 2 Venn diagrams

eles-xxxx
A Venn diagram is a visual way of representing the sample space, generally involving two events. It can also be
used to represent the probabilities for each event.
ξ ξ
A B A B
A∩B A∪B
The intersection of events A and B is denoted by A ∩ B. This represents the elements that are common to both,
i.e. elements that are in both A and B.
The union of events A and B is denoted by A ∪ B. This represents the total elements in either A or B. ie. elements
that are in A or B or both.
The addition rule of probability

Pr (A ∪ B) = Pr (A) + Pr (B) − Pr (∩B)
occurring when it is known that another event, B, has already occurred. The notation for this is Pr(A ∣ B).
Conditional probability occurs when additional information is known, such as the probability of event A
The conditional probability rule

Pr (A ∩ B)
Pr (A ∣ B) = , if Pr (B) ≠ 0
Pr (B)
or
n (A ∩ B)
Pr (A ∣ B) = , if n (B) ≠ 0
n (B)
This can be rearranged to the multiplication rule of probability:
Pr (A ∩ B) = Pr (A ∣ B) × Pr (B)
WORKED EXAMPLE 2 Venn diagrams
A group of 40 students were surveyed as to whether they studied Maths and/or History in Year 12.
Five people said they studied both subjects, 18 said they studied Maths and 8 studied neither.
a. Represent the information in a Venn diagram.
b. Determine the probability of selecting a student who:
i. studies History
ii. studies Maths and History
iii. studies Maths given they study History.
THINK WRITE
Maths only section = 18–5 = 13

a. First place 5 in the intersection region. ξ
H M
Place 8 in the region outside the circles.
Subtract the values from 40. Place the remaining 14 in
the History only area.
14 5 13
Pr (H) =
19
b. i. 1. Substitute the values into the probability rule:
Pr (H) =
number of people who study History 40
.
total number of students
Pr (H ∩ M) =
5
intersection, H ∩ M.
ii. 1. Study History and Maths is denoted by the
40
Substitute the values into the probability rule.
=
1
2. Simplify.
n (M ∩ H)
8
iii. 1. This is a conditional probability. Given that the Pr (M ∣ H) =

Venn diagram is written in terms of numbers of n (H)
people, not probabilities, choose the appropriate
rule.
Pr (M ∣ H) =
5
2. Substitute the appropriate values and evaluate.
19

WORKED EXAMPLE 3 The addition rule

If Pr (A) = 0.25, Pr (B) = 0.52 and Pr (A ∩ B) = 0.12, find:
a. Pr (A ∪ B) b. Pr (A ∣ B) c. Pr A ∣ B
′
( )
Pr (A ∪ B) = Pr (A) + Pr (B) − Pr (A ∩ B)
THINK WRITE
= 0.25 + 0.52–0.12
a. 1. State the addition rule.
Pr (A ∪ B) . = 0.65
2. Substitute the known probabilities and evaluate
Pr (A ∩ B)
b. 1. State the conditional probability rule. Pr (A ∣ B) =
Pr (B)
=
0.12
Pr (A ∣ B).
0.52
=
12
52
=
3
13
c. 1. Pr (A′ ∩ B) needs to be determined for the

Pr (A′ ∩ B) .
A Venn diagram may be helpful to determine
conditional probability rule.
Pr(A only) = 0.25 − 0.12 = 0.13

First place 0.12 in the intersection region. ξ
Pr(B only) = 0.52 − 0.12 = 0.4

A B
The remaining probability sits outside the

circles.
0.13 0.12 0.4
2. Determine the value for Pr (A ∩ B) . Pr (A ∩ B) = 0.4

0.35
′ ′
Pr (A′ ∩ B)
3. State the rule for the conditional probability. Pr (A′ ∣ B) =
Pr (B)
=
0.4
Pr (A′ ∣ B).
0.52
=
40
52
=
10
13
9.2.3 Independent events

eles-xxxx
Two events are independent if the occurrence of one of the events has no impact on the chance of the other event
occurring.
Independence rule
If two events A and B are independent, then Pr (A ∩ B) = Pr (A) × Pr (B)
and
Pr (A ∣ B) = Pr (A)
Mutually exclusive events

If events A and B have no elements in common, for example if event A is ε
rolling an even number and event B is rolling an odd number, then they are A B
said to be mutually exclusive.
A∩B=∅ or Pr(A ∩ B) = 0
WORKED EXAMPLE 4 Independent events
For two events A and B, Pr (A) = 0.3, Pr (B) = 0.4 and Pr (A ∪ B) = 0.58.
a. Determine whether A and B are mutually exclusive events.
b. Determine whether A and B are independent events.
a. 1. Determine Pr(A ∩ B) via the addition rule. Pr (A ∪ B) = Pr (A) + Pr (B) − Pr (A ∩ B)

THINK WRITE
0.58 = 0.3 + 0.4 − Pr (A ∩ B)

Pr (A ∩ B) = 0.7 − 0.58
= 0.12
Pr (A ∩ B) ≠ 0
events that Pr (A ∩ B) = 0 to answer the
2. Use the definition for mutually exclusive
Therefore, events A and B are not mutually
If independent, Pr (A ∩ B) = Pr (A) × Pr (B).

question. exclusive.
Pr (A) × Pr (B) = 0.3 × 0.4

b. 1. State the rule for independence.
= 0.12
2. Determine the right-hand side separately.
3. Check if the independence rule holds. = Pr (A ∩ B)

4. Write the final statement. Therefore, events A and B are independent.
9.2 Exercise


Technology free
1. WE1 A bag contains 4 blue discs, 8 red discs and 10 green discs. A disc is drawn randomly from the bag.
Determine the probability that the disc drawn is:
a. blue b. not red c. either green or red.
2. Twenty balls labelled with the numbers 1 to 20 are placed into a box and a ball is selected at random.
Determine the probability that the number of the ball selected is:
a. a multiple of 4
b. less than 16
c. greater than 5 but no more than 12.
3. There are 4 blue, 10 red and 6 green counters in a bag. A counter is selected, the colour is noted, and the
counter is returned to the bag. Three counters are selected in total. Determine the probability of selecting:
a. 3 blue counters
b. a blue, then a green, then a red counter
c. a blue, a green and a red counter.
4. WE2 A group of 60 students were surveyed as to whether they studied Maths and/or History in Year 12.
Eighteen people said they studied both subjects, 32 said they studied Maths and 10 studied neither.
a. Represent the information in a Venn diagram
b. Determine the probability of selecting a student who:
i. studies History
ii. studies Maths and History
iii. studies Maths given they study History.
If Pr (A) = 0.35, Pr (B) = 0.48 and Pr (A ∩ B) = 0.15, calculate:

a. Pr (A ∪ B) b. Pr(A ∣ B) c. Pr(A′ ∣ B)
5. WE3
6. For two events A and B, Pr(A) = 0.7, Pr(B) = 0.5 and Pr(A ∣ B) = 0.64. Calculate:
a. Pr(A ∩ B) b. Pr(A ∪ B) c. Pr(A ∣ B)
7. In a certain town, the probability of it raining the following day if it has been raining today is 0.7. If it
has been sunny today, the chance of it being sunny the next day is 0.5. If it is raining today, determine the
probability that:
a. it rains the next two days
b. it rains tomorrow, given that it will be sunny in two days’ time.
8. There are 6 white plates and 4 blue plates in a cupboard. Two are removed at random. Determine the
probability of obtaining:
a. two blue plates
b. one of each colour.
9. WE4 For two events A and B, Pr(A) = 0.5, Pr(B) = 0.36 and Pr(A ∪ B) = 0.75.
a. Determine whether A and B are mutually exclusive events.
b. Determine whether A and B are independent events.
10. Two fair dice are rolled. M represents the event of rolling a number less than 3 on the die and N represents
the event of rolling a number greater than 5 on the second die. Determine if:
a. M and N are mutually exclusive events
b. M and N are independent events.
11. If Pr(A) = 0.44and Pr(B) = 0.6, determine Pr(A ∣ B) if:

a. A and B are mutually exclusive b. A and B are independent.
12. For two events, M and N, Pr (M ∩ N) = 0.18, Pr (N) = k, and Pr (M′ ) = 0.7 − k. Determine the value of k if M
and N are independent.
9.2 Exam questions

Source: VCAA 2020, Mathematical Methods Exam 1, Q2
A car manufacturer is reviewing the performance of its car model X. It is known that at any given six-month
17
service, the probability of model X requiring an oil change is , the probability of model X requiring an air
20
3 1
filter change is and the probability of model X requiring both is .
20 20
a. State the probability that at any given six-month service model X will require an air filter change without
an oil change. (1 mark)
b. The car manufacturer is developing a new model, Y. The production goals are that the probability of
m+n
m
model Y requiring an oil change at any given six-month service will be , the probability of model
Y requiring an air filter change will be y = b and the probability of model Y requiring both will be
m+n
1
where m, n ∈ Z+
,
(2 marks)
Determine m in terms of n if the probability of model Y requiring an air filter change without an oil change at
any given six-month service is 0.05
Source: VCAA 2019, Mathematical Methods Exam 2, Section A, Q17
MC A box contains n marbles that are identical in every way except colour, of which k marbles are coloured red
and the remainder of the marbles are coloured green. Two marbles are drawn randomly from the box.
If the first marble is not replaced into the box before the second marble is drawn, then the probability that the
k2 + (n − k)2
two marbles drawn are the same colour is
A.
k + (n − k − 1)2
n2
2
B.
2k(n − k − 1)
n2
n(n − 1)
C.
k(n − 1) + (n − k)(n − k − 1)
n(n − 1)
D.
1−
( )2 ( )n−2
n k k
E. C2
n n
Two events, A and B, are independent, where Pr(B) = 2 Pr(A) and Pr(A ∪ B) = 0.52 Pr(A) is equal to
Source: VCAA 2018, Mathematical Methods Exam 2, Section A, Q14
A. 0.1 B. 0.2 C. 0.3 D. 0.4 E. 0.5


9.3 Discrete random variables

LEARNING INTENTION
• define a discrete random variable
• construct a discrete probability distribution table
• calculate probabilities over specific intervals, including conditional probability restrictions.
9.3.1 Random variables

eles-xxxx
The numerical value of a random variable is determined by conducting a
random experiment. Random variables are represented by uppercase letters of
of the random variable. For example, Pr(X = x) is interpreted as the probability

the alphabet. Lowercase letters of the alphabet are used for the associated values
that the random variable X will equal x.

Consider tossing three unbiased coins, where the number of Tails obtained
is recorded. X is defined as the number of Tails obtained; therefore, x can be
0, 1, 2 or 3 (the different number of Tails that can be obtained from three tosses). In order to determine the
associated probabilities for this random experiment, where each of the outcomes is equally likely, we need to
list the sample space.
𝜉 = {TTT, TTH, THT, HTT, THH, HTH, HHT, HHH}
• Pr (X = 0) = Pr(HHH)
= × ×
1 1 1
2 2 2
=
1
• Pr (X = 1) = Pr(HHT) + Pr(HTH) + Pr(THH)

8
= × × + × × + × ×
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
=
3
• Pr (X = 2) = Pr(TTH) + Pr(THT) + Pr(HTT)

8
= × × + × × + × ×
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
=
3
• Pr (X = 3) = Pr(TTT)
8
= × ×
1 1 1
2 2 2
=
1
8
or integer values. For the tossing of the three coins, X = {0, 1, 2, 3}.
This is an example of a discrete random variable. A discrete random variable can have only countable numbers
Other examples of discrete random variables include the number of pups in a litter, the number of soft-centred
chocolates in a box of mixed chocolates, the number of rainy days in the month of March, the number of blue
smarties in a standard 15-gram packet and the number of traffic accidents at a main intersection over the period
of three months.
The probability distribution of a discrete random variable defines
the probabilities associated with each value the random variable
can assume. For the experiment of the tossing of three coins, the
distribution can be displayed in a table.
x 0 1 2 3
Pr(X = x)
1 3 3 1
8 8 8 8
The probability distribution can also be represented Pr(X = x)

graphically, with probability on the vertical axis and the
possible x-values on the horizontal axis. For the probability 4
distribution shown in the table below, the graph would appear 10
as shown. 3
10
2
x 0 1 2 3
Pr(X = x)
10
1 4 4 1 1
10
10 10 10 10
0 x
0 1 2 3
WORKED EXAMPLE 5 Creating a discrete probability distribution
A motorist travels along a main road in Melbourne. In doing so they must travel through
three intersections with traffic lights over a stretch of two kilometres. The probability
2
that the motorist will have to stop because of a red light at any of the intersections is .
5
Let X be the number of red lights encountered by the motorist.
a. Use a tree diagram to produce a sample space for this situation.
b. Determine the probability of each outcome.
c. State the probability distribution for this random variable.

THINK WRITE
a. 1. Set up a tree diagram a. Let R = a red light and G = a green light.

to show the sample Intersection 1 Intersection 2 Intersection 3 Outcomes
space.
Note: Pr(R) = ,
2–
5 Red RRR
2
2– Red
Pr(G) = .
5 5 3– Green RRG
3 5
Red 2–
5 5 Red RGR
2– 3–
5 5 Green
3– Green RGG
5
2–
5 Red GRR
3– 2– Red
5 5 3– Green GRG
5
Green
2–
3– 5 Red GGR
5 Green
3– Green GGG
𝜉 = {RRR, RRG, RGR, RGG, GRR, GRG, GGR, GGG}

5
2. List the event or
sample space.
b. Pr(RRR) = × × =
2 2 2 8
b. Calculate the probability of
5 5 5 125
Pr(RRG) = × × =
each outcome.
2 2 3 12
5 5 5 125
Pr(RGR) = × × =
2 3 2 12
5 5 5 125
Pr(RGG) = × × =
2 3 3 18
5 5 5 125
Pr(GRR) = × × =
3 2 2 12
5 5 5 125
Pr(GRG) = × × =
3 2 3 18
5 5 5 125
Pr(GGR) = × × =
3 3 2 18
5 5 5 125
Pr(GGG) = × × =
3 3 3 27
5 5 5 125
c. Pr(X = 0) = Pr(GGG) =
27
c. 1. Set up the probability
Pr(X = 1) = Pr(RGG) + Pr(GRG) + Pr(GGR)

distribution by 125
combining the
= + +
outcomes related to 18 18 18
each possible value 125 125 125
=
of x. 54
125
Pr(X = 2) = Pr(RRG) + Pr(RGR) + Pr(GRR)
= + +
12 12 12
125 125 125
=
36
125
Pr(X = 3) = Pr(RRR) =
8
125
2. Enter the combined X = number of red lights
results into a table. x 0 1 2 3
Pr(X = x)
27 54 36 8
125 125 125 125
9.3.2 Conditions for a discrete probability distribute

eles-xxxx
Properties of a discrete probability distribution

1. The probability of each outcome is restricted to a value from 0 to 1; that is, 0 ≤ Pr(X = x) ≤ 1.
Pr(X = x) = 1.
∑
2. The sum of the probabilities of each outcome add up to 1; that is,
all x
WORKED EXAMPLE 6 Conditions for a discrete probability distribution
a. State, giving reasons, whether each of the following represents a discrete probability distribution.
i. x
Pr(X = x) −0.1
0 2 4 6
0.3 0.4 0.2
ii. −3 −1
Pr(X = x)
x 4 6
0.01 0.32 0.52 0.15
iii. −1
Pr(X = x)
x 0 1 2
0.2 0.1 0.2 0.3
b. A random variable, X, has the following probability distribution.
Pr(X = x)
x 1 2 3 4 5
b 2b 0.5b 0.5b b
Find the value of the constant b.

THINK WRITE
requirement 0 ≤ Pr(X = x) ≤ 1, as
a. i. 1. Check that each probability is a value a. i. Each probability does not meet the
Pr(X = 0) = −0.1.
from 0 to 1.

2. If this condition is satisfied, add the As one of the probabilities is a negative

probabilities together to see if they add value, there is no point checking the sum
to 1. of the probabilities.
3. Answer the question. This is not a discrete probability

distribution.
requirement 0 ≤ Pr(X = x) ≤ 1.
ii. 1. Check that each probability is a value ii. Each probability does meet the
from 0 to 1.
∑ Pr(X = x) = 0.01 + 0.32 + 0.52 + 0.15
=1
2. If this condition is satisfied, add the
probabilities together to see if they add
to 1.
3. Answer the question. Yes, this is a discrete probability function,
as both of the conditions have been
satisfied.
requirement 0 ≤ Pr(X = x) ≤ 1.
iii. 1. Check that each probability is a value iii. Each probability does meet the
from 0 to 1.
∑ Pr(X = x) = 0.2 + 0.1 + 0.2 + 0.3
= 0.8
2. If this condition is satisfied, add the
probabilities together to see if they add
to 1.
3. Answer the question. As the sum of the probabilities is not
equal to 1, this is not a discrete probability
b. ∑ Pr(X = x) = 1
distribution.
b + 2b + 0.5b + 0.5b + b = 1
b. 1. As we know this is a probability distribution,
5b = 1
we can equate the probabilities to 1.
2. Simplify.
b=
1
3. Solve for b.
5
The tossing of an unbiased die 3 times to see how many sixes are obtained is an example of a uniform
distribution, because all of the outcomes are equally likely. Another example is seeing how many Heads are
obtained when a single coin is tossed n times. However, a non-uniform distribution exists when a biased coin is
used, because all of the outcomes are not equally likely.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7 Non-uniform distribution

A coin is biased so that there are twice as many chances of it landing with Heads up. The coin is tossed
3 times.
a. List the sample space and calculate the associated probabilities for each of the possible outcomes.
c. Calculate Pr(X > 1).

b. Construct a probability distribution table.
THINK WRITE
a. If a Head is twice as likely to happen, then Pr(H) =

2
a. 1. Determine the probability for and
Pr(T) = .
each event. 3
1
𝜉 = {HHH, HHT, HTH, THH, HTT, THT, TTH, TTT}

3
2. List the sample space.
Pr(HHH) = × × =
2 2 2 8
3. Calculate the individual
Pr(HHT) = × × =
probabilities. 3 3 3 27
2 2 1 4
Pr(HTH) = × × =
3 3 3 27
2 1 2 4
Pr(HTT) = × × =
3 3 3 27
2 1 1 2
Pr(THH) = × × =
3 3 3 27
1 2 2 4
Pr(THT) = × × =
3 3 3 27
1 2 1 2
Pr(TTH) = × × =
3 3 3 27
1 1 2 2
Pr(TTT) = × × =
3 3 3 27
1 1 1 1
3 3 3 27
b. 1. Group the outcomes that b. Let X be the number of Heads.
Pr(X = 0) = Pr(TTT) =
contain the same number of 8
Pr(X = 1) = Pr(HHT) + Pr(HTH) + Pr(THH)

Heads. 27
= 3×
4
=
27
4
Pr(X = 2) = Pr(HTT) + Pr(TTH) + Pr(THT)

9
= 3×
2
=
27
2
Pr(X = 3) = Pr(HHH) =
9
1
27
+ + + =
1 6 12 8 27
2. Check that the probabilities add Check:
=1
to 1. 27 27 27 27 27

x 0 1 2 3
Pr(X = x)
1 2 4 8
27 9 9 27
c. 1. Define what probabilities are c Pr(X > 1) = Pr(X = 2) + Pr(X = 3)

included in this inequality.
Pr(X > 1) = +
4 8
2. Add the probabilities.
= +
9 27
12 8
27 27
Pr(X > 1) =
20
27

Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Using a tree diagram to depict a sample space (int-6427)
9.3 Exercise

Technology free
1. WE5 A bag contains 3 red, 3 green and 4 yellow balls. A ball is withdrawn from the
bag, its colour is noted, and then the ball is returned to the bag. This process is repeated
on two more occasions. Let Y be the number of green balls obtained.
a. Use a tree diagram to produce the sample space for the experiment.
b. Determine the probability of each outcome.
c. State the probability distribution for this random variable.
2. An unbiased die is tossed twice. Let the random variable X be the number of sixes
obtained. Determine the probability distribution for this discrete random variable.
3. State, giving reasons, whether each of the following represents a discrete probability distribution.
−2 −1
WE6
a. y b. y
Pr(Y = y) Pr(Y = y) 0.15

3 6 9 12 0 1 2
0.2 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.15
4. State, giving reasons, whether each of the following represents a discrete probability distribution.
a. y b. y
Pr(Y = y) Pr(Y = y) −0.2 −0.1

5 10 15 20 0 1 2 3 4
0.15 0.35 0.35 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.3
5. State, with reasons, which of the following could be a probability distribution.

a. x −3 −1 b. y
Pr(X = x) Pr(Y = y) −0.2 −0.1

1 3 1 2 3 4 5
0.1 0.5 0.5 0.1 0.4 0.1 0.2
c. z −2 d. x
Pr(Z = z) Pr(X = x)
0 2 4 1 2 3 4 5
0.25 0.15 0.45 0.25 0.1 0.25 0.3 0.25 0.1
6. State, with reasons, whether the following are discrete probability distributions.
a. p(x) = (5 − x), x ∈ {1, 3, 4}

1
x2 − x
7
b. p(x) = , x ∈ {−1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
c. p(x) = x, x ∈ {1, 4, 9, 16, 25}

40
1√
15
7. Calculate the value(s) of k if the tables represents discrete probability distributions.

a.
Pr(X = x) 3k − 0.1 0.6 − 3k

x 2 3 4 5 6
5k 2k k
b.
Pr(X = x) 0.25(k + 1)
x 1 2 3 4 5
0.5k2 0.5k 0.5 0.5k2
8. Each of the following tables shows a discrete probability distribution. Determine the unknown value in each
case. (Assume the unknown value is not zero.)
a.
Pr(X = x) 0.5 − 3d 0.4 − 2d d − 0.05

x 2 4 6 8 10
3d 2d
b. −6 −3
Pr(Y = y)
y 0 3 6
0.5k 1.5k 2k 1.5k 0.5k
c. z 1 3 5 7
Pr(Z = z) − a2 − a2 − a2
1 1 1
a
3 3 3
Technology active
p(x) = (15 − 3x), x ∈ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

9. MC The following is a discrete probability function.
1
a
The value of a is:
A. 20 B. 60 C. 15 D. 10 E. 30
WE7 Two dice are weighted so that Pr(2) = 0.2, Pr(1) = Pr(3) = Pr(5) = 0.1
and Pr(4) = Pr(6) = 0.25. They are both rolled at the same time. Let Z be the
10.
number of even numbers obtained.

a. List the sample space.
c. Calculate Pr(Z = 1).

b. Construct a probability distribution table.
11. Samara and Simon are going to play tennis together. Samara has been playing
tennis for longer than Simon, and the probability that Samara wins a set is 0.6.
They intend to play 3 sets of tennis. Let X be the number of sets that Simon
wins.
a. List the sample space.
c. Calculate Pr(X ≤ 2).

b. List the possible values of X and construct a probability distribution table.
12. A mature British Blue female cat has just given birth to 4 kittens. Assume that there is an equally likely
chance of a kitten being of either sex.
a. Use a tree diagram to list the sample space for the possible number of
males and females in the litter.
b. Let X be the number of females in the litter. Construct a probability
distribution table for the gender of the kittens.
c. Calculate the probability that 4 females will be born.
d. Calculate the probability that at least 1 female will be born.
e. Calculate the probability that at most 2 females will be born.

13. Matthew likes to collect differently shaped dice. Currently he has two tetrahedrons (4 sides), an icosahedron
(20 sides), two dodecahedrons (12 sides) and an octahedron (8 sides) as well as two standard 6-sided cubes.
Matthew has decided to play a game of chance using the octahedral die (with sides numbered 1 to 8) and one
dodecahedral die (with sides numbered 1 to 12). The dice are tossed simultaneously and Matthew notes the
number showing uppermost on both dice.
a. List the sample space for the simultaneous tossing of the two dice.
Pr(X = 0), Pr(x = 1) and Pr(X = 2).

b. Let X be the number of primes obtained as a result of a toss. Determine
c. This particular game of chance involves tossing the two dice simultaneously
on three occasions. The winner of the game must obtain two primes with
each of the three tosses. Calculate the probability of being a winner. Give
your answer correct to 3 decimal places.
14. A card game has the following rules. A card is chosen at random from a
standard deck of 52 cards. Each card is awarded a numerical score. The
premium cards — aces, kings and queens (P) — are each awarded
10 points. Each jack (J) is awarded 5 points, and each standard card (S) is
awarded 2 points. The game is played twice.
a. List the possible total points scored when two games are played.
b. If X is the total points scored when two games are played, construct the
probability distribution.
i. Pr(X = 15) ii. Pr (X ≥ 12) iii. Pr(X = 15 | X ≥ 12).

c. Calculate:
15. Diabetes is the name of a group of diseases that affect how the body uses blood glucose. If you have
diabetes, it means that you have too much glucose in your blood. This can lead to serious health problems.
Treatment for type 2 diabetes primarily involves monitoring your blood sugar level along with medications,
insulin or both.
A new diabetes medication is to be trialled by 5 patients. From experiments that have been performed with
mice, the success rate of the new medication is about 60%.
a. Let X denote the number of patients who improve their health with the new medication. Construct the
Determine Pr(X = 3) + Pr(X = 4) + Pr(X = 5) and comment on the success of the new medication.
b. The new medication will be considered a success if 68% or more of the patients improve their health.
a. If Pr (H) =
16. A biased coin is tossed 6 times.
2
and X defines the number of Tails obtained, construct a probability distribution for this
3
discrete probability experiment. Give your answers correct to 4 decimal places.
b. Calculate, correct to 4 decimal places:
i. the probability of more than 2 Heads
ii. the probability of more than 2 Heads, given that fewer than 5 Heads come up.
17. A discrete random variable, X, can take the values −5, −1, 0, 1 and 5. The probability distribution is defined
Pr(X = −1) = Pr(X = 0) = Pr(X = 1) = m

in the following manner.
Pr(X = −5) = Pr(X = 5) = n

3 Pr(X = 0) = Pr(X = 5)
a. Determine the values of m and n.
i. Pr(X ≥ 0) ii. Pr(X = 1 | X ≥ 0).

b. Calculate:
18. A discrete random variable has the following probability distribution.
Pr(Y = y) 0.3 − 0.2k

y 1 2 3 4 5
0.5k2 0.1 0.5k2 0.3
Determine the value(s) of k, correct to 4 decimal places, that meet the criteria for this to be a valid
probability distribution function.
9.3 Exam questions

MC The number of pets, X, owned by each student in a large school is a random variable with the following
discrete probability distribution.
Pr (X = x)
x 0 1 2 3
0.5 0.25 0.2 0.05
If two students are selected at random, the probability that they own the same number of pets is
A. 0.3 B. 0.305 C. 0.355 D. 0.405 E. 0.8
MC For the table below to represent a probability function, the value(s) of p must be
Pr (X = x) 1−p
x 0 1 2 3 4
0.2 0.6p2 0.1 0.1
A. p = 0 B. p = C. p = D. p = or p = 1 E. p = 1
4 2 2
5 3 3
Pr (red) = , and Pr (blue) = Pr (green) = Pr (yellow) = .

A game is played using a spinner that has been loaded so that it is more likely to land on the red side. In fact,
2 1
Each player pays $2 to play. The player spins the spinner a total of 3 times; however,
5 5
of any 3 colours, they win $1, but if the player has a combination of 3 colours that are
once the spinner lands on the red side the game is over. If a player has a combination
all the same, they win $10. There are a total of 40 different outcomes for the game.
b. List the possible ways in which the player could win $10.
a. List the possible ways in which the game could end. (1 mark)
(1 mark)
the amount the person pays to play, so X = {0, 1, 10}. Construct the probability
c. Suppose X equals the amount of money won by playing the game, excluding
distribution. Give your answers correct to 4 decimal places. (3 marks)

9.4 Measures of centre and spread

LEARNING INTENTION
• calculate the mean (expected value) of a discrete probability distribution
• calculate the variance and standard deviation of a discrete probability distribution.
The mean, variance and standard deviation are common statistical measurements that give us insight about sets
of data, including discrete random variable distributions.
9.4.1 The expected value or mean

eles-xxxx
The expected value or mean of a discrete probability function represents the ‘average’ outcome for the random
experiment. When we find the mean, we are not stating the actual outcome; we are stating the outcome that we
expect to happen.
Consider again a weighted spinner where Pr (red) = and Pr (blue) = Pr (green) = Pr (yellow) = .
2 1
5 5
obtains a combination of 3 colours, they win $1, and if a player obtains a combination of 3 colours that are the
The player spins the spinner 3 times, although the game is over if the spinner lands on its red side. If a player
same, they win $10. The game costs $2 to play. The calculated probabilities are Pr (Win) =
3
,
Pr (Win $1) = and Pr (Game over) =

125
24 98
.
If we consider the profit made by the person conducting the game, then they can lose $8 (the player pays $2 to
125 125
play but wins $10), gain $1 (the player pays $2 but wins $1) or gain $2 (the player pays $2 and wins nothing).
If Y represents the profit made by the person conducting the game, the following table would represent this
situation.
y −$8 $1 $2
Pr(Y = y)
3 24 98
125 125 125
The expected profit = −8 × +1× +2×

3 24 98
125 125 125
=− + +
24 24 196
= $1.57
125 125 125
That is, on average, the person conducting the game makes a profit of $1.57 per game.
The expected value of a random variable, X, is denoted by E(X) or 𝜇 (mu). If a random variable assumes the
values x1 , x2 , x3 . . . xn−1 , xn with associated probabilities Pr (X = x1 ) , Pr (X = x2 ) , Pr (X = x3 ) . . . Pr (X = xn−1 ) ,
Pr (X = xn ), then the expected value is as follows.
The expected value

E(X) = x1 Pr (X = x1 ) + x2 Pr (X = x2 ) + … + xn−1 Pr (X = xn−1 ) + xn Pr (X = xn )
= xn Pr (X = xn )
∑
x=n
x=1
WORKED EXAMPLE 8 Calculating the expected value
Calculate the expected value of the random variable with the following probability distribution.
Pr(X = x)
x 10 20 30 40 50
0.42 0.34 0.16 0.07 0.01
THINK WRITE
x=n
1. Write the rule to find the E(X) = ∑ xn Pr (X = xn )
expected value. x=1
2. Substitute the appropriate E(X) = 10 (0.42) + 20 (0.34) + 30 (0.16) + 40 (0.07) + 50 (0.01)
E(X) = 4.2 + 6.8 + 4.8 + 2.8 + 0.5

values into the rule.
= 19.1
3. Simplify.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Expected value or mean (int-6428)
9.4.2 Linear properties of the expected value

Sometimes we may be required to find the expected value of a linear function aX + b.
eles-xxxx
Linear properties of E (X)

E(aX + b) = E(aX) + E (b)
= aE(X) + b
Also, E(X + Y) = E(X) + E(Y)
where X and Y are discrete random variables and a and b are constants.
Note that the above properties are linear in nature, so
E(X2 ) ≠ [E(X)]2
WORKED EXAMPLE 9 Applying the linear properties of E (X)
A discrete random variable, X, has the following probability distribution.
x 5−d 3−d −d 3+d
Pr(X = x)
7 9 1 1
20 20 10 10
If E (X) = 1, determine:
ii. E (5X + 3) iii. E(3X − 2).

a. the value of the constant d
b. i. E (7X)

THINK WRITE
a. E(X) = ∑ xn Pr (X = xn )
x=n
a. 1. Write the rule to find the expected
value. x=1
E(X) = (5 − d) + (3 − d) − + (3 + d)
7 9 2d 2
2. Substitute the appropriate values into
the rule. 20 20 20 20
E(X) = − + − − + +
35 7d 27 9d 2d 6 2d
3. Simplify.
68 − 16d
20 20 20 20 20 20 20
E(X) =
20
68 − 16d
4. Substitute E(X) = 1 and solve for d. 1=
20 = 68 − 16d
20
16d = 48
d=3
b. i. E(7X) = 7E(X)
E(aX + b) = aE (X) + b.
b. i. 1. Apply the linear property of E(X)∶
E(7X) = 7 × 1
=7
2. Substitute in the value of E(X) and
evaluate.
ii. E(5X + 3) = 5E(X) + 3
E(aX + b) = aE (X) + b.
ii. 1. Apply the linear property of E(X)∶
E(5X + 3) = 5 × 1 + 3
=8
evaluate.
iii. E(3X − 2) = 3E(X) − 2
E(aX + b) = aE (X) + b.
iii. 1. Apply the linear property of E(X)∶
E(3X − 2) = 3 × 1 − 2
=1
evaluate.
9.4.3 The variance and standard deviation

eles-xxxx
The measure of spread of a random variable distribution tells us how the data is dispersed. The measure of
is denoted by Var(X) or 𝜎 2 (sigma squared) and is defined as follows.

spread is called the variance, and the square root of the variance gives the standard deviation. The variance
Variance rule
Var(X) = 𝜎 2 = E X2 − [E(X)]2
( )
This may also be written as
Var (X) = 𝜎 2 = E X2 − 𝜇2 , where 𝜇 = E (X) .

( )
The derivation of this rule is follows:
Var(X) = E(X − 𝜇)2

= E X2 − 2X𝜇 + 𝜇2
= E X2 − E(2X𝜇) + E 𝜇2
( )
= E X2 − 2𝜇E(X) + 𝜇2
( ) ( )
= E X2 − 2𝜇2 + 𝜇2
( )
( )
Since E (X) = 𝜇,
Var(X) = E X2 − 𝜇2
Var(X) = E X2 − [E(X)]2
( )
( )
The standard deviation of X is the square root of the variance of X and is denoted by SD(X) or 𝜎.
Standard deviation rule

SD(X) = 𝜎 =
√
Var(X)
If the standard deviation is large, the spread of the data is large. If the standard deviation is small, the data is
clumped together, close to the mean.
WORKED EXAMPLE 10 Variance and standard deviation

A discrete random variable, X, has the following probability distribution.
Pr(X = x)
x 1 2 3 4 5
0.15 0.25 0.3 0.2 0.1
Calculate:
a. E(X) b. Var(X)
c. SD(X), correct to 4 decimal places.
a. E(X) = ∑ x Pr(X = x)
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Write the rule to find the expected
E(X) = 1(0.15) + 2(0.25) + 3(0.3) + 4(0.2) + 5(0.1)

value. all x
2. Substitute the appropriate values
E(X) = 0.15 + 0.5 + 0.9 + 0.8 + 0.5

into the rule.
= 2.85
3. Simplify.
b. 1. Evaluate E(X2 ). b. E X = ∑ x2 Pr(X = x)

( 2)
= 12 (0.15) + 22 (0.25) + 32 (0.3) + 42 (0.2) + 52 (0.1)

all x
= 0.15 + 1 + 2.7 + 3.2 + 2.5

2
E X
( )
= 9.55

2. Write the rule for the variance. Var(X) = E X2 − [E(X)]2

( )
Var(X) = 9.55 − (2.85)2

= 9.55 − 8.1225
3. Substitute in the appropriate values
= 1.4275
and evaluate.
c. SD(X) = Var(X)
√
c. 1. Write the rule for the standard
deviation.
SD(X) = 1.4275
= 1.1948
√
2. Substitute in the variance and
evaluate.

a. 1. On a Lists & Spreadsheet a. 1. On a Statistics screen, relabel
page, label the first column list 1 as x and list 2 as p.
as x and the second column Enter the given x-values in
as p. the first column and their
Enter the given x-values in probabilities in the second
the first column and their column.
probabilities in the second
column.
2. On a Calculator page, 2. On the Main screen, complete
sum(x × p)
complete the entry line the entry line as:
sum(x × p)
as:
then press EXE.
then press ENTER.
3. The answer appears on the E(X) = 2.85 3. The answer appears on the E(X) = 2.85
screen. screen.
sum x2 × p − sum(x × p)
b. 1. Complete the next entry b. 1. Complete the next entry line as:
sum x2 × p sum(x × p)
)2
line as:
( ) (
( )( )2
then press EXE.
then press ENTER.
2. The answer appears on the Var(X) = 1.4275 2. The answer appears on the Var(X) = 1.4275
screen. screen.
c. 1. Complete the next entry c. 1. Complete

√ the next entry line as:
line
√ as: ans
ans then press EXE.
then press ENTER.
2. The answer appears on the SD(X) = 1.1948 2. The answer appears on the SD(X) = 1.1948
screen. screen.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Variance and standard deviation (int-6429)
9.4.4 Properties of the variance

eles-xxxx
The variance of a linear function has rules similar to those for the expectation of a linear function.
Var(aX + b) = a2 Var(X)
This can be proved in the following manner.
Var(aX + b) = E (aX + b)2 − [E(aX + b)]2

= E a2 X2 + 2abX + b2 − [aE(X) + b]2
= E a2 X2 + E(2abX) + E b2 − a2 [E(X)]2 − 2abE(X) + b2
( )
= a2 E(X2 ) + 2abE(X) + b2 − a2 [E(X)]2 − 2abE(X) − b2

( ) ( ) ( )
= a2 E X2 − [E(X)]2
( ( ) )
But Var(X) = E X2 − [E(X)]2 , so

( )
Var (aX + b) = a2 Var (X).
Properties of the variance

WORKED EXAMPLE 11 Properties of the variance
A discrete probability function is defined by the rule p(y) = (10 − 3y), y ∈ {1, 2, 3}.
1
12
a. Show that the sum of the probabilities is equal to one.
b. Calculate:
i. E(Y) ii. Var(Y).
i. Var(3Y − 1) ii. Var(4 − 5Y).

c. Calculate:

THINK WRITE
a. p (y) = (10 − 3y) , y ∈ {1, 2, 3}

1
a. 1. Evaluate the probabilities for the given
12
p(1) = (10 − 3(1)) =
values of y.
1 7
12 12
p(2) = (10 − 3(2)) = =
1 4 1
12 12 3
p(3) = (10 − 3(3)) =
1 1
Pr(Y = 1) + Pr(Y = 2) + Pr(Y = 3)

12 12
2. Add the probabilities.
= + +
7 4 1
=
12 12 12
12
=1
12
b. i. 1. Write the rule to find the expected value. b. i. E(Y) = ∑ y Pr(Y = y)

all y
E(Y) = 1 +2 +3
7 4 1
( ) ( ) ( )
2. Substitute the appropriate values into the
rule. 12 12 12
= + +
7 8 3
3. Simplify.
12 12 12
=
18
12
=
3
2
=1 +2 +3
7 4 1
( ) ( ) ( )
ii. 1. Evaluate E Y 2 .
( 2) 2 2 2
ii. E Y
( )
12 12 12
= + +
7 16 9
12 12 12
=
32
12
=
8
3
2. Write the rule for the variance. Var(Y) = E Y2 − [E(Y)]2

( )
Var(Y) = −
( )2
32 3
3. Substitute in the appropriate values and
12 2
= −
evaluate.
32 9
32 − 27
12 4
=
12
=
5
12
Var(3Y − 1) = 32 Var(Y)
Var(aY + b) = a Var(Y ).
c. i. 1. Apply the property of the variance: c. i.
Var(3Y − 1) = 9 ×
2
5
2. Substitute in the value of Var(Y ) and
=
evaluate. 12
15
ii. Var(4 − 5Y) = (−5) Var(Y)

4
Var(aY + b) = a Var(Y ).
2
ii. 1. Apply the property of the variance:
Var(4 − 5Y) = 25 ×
2
5
2. Substitute in the value of Var(Y ) and
=
evaluate. 12
125
12
9.4 Exercise

Technology free
1. WE8 Calculate the expected value of the random variable for each of the following probability distributions.
a. x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
Pr(X = x)
1 1 1 2 2 1 1
9 9 9 9 9 9 9
b. z 1 2 3 4 5 6
Pr(Z = z)
1 1 1 1 1 1
12 4 3 6 12 12
2. A discrete random variable is defined by the function p(x) = (2x − 1), x ∈ {1, 2, 3, 4}.
1
16
a. Construct a probability distribution table for this function.
b. Find the expected value of the function.
3. Recently the large supermarket chains have been waging a

price war on bread.
On a particular Tuesday, a standard loaf of bread was
purchased from a number of outlets of different chains. The
following table shows the probability distribution for the price
$1 $2 $3 $4 $5
of the bread, X.
Pr(X = x)
x
0.3 0.15 0.4 0.1 0.05
Calculate the expected cost of a loaf of bread on that given
Tuesday.

4. A game of chance is played with a spinner.

1
Each sector represents of the circular spinner. If the pointer lands
8
the player receives $5. If the pointer lands on red, the player receives
on yellow, the player receives nothing. If the pointer lands on green,
$8, and if the pointer lands on blue, the player receives $10. The game
costs $2 to play. Let X represent the net profit made by the player.
a. Construct a probability distribution table for the net profit.
b. Calculate the expected net profit in dollars for any player.
−2
5. A discrete random variable, X, has the following probability distribution.
Pr(X = x)
x 0 2 4 6
k k 2k 3k 3k
a. Determine the value of the constant k.
b. Determine the expected value of X.
−5
6. WE9 The discrete random variable, Y, has the following probability distribution.
y 0 5 d 25
Pr(Y = y)
1 3 1 3 1
If E(Y) = 7.5, determine:

10 10 5 10 10
a. the value of the constant d
i. E(2Y + 3) ii. E(5 − Y) iii. E(−2Y).
7. Given that E(X) = 4.5, determine:

b.
a. E(2X − 1) b. E(5 − X) c. E(3X + 1).

Technology active
A discrete random variable, Z, is defined by p (z) = z − 4 , 2 ≤ z ≤ 5.
1 (2 )
8. MC
38
The mean, correct to 2 decimal places, is:
A. 4.02 B. 4.42 C. 4.47 D. 3.16 E. 1.66
9. WE10 A discrete random variable, y, has the following probability distribution.
Pr(Y = y)
y 1 4 7 10 13
0.15 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.15
Calculate:
a. E (X)
b. Var (X)
c. SD (X), correct to 4 decimal places.
A discrete probability function is defined by p(x) =

, x = 1, 2, 3, 4.
x2
10. WE11
30
a. Construct a probability distribution table and show that ∑ Pr(X = x) = 1.

Where appropriate, give your answers to the following to 2 decimal places.
all x
b. Calculate:
i. E(X) ii. Var(X).
i. Var(4X + 3) ii. Var(2 − 3X).

c. Calculate:
shown and E(Z) = 14.94.

11. a. Determine the value of the constant m if the discrete random variable Z has the probability distribution
−7
Pr(Z = z)
z m 23 31
b. Determine Var(Z) and hence calculate Var(2(Z − 1)) and Var(3 − Z), correct to 2 decimal places.
0.21 0.34 0.33 0.12
12. MC Given that SD (X) = 𝜎 = 2.5, Var(2X + 3) is:

A. 28 B. 6.32 C. 25 D. 15.5 E. 12.5
13. A discrete probability function is defined by the rule p(x) = h(3 − x)(x + 1), x = 0, 1, 2.
1
a. Show that the value of h is .
10
b. Hence, calculate the mean, variance and standard deviation of X.
Where appropriate, give your answers to 4 decimal places.
14. Two octahedral dice (with faces numbered 1 to 8) are rolled
simultaneously and the two numbers are recorded.
a. List the probability or event space and find n(𝜉).
Let Z be the larger of the two numbers on the two dice.
b. State the probability distribution for Z.
c. Calculate the expected value and standard deviation of Z, correct to
4 decimal places.
15. At a beginner’s archery competition, each archer has two arrows to shoot at
the target. A target is marked with ten evenly spaced concentric rings.
The following is a summary of the scoring for the beginner’s competition.
Yellow: 10 points
Red: 7 points
Blue: 5 points
Black: 3 points
White: 1 point
Let X be the total score after a beginner shoots two arrows.
a. List the possible score totals.
The probability of a beginner hitting each of the rings has been calculated as
Pr (yellow) = 0.1, Pr (red) = 0.2, Pr (blue) = 0.3, Pr (black) = 0.2 and

follows:
Pr (white) = 0.2.
b. Construct a probability distribution table for the total score achieved by a beginner archer.
c. Calculate the expected score and the standard deviation for a beginner. Where appropriate, give your
answers correct to 4 decimal places.
−1
16. A random variable, Y, has the following probability distribution.
Pr(Y = y) 1 − 2c 1 − 2c
y 1 3 5 7
2 2 2
c c c
a. Determine the value of the constant c.
b. Calculate E(Y), the mean of Y.
c. Calculate Var(Y) and hence determine the standard deviation of Y, correct to 2 decimal places.
−2 −1
17. A discrete random variable, X, has the following probability distribution.
Pr(X = x) k + k2 2k + k2
x 0 1 2 3 4
0.5k2 0.5k2 4k 2k 7k2


b. Calculate the expected value of X.
c. Calculate the standard deviation of X, correct to 4 decimal places.
18. A discrete probability function has the following distribution.
Pr(X = x)
x 1 2 3 4 5
a 0.2 0.3 b 0.1
The expected value of the function is 2.5.
a. Calculate the values of the constants a and b.
b. Hence, evaluate the variance and standard deviation of X. Where appropriate, give your answers to
4 decimal places.
19. For a given discrete random variable, X, it is known that E(X) = a and Var(X) = 2a − 2, where a is a constant
that is greater than zero.
a. Calculate E X2 in terms of a.
( )
( 2)
b. If E X is known to be 6, determine E(X) and Var(X).
20. For a discrete random variable, Y, the probability function is defined by
y ∈ {1, 2, 3, 4}
p(y) = {
n(7 − y), y ∈ {5, 6}
ny,
a. Calculate the value of the constant n.

b. Determine the expected value, the variance and the standard deviation of Y, correct to 4 decimal places.
9.4 Exam questions

MC The discrete random variable X has the following probability distribution.
x 0 1 2 3 6
Pr(X = x)
1 9 1 1 3
Let 𝜇 be the mean of X.

4 20 10 20 20
Pr (X < 𝜇) is
1 1 17 4 7
A. B. C. D. E.
2 4 20 5 10
The random variable X has the following probability distribution, where 0 < p <
1
MC
−1
3
Pr(X = x) 1 − 3p
x 0 1
p 2p
A. 2p (1 − 3p) B. 1 − 4p C. (1 − 3p) D. 6p − 16p2 E. p (5 − 9p)

The variance of X is
2
A dart competition at a local sports centre allows each player to throw one dart
at the board, which has a radius of 20 centimetres. The board consists of five
concentric circles, each with the same width.
The inner circle has a radius of 4 cm. The probability of landing on each band is
determined by the area of that band available on the board.
The outer red band is called band E, the next white band is called band D and so on
until you get to the inner red circle, which is band A.
The competition costs $1 to enter and the prizes are as follows:

a. Calculate the probability of landing on each of the bands. (4 marks)
If a dart hits band D, the player receives $1.

If a dart hits band E, the player receives nothing.
If a dart hits band C, the player receives $2.

If a dart hits band B, the player receives $5.
If a dart hits band A, the player receives $10.
b. If X is a discrete random variable that represents the profit in dollars for the player, construct a probability
distribution table for this game. (2 marks)
c. Calculate:
i. the expected profit a player could make in dollars (2 marks)
ii. the standard deviation. (2 marks)
9.5 Applications
LEARNING INTENTION
• determine probabilities within 2 standard deviations of the mean
• determine probabilities for different applications.
9.5.1 Applications of discrete random variables

eles-xxxx
One important application of the expected value and standard deviation of a random variable is that
approximately 95% of the distribution lies within two standard deviations of the mean.
Probability within 2 standard deviations of

the mean
Pr (𝜇 − 2𝜎 ≤ X ≤ 𝜇 + 2𝜎) ≈ 0.95
95%
This can be illustrated by the normal distribution curve. This type of distribution x
μ – 2σ μ μ + 2σ
is covered in Topic 12.

WORKED EXAMPLE 12 Applications of discrete random variables
A biased die has a probability distribution for the outcome of the die being rolled as follows.
Pr(X = x)
x 1 2 3 4 5 6
0.1 0.1 0.2 0.25 0.25 0.1
b. Determine: Pr(X ≥ 3 | X ≤ 5)
a. Determine: Pr(even number)
c. Determine: the expected value.
a. Pr(even number) = Pr(X = 2) + Pr(X = 4) + Pr(X = 6)

THINK WRITE
a. 1. State the probabilities to be
= 0.1 + 0.25 + 0.1

added.
= 0.45
2. Substitute the values and
simplify.
Pr(X ≥ 3 ∩ X ≤ 5)
Pr(X ≥ 3 | X ≤ 5) =
Pr(X ≤ 5)
b. 1. Define the rule. b.
2. Find Pr(X ≥ 3 ∩ X ≤ 5). Pr(X ≥ 3 ∩ X ≤ 5) = Pr(3 ≤ X ≤ 5)

= Pr(X = 3) + Pr(X = 4) + Pr(X = 5)
= 0.2 + 0.25 + 0.25
= 0.7
3. Calculate Pr(X ≤ 5). Pr(X ≤ 5) = 1 − Pr(X = 6)

= 1 − 0.1
= 0.9
Pr(X ≥ 3 ∩ X ≤ 5)
Pr(X ≥ 3 | X ≤ 5) =
Pr(X ≤ 5)
4. Substitute the appropriate values
Pr(3 ≤ X ≤ 5)
=
into the formula.
Pr(X ≤ 5)
=
0.7
0.9
=
7
5. Evaluate and simplify.
c. E(X) = 1(0.1) + 2(0.1) + 3(0.2) + 4(0.25)

9
+ 5(0.25) + 6(0.1)
c. Calculate the expected value.
= 0.1 + 0.2 + 0.6 + 1 + 1.25 + 0.6

= 3.75
WORKED EXAMPLE 13 Further applications
Let Y be a discrete random variable with the following probability distribution.
Pr(Y = y)
y 0 1 2 3 4
0.08 0.34 0.38 0.17 0.03
a. Determine the expected value of Y.
c. Calculate Pr(𝜇 − 2𝜎 ≤ Y ≤ 𝜇 + 2𝜎).

b. Calculate the standard deviation of Y, correct to 4 decimal places.
a. E(Y) = ∑ y Pr(Y = y)
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Write the rule to find the
E(Y) = 0(0.08) + 1(0.34) + 2(0.38) + 3(0.17) + 4(0.03)

expected value. all y
2. Substitute the appropriate
E(Y) = 0 + 0.34 + 0.76 + 0.51 + 0.12

values into the rule.
= 1.73
3. Simplify.
b. E Y2 = 02 (0.08) + 12 (0.34) + 22 (0.38) + 32 (0.17) + 42 (0.03)

= 0 + 0.34 + 1.52 + 1.53 + 0.48
b. 1. Find E(Y2 ).
( )
= 3.87
2. Write the rule for the variance. Var(Y) = E Y2 − [E(Y)]2

( )
Var(Y) = 3.87 − 1.732

= 0.8771
3. Substitute in the appropriate
values and evaluate.
SD(Y) = Var(Y)
√
4. Write the rule for the standard
deviation.
SD (Y) = 0.8771
= 0.9365
√
5. Substitute in the variance and
evaluate.
c. 1. Find 𝜇 − 2𝜎. c. 𝜇 − 2𝜎 = 1.73 − 2(0.9365)

= −0.143
2. Find 𝜇 + 2𝜎. 𝜇 + 2𝜎 = 1.73 + 2(0.9365)

= 3.603
Pr (𝜇 − 2𝜎 ≤ Y ≤ 𝜇 + 2𝜎)
Pr(𝜇 − 2𝜎 ≤ Y ≤ 𝜇 + 2𝜎). = Pr (−0.143 ≤ Y ≤ 3.603)
3. Substitute the values into
Pr (𝜇 − 2𝜎 ≤ Y ≤ 𝜇 + 2𝜎)
= Pr(0 ≤ Y ≤ 3)
4. Interpret this interval in
= 0.08 + 0.34 + 0.38 + 0.17

the context of a discrete
= 0.97
distribution. The smallest
table is 0, so −0.173 is
y-value in the distribution
Note: This is very close to the estimated value of 0.95.
rounded up to 0. The largest
y-value in the distribution
table that is smaller than 3.573
is 3.

9.5 Exercise

Technology free
1. Let X be a discrete random variable with the following probability distribution.
Pr(X = x)
x 0 1 2 3 4
0.2 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.1
b. If the standard deviation of X is 1.3, evaluate Pr (𝜇 − 2𝜎 ≤ X ≤ 𝜇 + 2𝜎).

a. Calculate the expected value of X
2. A discrete random variable, Y, has the following probability distribution.
Pr(Y = y)
y 1 2 d 8
a. Calculate the value of the constant d if it is known that E(Y) = 3.5.

0.3 0.2 0.4 0.1
b. Determine Pr(Y ≥ 2 | Y ≤ d).
3. WE12 A financial adviser for a large company has put forward a number of options to improve the
company’s profitability, X (measured in hundreds of thousands of dollars). The decision to implement the
extra profit of 1 million dollars with a probability of 0.1, an extra profit of $750 000 with a probability of 0.3,
options will be based on the cost of the options as well as their profitability. The company stands to make an
an extra profit of $500 000 with a probability of 0.3, an extra profit of $250 000 with a probability of 0.2 and
an extra profit of $100 000 with a probability of 0.1.
a. Pr(X ≤ $500 000)

Determine:
b. Pr(X ≥ $250 000 | X ≤ $750 000)

c. the expected profit.
4. A discrete random variable, Z, has the following probability distribution.
Pr(Z = z)
z 1 3 5 7 9
0.2 0.15 a b 0.05
The expected value of Z is known to be equal to 4.6.
Calculate the values of the constants a and b.
Technology active
5. WE13 A discrete random variable, X, has the following probability distribution.
Pr(X = x)
x 5 10 15 20 25
0.05 0.25 0.4 0.25 0.05
a. Determine the expected value of X.
c. Calculate Pr (𝜇 − 2𝜎 ≤ X ≤ 𝜇 + 2𝜎).
b. Calculate the standard deviation of X, correct to 4 decimal places.
6. The number of Tails, X, when a fair coin is tossed six times has the following probability distribution.
Pr(X = x)
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Evaluate Pr (𝜇 − 2𝜎 ≤ X ≤ 𝜇 + 2𝜎).
0.012 0.093 0.243 0.315 0.214 0.1 0.023
7. A probability function is defined as p(x) = (4 − x), x ∈ {0, 1, 2}.

1
9
a. Construct a probability distribution table.
b. Calculate, correct to 4 decimal places where appropriate:
c. Calculate Pr(𝜇 − 2𝜎 ≤ X ≤ 𝜇 + 2𝜎 ).
i. E(X) ii. Var(X) iii. SD(X).
8. The probability distribution table for the discrete random variable, Z, is as follows.
5 − 2k 8 − 3k
z 1 3 5
Pr(Z = z)
2
k
7 7 7
a. Determine the value(s) of the constant k.
b. Determine, correct to 4 decimal places:
c. Evaluate Pr(𝜇 − 2𝜎 ≤ Z ≤ 𝜇 + 2𝜎).

i. E(Z) ii. Var(Z) iii. SD(Z).
9. A discrete random variable, Z, can take the values 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. The probability distribution of Z is as
Pr(Z = 0) = Pr(Z = 1) = Pr(Z = 2) = m,

follows:
Pr(Z = 3) = Pr(Z = 4) = Pr(Z = 5) = n,

and Pr(Z < 2) = 3 Pr(Z > 4) where m and n are constants.
11
b. Show that the expected value of Z is , and determine the variance and standard deviation for Z, correct
5
c. Calculate Pr(𝜇 − 2𝜎 ≤ Z ≤ 𝜇 + 2𝜎).

Pr(Z = 0) = Pr(Z = 1) = Pr(Z = 2) = Pr(Z = 3) = m,

10. A probability distribution is such that
Pr(Z = 3) = Pr(Z = 5) = n,
and Pr(Z ≤ 3) = Pr(Z ≥ 4).
a. Calculate the values of the constants m and n.
b. Determine:

i. E(Z) ii. Var(Z).
11. The number of customers, X, waiting in line at a bank just before closing time has a probability distribution
as follows.
5k − 1 3k − 1 4k − 1
x 0 1 2 3
Pr(X = x)
2
k
4 12 12 12
b. Determine the expected number of customers waiting in line just before closing time.
c. Calculate the probability that the number of customers waiting in line just before closing time is no
greater than E(X).

money ranging from 50 cents to $200 000. The contestant chooses

12. A television game show features 26 cases with various amounts of
one case and then proceeds to open the other cases. At the end of
each round, the banker makes an offer to end the game. The game
ends when the contestant accepts the offer or when all the other 25
cases have been opened; in the latter event, the contestant receives the
Suppose a contestant has five cases left and the amounts of $200 000,
amount of money in the case they first chose.
$100 000, $50 000, $15 000 and $1000 are still to be found.
a. Determine the expected amount that the banker should offer the
contestant to end the game.
$100 000. State what you would expect the banker to offer the contestant at this stage.
b. The contestant turned down the offer and opened a case containing
13. A bookstore sells both new and secondhand books. A particular new autobiography costs $65, a good-
quality used autobiography costs $30 and a worn autobiography costs $12. A new cookbook costs $54, a
good-quality used cookbook costs $25 and a worn cookbook costs $15. Let X denote the total cost of buying
two books (an autobiography and a cookbook). Assume that the purchases are independent of one another.
a. Construct a probability distribution table for the cost of the two textbooks if the following probabilities
apply.
• The probability of buying a new autobiography is 0.4.
• The probability of buying a good-quality used autobiography is 0.3.
• The probability of buying a worn used autobiography is 0.3.
• The probability of buying a new cookbook is 0.4.
• The probability of buying a good-quality used cookbook is 0.25.
• The probability of buying a worn used cookbook is 0.35.
b. Calculate the expected cost of the two books.
14. Let X be the number of dining suites sold by the dining suite department of a large furniture outlet on any
given day. The probability function for this discrete random variable is as follows.
Pr(X = x)
x 0 1 2 3
The dining suite department receives a profit of $350 for every dining setting sold. The daily running costs
0.3 0.4 0.2 0.1
for the sales operation of the department are $120. The net profit per day is a function of the random variable
such that y(x) = 350x − 120 dollars.
a. Set up a probability distribution table for the net profit, $Y, per day.
c. Determine Pr(𝜇 − 2𝜎 ≤ Y ≤ 𝜇 + 2𝜎).

b. Determine the expected daily profit for the dining suite department.
15. A loaded six-sided die and a biased coin are tossed simultaneously. The coin is biased such that the
probability of obtaining a Head is three times the probability of obtaining a Tail. The loaded die has the
following probabilities for each of the numbers 1 to 6.
Pr(1) = Pr(2) = Pr(5) =

1
12
Pr(3) = Pr(4) = Pr(6) =

1
4
When a player tosses the coin and die simultaneously, they receive the following outcomes.
10 points 5 points 1 point
1T 2T 5T 1H 2H 5H All other results
Let X be the number of points scored from a simultaneous toss.

a. Construct a probability distribution table for the number of points scored.
b. Determine the expected points received from a single toss, correct to 1 decimal place.
c. If 25 simultaneous tosses occurred, determine the expected score, correct to 1 decimal place.
d. Determine the minimum number of simultaneous tosses that would have to occur for the expected total to
be a score of 100.
16. In a random experiment the events M and N are independent events where Pr (M) = 0.45 and Pr (N) = 0.48.
a. Determine the probability that both M and N occur.
b. Calculate the probability that neither M nor N occur.
Y = 0 if neither M nor M occurs.

Let Y be the discrete random variable that defines the number of times M and N occur.
Y = 1 if only one of M and N occurs.

Y = 2 if both M and N occur.
c. Specify the probability distribution for Y.
d. Determine, correct to 4 decimal places where appropriate:
i. E (Y) ii. Var (Y) iii. SD (Y).
9.5 Exam questions
E(X) = 15 and E(X2 ) = 250, determine the values of x1 and x2 in the interval [x1 , x2 ]. The interval represents a
X is a discrete random variable representing the number of touchscreen tablets sold on a particular day. Given
probability of 95% that the number of touchscreen tablets sold on a particular day falls within this range.
MC Over a twenty-day period, Pete recorded the number of minutes that he spent waiting for the lift to go from
the ground floor to a classroom on the sixth floor.
Number of minutes spent

0 1 2 3 4
waiting x
Proportion of days on
5 3 4 6 2
which x minutes were
spent waiting 20 20 20 20 20

During this twenty-day period, the mean number of minutes that Pete spent waiting for the lift was
A. 1.85 B. 0.75 C. 18.75 D. 37 E. 2.1
a. If Pr(V ∪ W) = 0.7725 and Pr(V ∩ W) = 0.7725, calculate Pr(V) and Pr(W), given Pr(V) < Pr(W). (3 marks)
In a certain random experiment the events V and W are independent events.
b. Determine the probability that neither V nor W occur. (1 mark)

Let X be the discrete random variable that defines the number of times events V and W occur.
X = 0 if neither V nor W occurs.
X = 1 if only one of V and W occurs.
X = 2 if both V and W occur.
c. Specify the probability distribution for X. (1 mark)
d. Determine, correct to 4 decimal places where appropriate
i. E(X) (1 mark)
ii. Var(X) (1 mark)
iii. SD(X). (1 mark)
9.6 Review
9.6.1 Summary
doc-37039
Access the Review your Watch teacher-led Practise exam
topic summary results videos questions
9.6 Exercise


1. The random variable X has a probability distribution as follows.
Pr(X = x)
x 0 1 2 3 4
a. Calculate Pr(X ≥ 2 | X ≤ 3).

0.1 0.3 0.4 0.1 0.1
b Determine the expected value of X.
2. On any given day, the number of text messages, Y, received by Garish is a

discrete random variable with a distribution as follows.
Pr(Y = y)
y 0 2 4 6 8 10
0.05 0.4 0.2 0.15 0.15 0.05
a. Calculate the expected value of Y.

b. Determine the probability that Garish receives no texts on four
consecutive days.
c. Garish received text messages on Thursday and Friday. Determine the
probability that he received 10 text messages over these two days.
3. A biased coin is tossed four times. The probability of a Head from a toss is a where 0 < a < 1.
a. Calculate, in terms of a, the probability of obtaining:
i. four Tails from four tosses
ii. one Head and three Tails from four tosses.
b. If the probability of obtaining four Heads is the same as the probability of obtaining one Head and three
Tails, evaluate a.
4. X has a probability function given by p(x) = , x = 1, 3, 5, 7, 9.

1
5
Determine:
a. E(X) b. Var(X) c. E(3X + 1) d. Var(5X + 2)

5. Alicia and Harry have devised a game where a biased spinner is spun. There are 5 colours on the wheel and
Pr(red) = , Pr(blue) = Pr(green) = 2 × Pr(red), and the other sector colour is yellow.
the sectors are of varying sizes.
1
20
Players have to pay $2.00 to play. If yellow is spun up, players receive nothing. If green is spun up or blue is
spun up, players get their money back. If the spinner lands on red, players win $5.
a. Determine the probability distribution for the amount of money a person can win.
b. Determine the expected amount of money that a player will win each game.
6. A discrete random variable, X, has a standard deviation of 1.1. If E X2 is equal to 2.02, determine:
( )
c. E(2X − 4) d. Var(2X − 4).

a. the variance of X b. the expected value of X

7. MC Consider the discrete probability function with the following distribution.
Pr(X = x)
x 2 4 6 8 10
2a 3a 4a 5a 6a
The value of the constant a is:
1 1 1 1
A. 20 B. C. D. E.
20 2 14 19
8. MC State which of the following random variables is not discrete.
A. The number of goals scored at a football match
B. The number of T-shirts owned by a student
C. The volume of soft drink consumed by a family over the period of a week
D. The number of customers at a department store sale
E. The number of kittens in a litter
The following information refers to Questions 9, 10 and 11.

The discrete random variable Z has a probability distribution as follows.
Pr(Z = z)
z 1 2 3 4 5
0.1 0.25 0.35 0.25 0.05
9. MC The expected value of Z is equal to:
A. 2.9 B. 9.5 C. 1.09 D. 1.044 E. 3.082
10. MC The variance of Z is equal to:

A. 2.9 B. 9.5 C. 1.09 D. 1.044 E. 3.082
11. MC The standard deviation of Z is equal to:

A. 2.9 B. 9.5 C. 1.09 D. 1.044 E. 3.082
12. MC The random variable X has the following probability distribution.
Pr(X = x)
x 0 2 4
m n 0.7
If the mean of X is 3.2, then m is equal to:
A. 0.3 B. 0.2 C. 0.1 D. 0 E. 0.25
13. MC Maya constructed a spinner that will fall onto one of the numbers 1 to 5 with the following probability.
Number 1 2 3 4 5
Probability 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.1
The mean and standard deviation, correct to 2 decimal places, respectively are:
A. 3 and 1 B. 3 and 1.29 C. 3 and 1.13
D. 2.9 and 1.29 E. 2.9 and 1.14
For a discrete random variable X with a mean of 2.1 and a variance of 1.3, the values of E(2X + 1) and
Var(2X + 1) are respectively:
14. MC
A. 4.2 and 5.2 B. 5.2 and 6.2 C. 5.2 and 5.2

D. 4.2 and 6.2 E. 5.2 and 4.2
−2
15. MC The random variable Y has the following probability distribution.
Pr(Y = y) 1 − 5p
y 0 2
2p 3p
A. 2 − 11p B. 2 − 14p C. 1 − 3p
The mean of Y is:
D. 14p E. 2 + 14p
−1
16. MC The probability distribution for the random variable X is as follows.
Pr(X = x) m+n m−n

x 0 1 2
If E(X) = 0.4, then m and n are equal to:

m 3m
A. m = , n = B. m = , n = C. m = , n=
1 1 1 1 1 2
D. m = , n= E. m = , n =
6 5 5 6 6 15
2 1 1 1
15 6 6 15

17. A discrete random variable, Z, has a probability distribution as shown.
z 1 2 3 4 5 6
Pr(Z = z) (5 − 6m)
m 1 1 1 2m 1
5 6 6 6 5 10
10m − 12m2
This random variable describes the outcome of tossing a loaded die. The die is thrown twice.
a. Prove that the chance of throwing a total of 11 is .

25
b. Determine the value of m that makes this chance a maximum, and find the maximum probability.
c. Using the value of m from part b, calculate:
ii. Pr(𝜇 − 2𝜎 ≤ Z ≤ 𝜇 + 2𝜎).

i. the expected value of Z and the standard deviation of Z
18. A random variable, X, represents the number of televisions serviced per week by a television serviceman.
The probability distribution is as follows.
Pr(X = x)
x 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
0.07 0.12 0.12 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.05

a. Determine the mean number of televisions serviced per

week.
b. Determine the variance and standard deviation of X, correct
The serviceman is paid a bonus depending on how many
televisions he services a week. The bonuses are as follows:
• If less than 13 televisions are serviced, there is
no bonus.
$120.
• If 13–16 televisions are serviced, he receives a bonus of
bonus of $250.
• If more than 16 televisions are serviced, he receives a
Let B be the bonus paid to the serviceman.

c. Construct a probability distribution for B.
d. Calculate the expected bonus to be paid.
19. The number of passengers per car, X, entering Melbourne on a freeway on a workday morning is as follows.
Pr(X = x)
x 0 1 2 3 4 5
0.37 0.22 0.21 0.1 0.05 0.05
a. Determine the mean number of passengers per car.
c. Determine Pr(𝜇 − 2𝜎 ≤ X ≤ 𝜇 + 2𝜎).

b. Determine the variance and standard deviation for X.
The fees for cars at a toll booth on the freeway are as
• Cars carrying no passengers: $2.50

follows.
• Cars carrying 1 or 2 passengers: $1.00

• Cars carrying more than 2 passengers: no fee
Let T be the toll paid by a randomly selected car on
the freeway.
d. Construct a probability distribution for T.
f. Calculate Pr(𝜇 − 2𝜎 ≤ T ≤ 𝜇 + 2𝜎).

e. Calculate the expected value of the toll per car.
20. The discrete random variable Z can only take the values 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. The probability distribution
Pr(Z = 0) = Pr(Z = 2) = Pr(Z = 4) = Pr(Z = 6) = m,

for Z is given by the following:
Pr(Z = 1) = Pr(Z = 3) = Pr(Z = 5) = n,

and 2 Pr(0 < Z < 2) = Pr(3 < Z ≤ 6), where m and n are constants.
b. Calculate the expected value of Z.
c. Calculate the standard deviation of Z.
i. E(2 − 3Z) ii. Var(2Z − 3).

d. Evaluate:
e. Evaluate Pr(𝜇 − 2𝜎 ≤ Z ≤ 𝜇 + 2𝜎).
9.6 Exam questions

Source: VCE 2021 Mathematical Methods Exam 2, Q20; © VCAA.
Let A and B be two independent events from a sample space.
If Pr(A) = p, Pr(B) = p2 and Pr(A) + Pr(B) = 1, then Pr(A′ ∪ B) is equal to
MC
A. 1 − p − p2
B. p2 − p3
C. p − p3
D. 1 − p + p3
E. 1 − p − p2 + p3
If X is a random variable such that Pr (X > 5) = a and Pr (X > 8) = b, then Pr X < 5 | X < 8 is
Source: VCE 2014 Mathematical Methods (CAS) Exam 2, Section 1, Q14; © VCAA.
a−b 1−b a−1

( )
MC
1−b 1−a 1−b b−1

a ab
A. B. C. D. E.
b
The only possible outcomes when a coin is tossed are a head or a tail. When an unbiased coin is tossed, the
probability of tossing a head is the same as the probability of tossing a tail. Jo has three coins in her pocket; two
1
are unbiased and one is biased. When the biased coin is tossed, the probability of tossing a head is .
3
Jo randomly selects a coin from her pocket and tosses it.
a. Find the probability that she tosses a head. (2 marks)
b. Find the probability the she selected an unbiased coin, given that she tossed a head. (1 mark)
MC Consider the following discrete probability distribution for the random variable X.
Pr(X = x)
x 1 2 3 4 5
p 2p 3p 4p 5p
The mean of this distribution is

7 11
A. 2 B. 3 C. D. E. 4
2 3
MC Consider the discrete probability distribution with random variable X shown in the table below.
−1
Pr(X = x)
x 0 b 2b 4
a b b 2b 0.2
The smallest and largest possible values of E (X) are respectively

A. –0.8 and 1 B. –0.8 and 1.6 C. 0 and 2.4
D. 0.2125 and 1 E. 0 and 1



Answers 9.3 Discrete random variables

9.3 Exercise
Topic 9 Discrete random variables 1. a. R
R G
9.2 Probability review Y
R
9.2 Exercise R G G
2 6 9 Y
1. a. b. c. R
11 11 11 Y G
Y
1 3 7 R
2. a. b. c. R G
4 4 20 Y
1 3 9 R
3. a. b. c. G G G
125 100 50 Y
R
4. a. ξ Y G
Y
R
M H R G
Y
R
Y G G
Y
R
14 18 18 Y G
𝜉 = {RRR, RRG, RRY, RGR, RGG, RGY, RYR,

Y
10 RYG, RYY, GRR, GRG, GRY, GGR, GGG

GGY, GYR, GYG, GYY, YRR, YRG, YRY,
3 YGR, YGG, YGY, YYR, YYG, YYY,}
b. i.
Pr(Y = 3) = , Pr(Y = 2) =
5 27 189
3 b. ,
Pr(Y = 1) = , Pr(Y = 0) =
ii. 1000 1000
10 441 343
1 1000 1000
iii. c.
2 y 0 1 2 3
Pr(Y = y)
5 11
5. a. 0.68 b. c. 343 441 189 27
16 16
1000 1000 1000 1000
6. a. 0.32 b. 0.88 c. 0.36
2.
7 x 0 1 2
Pr(X = x) =
7. a. 0.49 b. 25 10 5 1
12
8 8 36 36 18 36
0 ≤ Pr(Y = y) ≤ 1 for all y and ∑ Pr(Y − y) = 1.
8. a. b.
15 12 3. a.
all y
9. a. Not mutually exclusive events
b. 0 ≤ Pr(Y = y) ≤ 1 for all y and ∑ Pr(Y − y) = 1.

Yes, this is a discrete probability function.
b. Not independent events
10. a. Not mutually exclusive events all y
4. a. 0 ≤ Pr(Y = y) ≤ 1 for all y and ∑ Pr(Y − y) = 0.9.

b. Yes, independent events Yes, this is a discrete probability function.
11. a. 0 b. 0.44
all y
12. 0.3 No, this is not a discrete probability function.
b. Probabilities cannot have negative values. No, this is not
9.2 Exam questions
19n − 20
5. a. 0 ≤ Pr(X = x) ≤ 1 for all x but ∑ Pr(X = x) ≠ 1.
a discrete probability function.
1. a. 0.1 b.
2. D all x
3. B This is not a probability distribution.
b. Probabilities cannot have negative values. This is not a
c. 0 ≤ Pr(Z = z) ≤ 1 for all z but ∑ Pr(Z = z) = 1.1.

all x
This is not a probability distribution.

d. 0 ≤ Pr(Z = z) ≤ 1 for all x and ∑ Pr(X = x) = 1. 13. a. 𝜉 = {11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 110, 111, 112,
all x 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 210, 211, 212,
6. a. 0 ≤ Pr(X = x) ≤ 1 for all x and ∑ Pr(X = x) = 1.

This is a probability distribution. 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 310, 311, 312,
41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 410, 411, 412,
all x 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 510, 511, 512,
b. 0 ≤ Pr(Z = z) ≤ 1 for all x but ∑ Pr(X = x) ≠ 1.

This is a discrete probability distribution.
61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 610, 611, 612,
71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 710, 711, 712,
all x
81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 810, 811, 812}
c. 0 ≤ Pr(Z = z) ≤ 1 for all x and ∑ Pr(X = x) = 1.
This is not a discrete probability distribution.
Pr(X = 0) = , Pr(X = 1) = , Pr(X = 2) =

28 48 20
b.
Pr(win) = 0.009
all x 96 96 96
This is a discrete probability distribution.
7. a. k = b. k = Possible scores = 4, 7, 10, 12, 15 and 20 points
c.
1 1
14. a.
16 4
d = 0.15 k= a=
b. See the table at the bottom of the page.*
1 1 6 69 2
8. a. b. c.
6 3 c. i. ii. iii.
169 169 23
𝜉 = {11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 31,
9. E 15. a. See the table at the bottom of the page.*
10. a.
b. 0.6826. It is a success, helping 3 or more patients.
32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 51, 52,
16. a. See the table at the bottom of the page.*
53, 54, 55, 56, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66}
i. 0.8999 ii. 0.8457
17. a. m = , n =
b.
Pr(Z = z)
z 0 1 2
1 1
0.09 0.42 0.49 9 3
5 1
11. a. 𝜉 = {SSS, SSA, SAS, SAA, ASS, ASA, AAS, AAA}
c. 0.42
b. i. ii.
18. i. k = 0.6568 or k = −0.4568

9 5
b.
Pr(X = x)
x 0 1 2 3
0.216 0.432 0.288 0.064 9.3 Exam questions
𝜉 = {FFFF, FFFM, FFMF, FFMM, FMFF, FMFM,

c. 0.936 1. C
12. a. 2. D
FMMF, FMMM, MFFF, MFFM, MFMF, 3. a. The game can end as follows:
MFMM, MMFF, MMFM, MMMF, MMMM} Throw 1 red — game over.
b. Throw 1 blue, green or yellow, throw 2 red — game over.
x 0 1 2 3 4 Throws 1 and 2 combinations of blue, green and yellow,
Pr(X = x) = = =
b. Wins $10 with BBB, GGG or YYY
1 4 1 6 3 4 1 1 throw 3 red — game over.
16 16 4 16 8 16 4 16
c.
1 c.
x $0 $1 $10
Pr(X = x)
16
98 24 3
15
d. 125 125 125
16
11
e.
16
*14. b.
x 4 7 10 12 15 20
Pr(X = x)
81 18 1 54 6 9
169 169 169 169 169 169
*15. a.
Pr(X = x)
x 0 1 2 3 4 5
0.0102 0.0768 0.2304 0.3456 0.2592 0.0778
*16. a.
Pr(X = x)
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0.0014 0.0165 0.0823 0.2195 0.3292 0.2634 0.0878
9.4 Measures of centre and spread 14. a. 𝜉 = {11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 21, 22, 24, 25,
26, 27, 28, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 41,
9.4 Exercise
E(X ) = E(Z ) =
1 19 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55,
1. a. b. 56, 57, 58, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 71,
9 6
72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85,
2. a. 86, 87, 88}
y 1 2 3 4
Pr(X = x) E(Z) = 5.8125, SD(Z) = 1.8781

1 3 5 7 b. See the table at the bottom of the page.*
Score totals = {1 + 1 = 2, 1 + 3 = 4, 1 + 5 = 6,
c.
16 16 16 16
1 + 7 = 8, 1 + 10 = 11, 3 + 1 = 4,
15. a.
3. $2.45 3 + 3 = 6, 3 + 5 = 8, 3 + 7 = 10,
3.125
b.
3 + 10 = 13, 5 + 1 = 6, 5 + 3 = 8,
−$2 $3 $6 $8
5 + 5 = 10, 5 + 7 = 12, 5 + 10 = 15,
4. a.
x
7 + 1 = 8, 7 + 3 = 10, 7 + 5 = 12,
Pr(X = x)
7 + 7 = 14, 7 + 10 = 17, 10 + 1 = 11,
1 1 1 1
10 + 3 = 13, 10 + 5 = 15, 10 + 7 = 17,

4 4 4 4
$3.75
10 + 10 = 20}
b.
5. a. k =
1
E(X) = 9.4, SD(X) = 3.7974

b. 3.2 b. See the table at the bottom of the page.*
d = 15
10
c.
−2.5 −15 c=
6. a. 1
b. i. 18 ii. iii. 16. a.
E(Y ) = 3
3
Var(Y ) = 11.56, SD(Y) = 3.40

7. a. 8 b. 0.5 c. 14.5 b.
k = 0.1
8. B c.
E(X) = 1.695
9. a. 7 b. 14.4 c. 3.797 17. a.
SD(X) = 1.1670
10. a. See the table at the bottom of the page*
= 0.69
b.
10 31
a = 0.3, b = 0.1
b. i. ii. c.
3 45
Var(X) = 1.65, SD(X) = 1.2845
18. a.
m = 15 E X2 = a2 + 2a − 2
c. i. 11.02 ii. 6.2 b.
b. Var(Z) = 153.48, Var(2(Z − 1)) = 613.91, E(X) = a = 2, Var(X) = 2a − 2 = 2

( )
11. a. 19. a.
Var(3 − Z) = 153.48
b.
n=
1
20. a.
13. a. p (x) = h (3 − x) (x + 1)
12. C 13
p (0) = h (3) (1) = 3h E(Y) = = 3.5385, Var(Y) = 1.7870, SD(Y) = 1.3368

46
p (1) = h (3 − 1) (1 + 1) = 4h
b.
13
p (2) = h (3 − 2) (2 + 1) = 3h
3h + 4h + 3h = 1
9.4 Exam questions
10h = 1
1. E
h=
D
Pr(B and A) = , Pr(B and B) = ,
2.
1 1 3
b. E(X) = 1, Var(X) = 0.6, SD(X) = 0.7746

10 3. a.
25 25
Pr(B and C) = , Pr(B and D) = ,

5 7
25 25
Pr(B and E) =
9
25
*10. a.
x 1 2 3 4
Pr(X = x) = = =
1 4 2 9 3 16 8
30 30 15 30 10 30 15
*14. b.
z 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Pr(Z = z)
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
64 64 64 64 64 64 64 64
*15. b.
Pr(X = x)
x 2 4 6 8 10 11 12 13 14 15 17 20
0.04 0.08 0.16 0.2 0.17 0.04 0.12 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.04 0.01

b.
x −$1 $0 $1 $4 $9 15. a.
x 1 5 10
Pr(X = x) = Pr(X = x) =
9 7 5 1 3 1 12 3 3 1
25 25 25 5 25 25 16 4 16 16
c. i. E(X) = 0.68 cents ii. SD(X) = $2.29 2.3
b.
57.8
c.
9.5 Applications d. 44 tosses
9.5 Exercise 16. a. 0.216
1. a. 2.0 b. 1 b. 0.286
d=5
2 c.
Pr(Y = y)
y 0 1 2
2. a. b.
3
$535 000
0.289 0.498 0.216
E(Y ) = 0.93
8
0.6
ii. Var(Y ) = 0.4971
3. a. b. c. d. i.
a = 0.35, b = 0.25
9
iii. SD(Y ) = 0.7050

4.
5. a. 15 b. 4.7434 c. 0.9
6. 0.965 9.5 Exam questions
7. a. [ ]
x 0 1 2 1. 5, 25
Pr(X = x) =
3. a. Pr(V) = 0.35, Pr(W) = 0.65
4 3 1 2 2. A
9 9 3 9
b. 0.2275
7
b. i. c.
Pr(X = x)
9 x 0 1 2
= 0.6173
50 0.2275 0.5450 0.2275
E(X) = 1
ii.
81
Var(X) = 0.455
d. i.
iii. 0.7857
iii. SD(X) = 0.6745

ii.
k=2
c. 1
i. E(Z) = 2.4286
8. a.
ii. Var(Z) = 3.1019

b. 9.6 Review
iii. SD(Z) = 1.7613

9.6 Exercise
Pr(𝜇 − 2𝜍 ≤ Z ≤ 𝜇 + 2𝜍) = 1
c.
m= , n=
1 2 5
1. a.
b. E(X) = 1.8, Var(X) = 1.16

9. a. 9
Var (Z) = 2.8267, SD (Z) = 1.6813
5 15
2. a. E(Y) = 4.2 Pr(10) = 0.185

b.
b. 0.000 006 25
Pr(TTTT) = (1 − a)
c.
1
m= , n=
c.
Pr(3 Tails and a Head) = 4a(1 − a)3

1 1 3. a. i.
4
10. a.
i. E(Z) = 3 ii. Var (Z) = 3

8 4 ii.
a=
Pr(𝜇 − 2𝜍 ≤ Z ≤ 𝜇 + 2𝜍) = 1
b. 1
E(X) = 5
b.
c. 5
k=1 Var(X) = 8
4. a. c. 16
7
11. a. b. 1.4 c. b. d. 200
$73 200 $66 500

12
5. a. X = amount of money a player can win
12. a. b.
b. $71.70
13. a. See the table at the bottom of the page.* x 0 2 5
Pr(X = x)
3 1 1
14. a.
−$120 $230 $580 $930 4 5 20
Pr(Y = y) E(X) = $0.65

y
Var(X) = 1.21 −2.2

0.3 0.4 0.2 0.1 b.
E(Y ) = +$265
b. E(X) = 0.9
6. a. c.
c. Pr(𝜇 − 2𝜍 ≤ Y ≤ 𝜇 + 2𝜍) = 0.9

b.
d. 4.84
*13. a.
Pr(X = x)
x 119 90 84 80 66 55 45 37 27
0.16 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.12 0.075 0.105 0.075 0.105
Technology active: multiple choice c.

$0 $120 $250
Pr(B = b)
b
7. B
0.31 0.4 0.29
E(B) = $120.50
8. C
9. A d.
b. Var(X) = 2.0779, SD(X) = 1.4415

10. C 19. a. 1.39
c. Pr(𝜇 − 2𝜍 ≤ X ≤ 𝜇 + 2𝜍) = 0.95

11. D
$0 $1 $2.50
12. C
C d.
Pr(T = t)
13. t
14. C 0.2 0.43 0.37
E(T) = $1.36
15. B
Pr(𝜇 − 2𝜍 ≤ T ≤ 𝜇 + 2𝜍) = 1
e.
16. C
f.
m= , n=
Technology active: extended response 1 1
20. a.
= Pr(5, 6) + Pr(6, 5) E(Z) = 3

17. a. Pr(total of 11) 10 5
SD(Z) = 1.8974
b.
= × (5 − 6m) + (5 − 6m) ×
i. −7
2m 1 1 2m c.
Pr(𝜇 − 2𝜍 ≤ Z ≤ 𝜇 + 2𝜍) = 1
5 10 10 5 d. ii. 14.4
= (5 − 6m)
2m e.
10m − 12m2
25
=
9.6 Exam questions
as required
25 1. D
m = , Pr(total of 11) =
5 1 2. E
b. 4
12 12
i. E(Z) = , SD(Z) = 1.6562

3. a.
47 9
c.
ii. Pr(𝜇 − 2𝜍 ≤ Z ≤ 𝜇 + 2𝜍) = 1

12 3
b.
4
4. D
Var(X) = 8.7436, SD(X) = 2.9570

18. a. 14.58
5. E
b.

“c10TheBinomialDistribution_PrintPDF” — 2022/7/16 — 6:40 — page 577 — #1
The binomial
10 distribution
LEARNING SEQUENCE
10.1 Overview ...............................................................................................................................................................578
10.2 Bernoulli trials ..................................................................................................................................................... 579
10.3 The binomial distribution ................................................................................................................................584
10.4 Applications ........................................................................................................................................................ 598
10.5 Review ................................................................................................................................................................... 602

10.1 Overview
10.1.1 Introduction
The Bernoulli or binomial distribution is named after the Swiss mathematician Jakob Bernoulli (1654–1705).
This distribution is a type of discrete probability distribution and involves Bernoulli trials where there are only
two outcomes, success or failure. Each trial is independent of the previous one, and the probability of success
remains fixed for each trial.
Researchers may use the binomial distribution when interested in the occurrence of an event, rather than the
effect of an event. For example, in the public health sector, medical researchers might focus on whether a drug
cures a particular illness or not (success or failure), rather than whether the illness reduces in severity. The
binomial distribution can also be used in the manufacturing industry, for example in analysing the probability
of a batch containing a defective item. Other areas that utilise the binomial distribution are computing (the
distribution of IP addresses), economics (prediction of the way the economy will perform over the next couple
of years) and engineering (calculation of time and costs of big projects).
KEY CONCEPTS
– calculation and interpretation of mean, 𝜇, variance, 𝜎 , and standard deviation of a discrete

• discrete random variables:
2

– Bernoulli trials and the binomial distribution, Bi(n, p), as an example of a probability
distribution for a discrete random variable
– effect of variation in the value/s of defining parameters on the graph of a given probability
mass function for a discrete random variable
– calculation of probabilities for specific values of a random variable and intervals defined in
terms of a random variable, including conditional probability.
10.2 Bernoulli trials

LEARNING INTENTION
• define a Bernoulli trial
• calculate the mean, variance and standard deviation of a Bernoulli distribution.
10.2.1 The Bernoulli distribution

In probability theory, the Bernoulli distribution is a discrete probability distribution of the simplest kind. The
term ‘Bernoulli trial’ refers to a single event that has only 2 possible outcomes, a success or a failure, with each
outcome having a fixed probability. The following are examples of Bernoulli trials.
• Will a coin land Heads up?
• Are a random person’s eyes blue or not?
• Will a person vote for a particular candidate at the next local council elections or not?
• Will you pass or fail an examination?
success is failure, which is denoted by 1 − p (and can also be denoted by q).

The Bernoulli distribution has only one controlling parameter: the probability of success, p. The alternative to
The Bernoulli distribution

For a discrete probability distribution that has a Bernoulli random
variable, X:
if x = 1
Pr(X = x) =
1−p if x = 0
p
{
The mean and variance for a Bernoulli distribution

If X is a Bernoulli random variable with the following distribution,
Pr(X = x) 1−p
x 0 1
p
then
E(X) = ∑ x Pr(X = x)
= 0(1 − p) + 1 × p
all x
=p
E X2 = 02 (1 − p) + 12 × p
=p
( )
Var(X) = E X2 − [E(X)]2
= p − p2
( )
= p(1 − p)
TOPIC 10 The binomial distribution 579

Mean and variance formulas

For a Bernoulli distribution:
E(X) = 𝜇 = p
Var(X) = 𝜎 2 = p(1 − p)
WORKED EXAMPLE 1 Identifying Bernoulli trials
Determine which of the following can be defined as Bernoulli trials.

a. Interviewing a random person to see if they have had a flu injection this year
b. Rolling a die in an attempt to obtain an even number
c. Choosing a ball from a bag that contains 3 red balls, 5 blue balls and 4 yellow
balls
THINK WRITE
a. Check for the characteristics of a Bernoulli trial. a. Yes, this is a Bernoulli trial, as there are 2 possible
outcomes. A person either has or has not had a flu
injection this year.
b. Check for the characteristics of a Bernoulli trial. b. Yes, this is a Bernoulli trial, as there are 2 possible
outcomes. The die will show either an odd number
or an even number.
c. Check for the characteristics of a Bernoulli trial. c. No, this is not a Bernoulli trial, as success has not
been defined.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2 Calculations of a Bernoulli distribution

A new cream has been developed for the treatment of dermatitis. In laboratory trials the cream was
found to be effective in 72% of the cases. Hang’s doctor has prescribed the cream for her. Let X be the
effectiveness of the cream.
a. Construct a probability distribution table for X.
b. Determine E(X).
c. Calculate the variance and the standard deviation of X, correct to 4 decimal places.
a. p = success with cream = 0.72

THINK WRITE
a. Construct a probability distribution table and clearly
state the value of p.
Pr(X = x)
x 0 1
0.28 0.72
b. 1. State the rule for the expected value. b. E(X) = ∑ x Pr(X = x)
E(X) = 0 × 0.28 + 1 × 0.72

all x
= 0.72
2. Substitute the appropriate values and evaluate.
c. E X2 = 02 × 0.28 + 12 × 0.72
= 0.72
c. 1. Find E(X2 ).
( )
Var(X) = E X2 − [E(X)]2
Var(X) = 0.72 − (0.72)2
2. Calculate the variance.
( )
= 0.2016
SD(X) = 0.2016
= 0.4490
√
3. Calculate the standard deviation.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity The Bernoulli distribution (int-6430)
10.2 Exercise

Technology free
1. WE1 Determine which of the following can be defined as Bernoulli trials.
a. Spinning a spinner with 3 coloured sections
b. A golfer is at the tee of the first hole of a golf course. As she is an
experienced golfer, the chance of her getting a hole in one is 0.15. We
want to know if she will get a hole in one at this first hole.
c. A card is drawn from a standard pack of 52 cards. We are interested in
the chance of drawing an ace.
d. A new drug for arthritis is said to have a success rate of 63%. Jing Jing
has just been prescribed the drug to treat her arthritis, and her doctor is interested in whether her
symptoms improve or not.
e. Juanita has just given birth to a baby and we are interested in the gender of the baby, in particular whether
the baby is a girl.
f. You are asked what your favourite colour is.
2. State clearly why the following are not Bernoulli trials.
a. A bag contains 12 balls, 5 of which are black, 3 of which are white and
4 of which are red. Paul has just drawn a ball from the bag without
returning it. Now it is Alice’s turn to draw a ball from the bag. We
want to know if she gets a red one.
b. A die is tossed and the outcome is recorded.
c. A little penguin colony at Phillip Island in Victoria is being studied by
an ecologist. We want to know if the habitat will be able to sustain the
colony in the future.

3. A discrete random variable, Z, has a Bernoulli distribution as follows.
Pr(Z = z)
z 0 1
0.4 0.6
a. Determine E(Z).
b. Calculate Var(Z).
4. Prisha is sitting for a Mathematics examination. She has just started question 1, which is a multiple choice
question with 5 possible answer choices. Prisha plans to randomly guess the answer to the question. Let X be
the discrete random variable that Prisha answers the question correctly.
b. Determine E(X).
c. In total the test has 5 multiple choice questions to be answered. Determine the probability that Prisha
answers all five questions correctly.
Technology active
5. WE2 Azra is playing basketball. The chance that Azra scores a goal is 0.42.
The ball has just been passed to her and she shoots for a goal. Let X be the
random variable that defines Azra getting a goal. (Assume X obeys the Bernoulli
distribution.)
a. Construct a probability distribution for X.
b. Determine E(X).
c. Calculate the variance and standard deviation of X, correct to 4 decimal
places.
6. MC Eli and Siti are about to play a game of chess. As Eli is a

much more experienced chess player, the chance that they win is
0.68. Let Y be the discrete random variable that defines the fact
that Eli wins.
Var(Y) is:
A. 1
B. 0.2176
C. 0.32
D. 0.68
E. 0.4665
7. During the wet season, the probability that it rains on any given day in Cairns in northern Queensland is
0.89. You are going to Cairns tomorrow and it is the wet season. Let X be the chance that it rains on any
given day during the wet season.
b. Evaluate:
i. E(X)
ii. Var(X), correct to 4 decimal places
c. Determine Pr(𝜇 − 2𝜎 ≤ X ≤ 𝜇 + 2𝜎).

iii. SD(X), correct to 4 decimal places.
8. A manufacturer of sweets reassures their customers that when

they buy a box of their ‘All Sorts’ chocolates there is a 33%
chance that the box will contain one or more toffees. Kasper
bought a box of ‘All Sorts’ and selected one. Let Y be the discrete
random variable that Kasper chose a toffee.
a. Construct a probability distribution table for Y.
c. Calculate Pr(𝜇 − 2𝜎 ≤ Y ≤ 𝜇 + 2𝜎).

b. Determine E(Y).
9. X is a discrete random variable that has a Bernoulli distribution.
a. Calculate the probability of success, p, where p > 1 − p.

It is known that the variance for this distribution is 0.21.
b. Determine E(X).
a. Calculate the probability of success, correct to 4 decimal places, if Pr(success) > Pr(failure).
10. Z is a discrete random variable that has a Bernoulli distribution. It is known that the variance of Z is 0.1075.
b. Construct a probability distribution table for Z.

c. Evaluate the expected value of Z.
10.2 Exam questions
It has been found that when a breast ultrasound is combined with a common mammogram, the rate in which
breast cancer is detected in a group of women is 7.2 per 1000. Noa is due for her two-yearly mammography
testing, which will involve an ultrasound combined with a mammogram. Let Z be the discrete random variable
that breast cancer is detected.
a. Calculate the probability that Noa has breast cancer detected at this next test. (1 mark)

b. Construct a probability distribution table for Z. (1 mark)
(2 marks)
Y is a discrete random variable that has a Bernoulli distribution. It is known that the standard deviation for this
distribution is 0.4936.
b. Calculate the probability of success, p, if p > 1 − p.

a. Calculate the variance of Y correct to 4 decimal places. (1 mark)
(1 mark)
c. Determine E(Y). (1 mark)
Y is a discrete random variable that has a Bernoulli distribution. It is known that the standard deviation of Y is
0.3316.
b. Calculate the probability of success correct to 4 decimal places if Pr(success) > Pr(failure).
a. Calculate the variance correct to 2 decimal places. (1 mark)
(2 marks)

10.3 The binomial distribution

LEARNING INTENTION
• identify and define a binomial probability distribution
• calculate the mean or expected value of a binomial probability distribution
• calculate the variance and standard deviation of a binomial probability distribution.
10.3.1 Introduction to the binomial distribution

When a Bernoulli trial is repeated a number of times, we have a binomial distribution. A binomial distribution
is characterised by the following rules:
• It is made up of n Bernoulli trials or n identical trials.
• There are two possible outcomes for each trial, a success, p, and a failure, 1 − p.
• Each trial is an independent trial.
Consider again Question 4 from Exercise 10.2. Prisha has 5 multiple choice questions to answer on her
mathematics examination. Each question has 5 different choices for the correct answer, and she plans to
randomly guess every question. Prisha can get all 5 questions incorrect; 1 correct and 4 incorrect; 2 correct
and 3 incorrect; 3 correct and 2 incorrect; 4 correct and 1 incorrect; or all 5 correct. This situation represents a
binomial distribution and can be analysed as follows.
If X represents the number of questions answered correctly, then p = and 1 − p = .

1 4
Let I = an incorrect answer and C = a correct answer.

5 5
0 correct answers: outcome = IIIII
Pr(X = 0) =
( )5
4
5
=
1024
= 0.3277
3125
1 correct answer: outcomes = IIIIC, IIICI, IICII, ICIII, CIIII
Pr(X = 1) = 5 ×
( )4 ( )
4 1
5 5
=
1280
= 0.4096
3125
2 correct answers: outcomes = IIICC, IICIC, ICIIC, CIIIC, IICCI, ICICI, CIICI, ICCII, CICII, CCIII
Pr(X = 2) = 10 ×
( )3 ( )2
4 1
5 5
=
640
= 0.2048
3125
3 correct answers: outcomes = IICCC, ICICC, CIICC, ICCIC, CICIC, CCIIC, ICCCI, CICCI, CCICI, CCCII
Pr(X = 3) = 10 ×
( )2 ( )3
4 1
5 5
=
160
= 0.0512
3125
4 correct answers: outcomes = ICCCC, CICCC, CCICC, CCCIC, CCCCI
Pr(X = 4) = 5 ×
( ) ( )4
4 1
5 5
=
20
= 0.0064
3125
5 correct answers: outcome = CCCCC
Pr(X = 5) =
( )5
1
5
=
1
= 0.0003
3125
This can then be represented in a table:
Pr(X = x)
x 0 1 2 3 4 5
0.3277 0.4096 0.2048 0.0512 0.0064 0.0003
where ∑ Pr(X = x) = 1.
all x
It can be quite tedious to work out all the possible outcomes, especially when the number of trials is large.
However, we usually just want to know how many different ways there are of obtaining each number of correct
answers, not the actual specific order of the incorrect and correct answers.
From your study of probability in Units 1 and 2, you will recall that the(number of ways of obtaining x successes
n
)
from n independent trials is given by n Cx , which can also be written as .
x
Cx =
(n − x)! x!
n n!
Binomial distribution definition

If a discrete random variable, X, has a binomial distribution, we say that
X ~ Bi(n, p)
where n is the number of independent trials and p is the probability of success.

If X ~ Bi(n, p), then Pr(X = x) = n Cx (1 − p)n−x px , where x = 0, 1, 2, 3 ... n.

Note: If the order is specified for a particular scenario, then the binomial probability distribution rule cannot be
used. The probabilities need to be multiplied in the given order.
Graphing the binomial distribution

The probability distribution for the previous example, where Prisha answered 5 questions on a mathematics
exam, can be graphed as follows.
Pr(X = x)
x 0 1 2 3 4 5
0.3277 0.4096 0.2048 0.0512 0.0064 0.0003
probability of success is low (in this case p = 0.2), as the larger x-values (number
The shape of this graph (Figure 1) is positively skewed. It indicates that the
FIGURE 1
of successful outcomes) have corresponding low probabilities. Pr(X = x)
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0 x
0 1 2 3 4 5
question right (p = 0.8), then the graph would look like Figure 2. The shape of
If the value of p was higher, for example if Prisha was 80% sure of getting a
FIGURE 2
(in this case p = 0.8), as the larger x-values (number of successful outcomes) have
this graph is negatively skewed. It indicates that the probability of success is high Pr(X = x)
0.5
corresponding high probabilities. 0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0 x
0 1 2 3 4 5
If the value of p was 0.5, for example if Prisha was 50% sure of getting a question
right, then the graph would look like Figure 3. The shape of this graph is FIGURE 3
symmetrical. It indicates that the probability of success is equal to the probability Pr(X = x)
of failure. If the number of trials increased, the graph would approach the shape 0.5
of a bell-shaped curve. 0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0 x
0 1 2 3 4 5
WORKED EXAMPLE 3 Determining the probabilities of a binomial distribution
It is known that 52% of the population participates in sport on a regular basis. Five random
individuals are interviewed and asked whether they participate in sport on a regular basis. Let X
be the number of people who regularly participate in sport. Give answers correct to 4 decimal places
for the following.
b. Calculate the probability that 3 people or less play sport.
c. Determine the probability that at least one person plays sport, given that no more than 3 people
play sport.
d. Calculate the probability that the first person interviewed plays sport but the next 2 do not.
THINK WRITE
Pr(X = x) = n Cx (1 − p)n−x px
a. 1. Write the rule for the probabilities of a. X ~ Bi(5, 0.52)
the binomial distribution.
2. Substitute x = 0 into the rule and Pr(X = 0) = 5 C0 (0.48)5
simplify. = 0.025 5
3. Substitute x = 1 into the rule and Pr(X = 1) = 5 C1 (0.48)4 (0.52)

simplify. = 0.138 0
4. Substitute x = 2 into the rule and Pr(X = 2) = 5 C2 (0.48)3 (0.52)2

simplify. = 0.299 0
5. Substitute x = 3 into the rule and Pr(X = 3) = 5 C3 (0.48)2 (0.52)3

simplify. = 0.324 0
6. Substitute x = 4 into the rule and Pr(X = 4) = 5 C4 (0.48) (0.52)4

simplify. = 0.175 5
7. Substitute x = 5 into the rule and Pr(X = 5) = 5 C5 (0.52)5

simplify. = 0.038 0
x Pr(X = x)
table and check that ∑ Pr (X = x) = 1.
8. Construct a probability distribution
all x
0 0.025 5
1 0.138 0
2 0.299 0
3 0.324 0
4 0.175 5
5 0.038 0
∑ Pr(X = x) = 1
b. Pr(X ≤ 3)
all x
b. 1. Interpret the question and write the
Pr(X ≤ 3) = Pr(X = 0) + Pr(X = 1) + Pr(X = 2) + Pr(X = 3)

probability to be found.
Pr(X ≤ 3). Pr(X ≤ 3) = 1 − (Pr(X = 4) + Pr(X = 5))

2. State the probabilities included in
Pr(X ≤ 3) = 1 − (0.175 5 + 0.038 0)

Pr(X ≤ 3) = 0.7865
3. Substitute the appropriate
probabilities and evaluate.
Note: CAS technology can be used to add up multiple
probabilities.
Pr(X ≥ 1 ∩ X ≤ 3)
c. Pr(X ≥ 1 ∣ X ≤ 3) =
Pr(X ≤ 3)
c. 1. State the rule for conditional
Pr(1 ≤ X ≤ 3)
=
probability.
Pr(X ≤ 3)
2. Evaluate Pr(X ≥ 1 ∩ X ≤ 3). Pr(X ≥ 1 ∩ X ≤ 3) = Pr(X = 1) + Pr(X = 2) + Pr(X = 3)

= 0.138 0 + 0.299 0 + 0.324 0
= 0.761 0

Pr(X ≥ 1 ∩ X ≤ 3)
Pr(X ≥ 1 ∣ X ≤ 3) =
Pr(X ≤ 3)
3. Substitute the appropriate values into
=
the rule.
0.761 0
0.7865
Pr(X ≥ 1 ∣ X ≤ 3) = 0.9676
d. S = plays sport, N = doesn’t play sport
4. Simplify.
Pr(SNN) = Pr(S) × Pr(N) × Pr(N)

d. 1. Order has been specified for this
question. Therefore, the binomial
probability distribution rule cannot
be used. The probabilities must be
Pr(SNN) = 0.52 × 0.48 × 0.48

multiplied together in order.
= 0.1198
2. Substitute the appropriate values and
evaluate.

a. 1. On a Calculator page, a. 1. On a Statistics screen, select:
press MENU, then select: • Calc
5: Probability • Distribution
5: Distributions Select ‘Distribution’ and
A: Binomial Pdf … ‘Binomial PD’ from the drop-
Complete the fields as: down menus, then select
Num Trials, n:5 NEXT.
Prob Success, p: 0.52 Complete the fields as:
then select OK. x: 0
Numtrial: 5
pos: 0.52
then select NEXT.
2. The probability distribution A probability distribution 2. Select the ‘Graph’ icon to view
appears on the screen. table can be drawn from the the probability distribution. Use
probabilities listed on the screen. the left/right arrows to view the
Pr(X = x)
probability for each X.
x
0 0.025 5
1 0.138 0
2 0.299 0
3 0.324 0
4 0.175 5
5 0.038 0
3. The probability distribution A probability

appears on the screen. distribution table can
be drawn from the
probabilities in the
graph.
x Pr(X = x)
0 0.025 5
1 0.138 0
2 0.299 0
3 0.324 0
4 0.175 5
5 0.038 0
b. 1. On a Calculator page, b. 1. On the Main screen, select:

press MENU, then select • Interactive
5: Probability • Distribution/Inv. Dist
5: Distributions • Discrete
B: Binomial Cdf … • binomial CDf
Complete the fields as: Complete the fields as:
Num Trials, n: 5 Lower: 0
Prob Success, p: 0.52 Upper: 3
Lower Bound: 0 NumTrial: 5
Upper Bound: 3 pos: 0.52
then select OK. then select OK.
2. The answer appears on the Pr(X ≤ 3) = 0.7865 2. The answer appears on the Pr(X ≤ 3) = 0.7865
screen. screen.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Graphing the binomial distribution (int-6431)

10.3.2 The mean and variance of the binomial distribution

If X ~ Bi(n, p), then Pr(X = x) = n Cx (1 − p)n−x px , where x = 0, 1, 2, 3 … n.
Suppose n = 3:
Pr(X = 0) = 3 C0 (1 − p)3 p0
= (1 − p)3
Pr(X = 1) = 3 C1 (1 − p)2 p
= 3p (1 − p)2
Pr(X = 2) = 3 C2 (1 − p)p2
= 3p2 (1 − p)
Pr(X = 3) = 3 C3 (1 − p)0 p3
= p3
E(X) = 𝜇 = ∑ x Pr(X = x)
= 0(1 − p)3 + 1 × 3p(1 − p)2 + 2 × 3p2 (1 − p) + 3p3

all x
= 0 + 3p(1 − p)2 + 6p2 (1 − p) + 3p3

= 3p (1 − p)2 + 2p(1 − p) + p2
[ ]
= 3p (1 − p) + p
]2
= 3p(1 − p + p)2
[
= 3p
Suppose now n = 4:
Pr(X = 0) = 4 C0 (1 − p)4 p0
= (1 − p)4
Pr(X = 1) = 4 C1 (1 − p)3 p
= 4p(1 − p)3
Pr(X = 2) = 4 C2 (1 − p)2 p2
= 6p2 (1 − p)2
Pr(X = 3) = 4 C3 (1 − p)p3
= 4p3 (1 − p)
Pr(X = 4) = 4 C4 (1 − p)0 p4
= p4
E(X) = 𝜇 = ∑ x Pr(X = x)
= 0(1 − p)4 + 1 × 4p(1 − p)3 + 2 × 6p2 (1 − p)2 + 3 × 4p3 (1 − p) + 4p4

allx
= 0 + 4p(1 − p)3 + 12p2 (1 − p)2 + 12p3 (1 − p) + 4p4

= 4p (1 − p)3 + 3p(1 − p)2 + 3p2 (1 − p) + p3
[ ]
= 4p (1 − p) + p
]3
= 4p(1 − p + p)3
[
= 4p
In both cases the expected value of X is the number chosen for n multiplied by p. The same result can be
achieved for any value of n.
The expected value

If X ~ Bi(n, p), then E(X) = 𝜇 = np.
Consider again n = 3:
E (X2 ) = 02 (1 − p)3 + 12 × 3p (1 − p)2 + 22 × 3p2 (1 − p) + 32 p3

= 0 + 3p (1 − p)2 + 12p2 (1 − p) + 9p3
= 3p (1 − p)2 + 12p2 (1 − p) + 9p3
Var(X) = E X2 − [E(X)]2
= 3p(1 − p)2 + 12p2 (1 − p) + 9p3 − (3p)2
( )
= 3p(1 − p)2 + 12p2 (1 − p) + 9p3 − 9p2

= 3p(1 − p)2 + 12p2 (1 − p) − 9p2 (1 − p)
= 3p(1 − p)2 + 3p2 (1 − p)
= 3p(1 − p)(1 − p + p)
= 3p(1 − p)
Consider again n = 4:
E X2 = 02 (1 − p)4 + 12 × 4p(1 − p)3 + 22 × 6p2 (1 − p)2 + 32 × 4p3 (1 − p) + 42 p4
= 0 + 4p(1 − p)3 + 24p2 (1 − p)2 + 36p3 (1 − p) + 16p4
( )
= 4p(1 − p)3 + 24p2 (1 − p)2 + 36p3 (1 − p) + 16p4
Var(X) = E X2 − [E(X)]2
= 4p(1 − p)3 + 24p2 (1 − p)2 + 36p3 (1 − p) + 16p4 − (4p)2
( )
= 4p(1 − p)3 + 24p2 (1 − p)2 + 36p3 (1 − p) + 16p4 − 16p2

= 4p(1 − p)3 + 24p2 (1 − p)2 + 36p3 (1 − p) + 16p2 p2 − 1
= 4p(1 − p)3 + 24p2 (1 − p)2 + 36p3 (1 − p) − 16p2 1 − p2
( )
= 4p(1 − p)3 + 24p2 (1 − p)2 + 36p3 (1 − p) − 16p2 (1 − p)(1 + p)

( )
= 4p(1 − p) (1 − p)2 + 6p(1 − p) + 9p2 − 4p(1 + p)

[ ]
= 4p(1 − p) 1 − 2p + p2 + 6p − 6p2 + 9p2 − 4p − 4p2

= 4p(1 − p)
( )
Again, in both cases, the variance of X is the number chosen for n times p(1 − p). This same result can be shown
for any value of n.
The variance and standard deviation

If X ~ Bi(n, p), then Var(X) = 𝜎 2 = np(1 − p)
and
SD(X) = 𝜎 = np(1 − p).
√

WORKED EXAMPLE 4 Expected value and variance
A test consists of 20 multiple choice questions, each with 5 alternatives for the answer. A student has
not studied for the test so she chooses the answers at random. Let X be the discrete random variable
that describes the number of correct answers. Calculate:
a. the expected number of correct questions answered
b. the variance of the correct number of questions answered.
a. 𝜇 = np
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Write the rule for the expected value.
n = 20, p =
1
2 Substitute the appropriate values and
𝜇 = np
simplify. 5
= 20 ×
1
=4
5
b. 𝜎 2 = np(1 − p)
3. Write the answer. The expected number of questions correct is 4.
b. 1. Write the rule for the variance.
Var(X) = 20 × ×
1 4
=
evaluate. 5 5
16
= 3.2
5
WORKED EXAMPLE 5 Determining n and p
A binomial random variable, Z, has a mean of 8.4 and a variance of 3.696. Calculate:
a. the probability of success, p
b. the number of trials, n.
a. 𝜇 = np
THINK WRITE
Var(Z) = np(1 − p)
a. 1. Write the rules for the variance and expected
value.
8.4 = np
Var(Z) = np (1 − p)
2. Substitute the known information and label [1]
3.696 = np (1 − p)
the two equations.
[2]
np(1 − p) 3.696
3. To cancel out the n, divide equation [2] by [2] ÷ [1]: =
np 8.4
1 − p = 0.44
equation [1].
p = 0.56
4. Simplify.
b. 1. Substitute p = 0.56 into E(Z) = np and solve 𝜇 = np

5. Write the answer. The probability of success is 0.56.
8.4 = n × 0.56
b.
n = 15
for n.
2. Write the answer. There are 15 trials.
WORKED EXAMPLE 6 Determining n
The probability of an Olympic archer hitting the centre of the target is 0.7. Determine the smallest
number of arrows he must shoot to ensure that the probability he hits the centre at least once is more
than 0.9.
THINK WRITE
Pr(X ≥ 1) > 0.9

1. Write the rule for the probabilities of the X ~ Bi(n, 0.7)
Pr(X ≥ 1) = 1 − Pr(X = 0)
binomial distribution.
because n is unknown. Therefore, Pr(X ≥ 1)

2. The upper limit of successes is unknown,
cannot be found by adding up the probabilities.

However, the required probability can be found
included in Pr(X ≥ 1).

by subtracting from 1 the only probability not
Pr(X ≥ 1) = 1 − Pr(X = 0)
1 − Pr(X = 0) > 0.9
3. Substitute in the appropriate values and
1 − n Cx (1 − p)n−x px > 0.9

simplify.
1 − n C0 (0.3)n (0.7)0 > 0.9

1 − 1 × (0.3)n × 1 > 0.9
1 − (0.3)n > 0.9
n > 1.91249
n = 2 (as n must be an integer)
4. Solve for n using CAS.
5. Interpret the result and answer the question.
The smallest number of arrows the archer needs to
shoot in order to guarantee a probability of 0.9 of
hitting the centre is 2.
Pr(X ≥ 1) > 0.9 Pr(X ≥ 1) > 0.9

1 − Pr(X = 0) > 0.9 1 − Pr(X = 0) > 0.9
1. Rewrite the probability 1. Rewrite the probability
Pr(X = 0) < 0.1 Pr(X = 0) < 0.1

statement. statement.
n
C0 × (0.3)n (0.7)0 < 0.1
2. On a Calculator page, press 2. On the Main screen,
MENU, then select: complete the entry line
solve(nCr(n, 0) ×
5: Probability as:
(0.3)n (0.7)0 < 0.1, n)

5: Distributions
D: Inverse
Binomial N … then press EXE.
Complete the fields as: Note: The n Cr template
Cumulative Prob: 0.1 can be found in the
Prob Success, p: 0.7 Advance tab of the
Successes, x: 0 Keyboard menu.
then select OK.
3. The answer appears on the n = 2. 3. The answer appears on the n = 2.

screen. screen.

Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Effects of n and p on the binomial distribution (int-6432)
10.3 Exercise

Technology free
1. Chiara has a 0.5 chance of being late to school each day. For the next week, calculate the probability that
Chiara is:
a. late 3 out of 5 days
b. late less than 2 days
c. late the first 2 days and on time the next 3 days.
2. Surveys show that 25% of adults read a daily newspaper. If 4 people are
selected at random, calculate the probability that:
a. all 4 of them read the daily newspaper
b. at least one person reads a newspaper every day
c. two people read the newspaper daily, given that at least one
person does.
3. Consider a woman with the genotype XX and a man with the genotype XY. Their XX = XY
offspring have an equal chance of inheriting one of these genotypes.
Calculate the probability that 6 of their 7 offspring have the genotype XY.
4. WE4 A science test consists of 60 multiple choice questions with 4 possible options,
A–D. If a student selected each answer at random, calculate: XX XY
a. the expected number of correct answers
b. the variance of the number of correct answers.
5. WE5 A binomial random variable, X, has a mean of 12 and a variance of 3. Calculate:

a. the probability of success, p b. the number of trials, n.
Technology active
6. WE3 Jack is an enthusiastic darts player and on average is capable of achieving
a bullseye 3 out of 7 times. Jack will compete in a five-round tournament. Let
Y be the discrete random variable that defines the number of bullseyes Jack
achieves. Give your answers correct to 4 decimal places for the following.
a. Construct a probability distribution table for Y.
b. Calculate the probability that Jack will score at most 3 bullseyes.
c. Determine the probability that Jack will score at least 1 bullseye, given that
he scored at most 3 bullseyes.
d. Calculate the probability that his first shot missed, his second shot was a
bullseye and then his next 2 shots missed.
7. At a poultry farm, eggs are collected daily and classified as large

or medium. Then they are packed into cartons containing 12 eggs
of the same classification. Experience has enabled the director of
the poultry farm to know that 42% of all eggs produced at the farm
are considered to be large. Ten eggs are randomly chosen from a
conveyor belt on which the eggs are to be classified. Let Z be the
discrete random variable that gives the number of large eggs. Give
a. Calculate Pr(Z = 0), Pr(Z = 1) . . . Pr(Z = 9), Pr(Z = 10) for this
your answers correct to 4 decimal places for the following.
binomial distribution.
c. Calculate Pr(Z ≥ 5 ∣ Z ≤ 8).

b. Construct a probability distribution table for Z.
8. A particular medication used by asthma sufferers has been found to

be beneficial if used 3 times a day. In a trial of the medication it was
found to be successful in 63% of the cases. Eight random asthma
sufferers have had the medication prescribed for them. Give your
answers correct to places for the following.
a. Construct a probability distribution table for the number of
sufferers who have benefits from the medication, X.
b. Determine the probability that no more than 7 people will benefit
from the medication.
c. Calculate the probability that at least 3 people will benefit from the medication, given that no more than
7 will.
d. Calculate the probability that the first person won’t benefit from the medication, but the next 5 will.
9. If X has a binomial distribution so that n = 15 and p = 0.62, calculate, correct to 4 decimal places:
a. Pr(X = 10) b. Pr(X ≥ 10) c. Pr(X < 4 ∣ X ≤ 8)
10. Wan is selling raffle tickets for cancer research outside her local supermarket. As people pass her table,
there is a probability of 0.45 that they will stop and buy a ticket. During the course of 15 minutes, 15 people
walked past her table. Let X be the binomial random variable for the number of people who stopped and
bought a ticket. Determine:
a. the expected value for the number of people who will stop and buy a ticket
b. the probability that 4 people will stop and buy a ticket, correct to 4 decimal places
c. the probability that no more than 8 people will buy a ticket, correct to 4 decimal places
d. the probability that the first 2 people will buy a ticket but the next 2 won’t, correct to 4 decimal places
11. The executive committee for an independent school consists of 12 members. Calculate, correct to 4 decimal
places, the probability that there are 8 or more women on the executive committee if:
a. it is equally likely that a man or a woman is chosen for the executive position
b. women have a 58% chance of being chosen for an executive position.
12. For each of the following binomial random variables, calculate:

i. the expected value
ii. the variance.
a. X ~ Bi(45, 0.72)
1
( )
b. Y ~ Bi 100,
5
2
( )
c. Z ~ Bi 72,
9

13. A fair die is tossed 25 times. Let X be the discrete random variable that represents the number of ones
achieved. Calculate, correct to 4 decimal places:
a. the expected number of ones achieved
b. the standard deviation of the number of ones achieved.
14. At midday at the local supermarket, three checkouts are in

operation. The probability that a customer can walk up to a
register without queuing is 0.32. Milo visits the supermarket
at noon on 7 different occasions. Give your answers correct
to 4 decimal places for the following.
a. Construct a probability distribution table for the number
of times Milo doesn’t have to queue to pay for his
purchases, Z.

b. Determine E(Z) and Var(Z).
15. A large distributor of white goods has found that 1 in 7 people who buy goods from them do so by using
their lay-by purchasing system. On one busy Saturday morning, 10 customers bought white goods. Let X
be the number of people who use the lay-by purchasing system to buy their goods. Calculate, correct to
4 decimal places:
b. Pr(𝜇 − 2𝜎 ≤ X ≤ 𝜇 + 2𝜎).
a. E(X) and Var(X)
16. A binomial random variable, Z, has a mean of 32.535 and a variance of 9.021 95.
a. Calculate the probability of success, p, correct to 3 decimal places.
b. Calculate the number of trials, n.
17. A binomial random variable has an expected value of 9.12 and a variance of 5.6544.
a. Calculate the probability of success, p.
b. Calculate the number of trials, n.
18. MC A binomial random variable has an expected value of 3.8325 and a variance of 3.412 842 15. The
probability of success, p, is:

A. 1.1230 B. 0.8905 C. 0.0286
D. 0.7644 E. 0.1095
19. MC A binomial experiment is completed 16 times and has an expected value of 10.16. The standard
deviation is closest to:
A. 0.635 B. 2.4886 C. 1.9257
D. 3.7084 E. 0.365
20. The tram that stops outside Maia’s house is late 20% of
the time. If there are 12 times during the day that the tram
stops outside Maia’s house, determine, correct to 4 decimal
places:
a. the probability that the tram is late 3 times
b. the probability that the tram is late 3 times for at least 6
out of the next 14 days.
21. WE6 The probability of winning a prize in a particular competition is 0.2. Calculate how many tickets
someone would need to buy in order to guarantee them a probability of at least 0.85 of winning a prize.
22. Lizzie and Matt enjoy playing card games. The probability that
Lizzie will beat Matt is 0.67. Calculate how many games they need
to play so that the probability of Matt winning at least one game is
more than 0.9.
10.3 Exam questions
A discrete random variable X has a binomial distribution with a probability of success of p = 0.1 for n
trials, where n > 2.

MC
If the probability of obtaining at least two successes after n trials is at least 0.5, then the smallest possible value
of n is
A. 15 B. 16 C. 17
D. 18 E. 19

MC Let X be a discrete random variable with binomial distribution X ~ Bi (n, p). The mean and the standard
deviation of this distribution are equal.

Given that 0 < p < 1, the smallest number of trials, n, such that p ≤ 0.01 is
A. 37 B. 49 C. 98
D. 99 E. 101
The binomial random variable, X, has E(X) = 2 and Var(X) = .

4
MC
Pr (X = 1) is equal to
3
×
( )6 ( )6 ( )2
1 2 1 2
A. B. C.
3 3 3 3
D. 6 × × E. 6 × ×
( )5 ( )5
1 2 2 1
3 3 3 3

10.4 Applications
LEARNING INTENTION
• apply the binomial distribution properties to real-world problems and calculate specific probabilities
and values.
10.4.1 Applications of the binomial distribution

The binomial distribution has important applications in medical research, quality control, simulation and
genetics. In this section we will explore some of these areas.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7 Applying the binomial distribution
It has been found that 9% of the population have diabetes. A sample of 15 people were tested for
diabetes. Let X be the random variable that gives the number of people who have diabetes. Calculate,
a. Pr(X ≤ 5)
correct to 4 decimal places:
b. E(X) and SD(X).
THINK WRITE
Pr(X ≤ 5) = 0.9987
a. 1. Summarise the information using binomial notation. a. X ~ Bi(15, 0.09)
b. E(X) = np
2 Use CAS technology to add up the required probabilities.
E(X) = 15 × 0.09
b. 1. State the rule for the expected value.
= 1.35
2. Substitute the appropriate values and simplify.
Var(X) = np(1 − p)
= 15 × 0.09 × 0.91
3. Determine the variance.
= 1.2285
SD(X) = Var(X)
√
4. Determine the standard deviation.
= 1.2285
√
= 1.1084
10.4 Exercise

Technology active
1. WE7 It is thought that about 30% of teenagers receive their spending
money from part-time jobs. Ten random teenagers were interviewed
about their spending money and how they obtained it. Let Y be the
random variable that defines the number of teenagers who obtain
their spending money by having a part-time job. Calculate, correct to
a. Pr(Y ≥ 7)
4 decimal places:
b. E(Y) and SD(Y).
2. A mobile phone manufacturer has a relatively simple but important quality test at the end of the
manufacturing, which is that the phone should be dropped onto a hard surface. If the phone cracks or breaks
in any way it is rejected and destroyed. The probability that a phone is rejected and destroyed is 0.01. Let Z
a. Calculate Pr(Z ≤ 3).

be the number of mobile phones that are dropped and broken when 5 mobile phones are tested.
b. Determine:
i. E(Z)
c. Determine Pr(𝜇 − 2𝜎 ≤ Z ≤ 𝜇 + 2𝜎).

ii. SD(Z), correct to 4 decimal places.
3. In Australia, it is estimated that 30% of the population over the age of 25 have hypertension. A statistician
wishes to investigate this, so he arranges for 15 random adults over the age of 25 to be tested to see if they
have high blood pressure. Let X be the random variable that defines the number of adults over the age of 25
a. Pr(X ≤ 5).
with hypertension. Calculate, correct to 4 decimal places where appropriate:
b. i. E(X)
ii. SD(X).
4. It is estimated that about 8% of men and 1% of women have colour blindness. Six men and six women are
checked for any signs of colour blindness. Let Y be the discrete random variable that defines the number of
men who have colour blindness, and let Z be the discrete random variable that defines the number of women
who have colour blindness.
a. Calculate, correct to 4 decimal places where appropriate:
iii. Pr(𝜇 − 2𝜎 ≤ Y ≤ 𝜇 + 2𝜎)

i. E(Y) ii. SD(Y)
vi. Pr(𝜇 − 2𝜎 ≤ Z ≤ 𝜇 + 2𝜎).

iv. E(Z)
v. SD(Z)
b. Compare the two distributions.

5. Suppose that 85% of adults with allergies report systematic relief with a new medication that has just been
released. The medication has just been given to 12 patients who suffer from allergies. Let Z be the discrete
random variable that defines the number of patients who get systematic relief from allergies with the new
medication.
a. Evaluate the probability that no more than 8 people get relief
from allergies.
b. Given that no more than 8 people get relief from allergies
after taking the medication, evaluate the probability that at
least 5 people do.
c. Calculate:
i. E(Z)
ii. SD(Z), correct to 4 decimal places.
6. Silicon chips are tested at the completion of the fabrication process. Chips
either pass or fail the inspection, and if they fail they are destroyed. The
probability, correct to 4 decimal places, that a chip fails an inspection
is 0.02. Calculate the probability, correct to 4 decimal places, that in a
manufacturing run of 250 chips only 7 will fail the inspection.
7. The probability of a person in Australia suffering anaemia is 1.3%. A group
of 100 different Australians of differing ages were tested for anaemia.
Calculate, correct to 4 decimal places:
a. the probability that at least 5 of the 100 Australians suffer from anaemia.
c. the value of Pr(𝜇 − 2𝜎 ≤ X ≤ 𝜇 + 2𝜎) and interpret this value.

b. the probability that 4 of the 100 Australians suffer from anaemia, given that less than 10 do.
8. Haruto is completing a multiple choice test of

20 questions. Each question has 5 possible answers.
a. If Haruto randomly guesses every question, calculate
the probability, correct to 4 decimal places, that he
correctly answers 10 or more questions.
b. If Haruto knows the answers to the first 4 questions
but must randomly guess the answers to the other
questions, find the probability that he correctly answers
10 or more questions. Give your answer correct to
4 decimal places.
9. Six footballers are chosen at random and asked to kick a

football. The probability of a footballer being able to kick
at least 50 m is 0.7.
a. Determine the probability, correct to 4 decimal
places, that:
i. only the first three footballers chosen kick the ball
at least 50 m
ii. exactly three of the footballers chosen kick the ball
at least 50 m
iii. at least three of the footballers chosen kick the ball
at least 50 m, given that the first footballer chosen
kicks it at least 50 m.
b. Determine the minimum number of footballers required to ensure that the probability that at least one of
them can kick the ball 50 m is at least 0.95.
10. A manufacturer of electric kettles has a process of randomly testing the kettles as they leave the assembly
line to see if they are defective. For every 50 kettles produced, 3 are selected and tested for any defects. Let
X be the binomial random variable that is the number of kettles that are defective so that X ~ Bi(3, p).
b. Assuming Pr(X = 0) = Pr(X = 1), determine the value of p where 0 < p < 1.
a. Construct a probability distribution table for X, giving your probabilities in terms of p.
i. 𝜇 ii. 𝜎.
c. Determine:
11. Lee Yin is a goal shooter for her netball team. The probability of her
scoring a goal is 0.85. In one particular game, Lee Yin had 12 shots
at goal. Determine the probability, correct to 4 decimal places, that:
a. she scored more than 9 goals
b. only her last 9 shots were goals
c. she scored 10 goals, given that her last 9 shots were goals.
12. The chance of winning a prize in the local raffle is 0.08. Determine the least number of tickets Siena needs
to purchase so that the chance of both her and her sister each winning at least one prize is more than 0.8.
10.4 Exam questions

MC The probability of winning a game is 0.25.
The probability of winning a game is independent of winning any other game.
If Ben plays 10 games, the probability that he will win exactly four times is closest to
A. 0.1460 B. 0.2241 C. 0.9219 D. 0.0781 E. 0.7759

MC An archer can successfully hit a target with a probability of 0.9. The archer attempts to hit the target
80 times. The outcome of each attempt is independent of any other attempt.

Given that the archer successfully hits the target at least 70 times, the probability that the archer successfully hits
the target exactly 74 times, correct to four decimal places, is
A. 0.3635 B. 0.8266 C. 0.1494 D. 0.3005 E. 0.1701

MC Harry is a soccer player who practises penalty kicks many times each day.
Each time Harry takes a penalty kick, the probability that he scores a goal is 0.7, independent of any other
penalty kick. One day Harry took 20 penalty kicks.
Given that he scored at least 12 goals, the probability that Harry scored exactly 15 goals is closest to
A. 0.1789 B. 0.8867 C. 0.8 D. 0.6396 E. 0.2017

10.5 Review
10.5.1 Summary
doc-37040
10.5 Exercise
1. One-third of all customers at a particular bookstore buy
non-fiction books. If 5 customers purchase a book on a particular
day, calculate the probability that 3 of them purchased a
non-fiction book.
2. Aki is a goal shooter for his local netball team. During his matches,
he has many attempts at scoring a goal. Assume that each attempt at
scoring a goal is independent of any other attempt. In the long run his
scoring rate has been shown to be 80%. Determine:
a. the probability that his first 4 attempts at scoring a goal in a match
are successful
b. the probability that exactly 3 out of his first 4 attempts at scoring a
goal in a match are successful
c. the probability that his first shot is a goal, his next 2 shots miss, and
his fourth is a goal.
3. It is known that 50% of customers who enter a restaurant order a cup of

coffee. Assume that what any customer orders is independent of what
any other customer orders.
a. If 4 customers enter the restaurant, calculate the probability that
more than 1 of these customers will order coffee.
b. If 12 customers enter the restaurant, calculate the expected number
of customers who will order a cup of coffee.
4. A particular binomial random variable has a mean of 24 and a variance of 6. Calculate the probability of
success, p, and the number of independent trials, n.
p where p > 0. Let the random variable X be the number of questions that Dineesha answers correctly in any
5. The probability that Dineesha will answer any question independently of her answer to any other question is
set of 20 questions.
a. If Pr(X > 18) = 6 Pr(X = 20), show that the value of p is .
4
5
b. Evaluate E(X) and Var(X).
6. A barrel contains 100 balls, some of which have a zebra pattern painted on them. Five balls are randomly
zebra-patterned balls in the barrel such that 0 < p < 1.

selected from the barrel with replacement after each ball has been withdrawn. Let p be the proportion of
a. Write an expression for the probability that exactly 1 of the 5 balls selected has a zebra pattern.
b. Use calculus to find the exact value of p for which this probability will be a maximum.

7. MC A Bernoulli random variable, X, has a probability of failure of 0.35. The expected value and variance of
X are respectively:
A. 0.35 and 0.2275
B. 0.35 and 0.65
C. 0.65 and 0.2275
D. 0.65 and 0.35
E. 0.65 and 0.65
8. MC On Hugo’s drive towards the city, he initially has to go through a set of traffic lights at his local
shopping centre. As the lights are for people to cross the main road from one side of shops to the other,
they are frequently red. Hugo estimates that they are red 80% of the time. Over a period of a week, he drives
through these lights twice a day. The probability that these lights are red on exactly 13 occasions is:
13
A. 14 C13 (0.2)(0.8)
C. 14 C13 (0.2)(0.8) + (0.8)

13
B. 14 C13 (0.8)(0.2)
D. 14 C13 (0.8)(0.2) + (0.2)

13 14
E. 1 − (0.8)
13 14
14
9. MC Joop takes the bus to and from school each school day over a
period of a week. The probability that the bus is late on 4 occasions is
given by 10 C4 (0.7)6 (0.3)4 .
The mean and variance of the number of times that Joop finds the bus is
late respectively are:
A. 3 and 0.21 B. 7 and 0.21 C. 0.3 and 2.1
D. 7 and 2.1 E. 3 and 2.1
10. MC A ticket inspector at the Australian Tennis Open has observed that in the long run 65% of all tickets
viewed are full-price tickets and the remaining 35% are concession tickets. The ticket inspector takes note
of the next 25 tickets he views. The probability that the sample contains exactly 14 full-price tickets is
equal to:
11 14 11 14
A. 1 B. 25 C14 (0.35) (0.65) C. 25 C14 (0.65) (0.35)
14 11 14 11
D. (0.35) (0.65) E. (0.65) (0.35)

11. MC A soccer player is practising his goal kicking. He has a probability of

4
of scoring a goal with each independent attempt. He has 8 attempts at
7
kicking a goal. The probability that the number of goals he scores is less
than 4 is:
A. 0.4717
B. 0.2518
C. 0.2199
D. 0.4728
E. 0.2210
12. MC A fair coin is tossed 7 times. The probability, correct to 4 decimal places, that at most 3 Heads are
obtained is:
A. 0.2734 B. 0.2266 C. 0.2188 D. 0.5000 E. 0.0625
13. MC Let X be a discrete random variable with a binomial distribution. The mean is 3.5 and the variance is
A. n = 4, p = 0.3 B. n = 4, p = 0.7 C. n = 3, p = 0.5 D. n = 5, p = 0.3 E. n = 5, p = 0.7

1.05. The values of n (the number of independent trials) and p (the probability of success) are:
14. MC During a holiday Mateo and Airi play a total of n games of golf. The
probability that Airi wins any independent game is 0.45. No games are
drawn. If the probability that Airi wins no games is 0.0152, then the total
number of games played is:
A. 1
B. 2
C. 5
D. 7
E. 10
15. MC A random variable, Z, has the following probability distribution, where 0 < p < 1.
Pr(Z = z) 1−p
z 0 1
p
A. p − 1 p(1 − p) C. 1 − p p(p − 1) E. p(1 − p)

The standard deviation of Z is:
√ √
B. D.
16. MC The number of defective computer parts in a box of computer parts ready for sale is a random variable
with a binomial distribution that has a mean of 12 and a standard deviation of 2. The probability of success,
p, is equal to
1 1 1 5 2
A. B. C. D. E.
3 6 2 6 3

17. It has been found in the past that 8% of the computers produced in a certain factory are defective. A sample
of 12 is drawn randomly from each hour’s production and the number of defectives in the sample is noted.
When a computer is chosen, it is tested for defectiveness, and it is returned to the production line if it is not
defective.
a. Calculate, correct to 2 decimal places, the percentage of these hourly samples in which there would be at
least 2 defective computers.
𝜇 ± 2𝜎. Give your answers correct to 4 decimal places.

b. Calculate the mean and standard deviation of the number of defective computers noted and calculate
c. A particular sample is found to contain 3 defectives. Explain whether this would cause doubts about the
production process.
18. For a large population of people, it is fair to assume that the dates of
birth are evenly distributed throughout the year, so that the probability of
1
having your birthday in a particular month is .
12
a. Determine the probability that of 8 people randomly chosen, exactly
3 will have their birthday in August. Give your answer correct to
4 decimal places.
b. Determine the probability that of the 8 randomly chosen people,
at least 1 will have their birthday in November. Give your answer
c. If n people are chosen at random, find the smallest value of n so that
the probability that at least 1 will have their birthday in March is
greater than 0.9.
19. Australia has the highest incidence of melanoma in the world. One in 17 Australians will be diagnosed with
melanoma before the age of 85. In fact, 1 in 14 males are at risk of being diagnosed with a melanoma before
the age of 85, because men are 2.5 times more likely to die from melanoma compared to women. Fifty
randomly chosen men were asked if they had ever been diagnosed with a melanoma.
a. State the expected number of melanoma cases for this sample if X is the random variable that defines the
number of melanoma cases.
i. the probability that fewer than 6 men are diagnosed with melanoma
ii. the probability that at least 3 men are diagnosed with melanoma, given that fewer than 6 are
iii. the variance and standard deviation for X.
20. The game of two-up is thought to have originated in the United

Kingdom in the 18th century, but it became historically well-
known because it was played by Australian soldiers during World
War I. The game is now played at casinos because it is illegal to
play it anywhere else in Australia, except on Anzac Day, when it
can be played in all states except Queensland.
The usual rules for two-up are quite straightforward. The
ringkeeper controls the spinner and the conduct of the game. The
spinner places two pennies on a wooden plank called a kip and
tosses them.

The pennies must have spun at least 2 metres over the head of the spinner. Players bet on either two Heads or
two Tails coming uppermost when the pennies land. To make the outcomes perfectly clear, the Tails side of
the pennies is marked with a white or yellow cross.
If the pennies show two Heads, the result is Heads. If the pennies show two Tails, the result is Tails. If the
pennies show one Tail and one Head, the result is ‘odds’.
A spinner bet means a wager by the spinner. If the spinner nominates to spin for Heads, they win if they spin
Heads 3 times without spinning any Tails and without spinning 5 consecutive odds.
Gus has just accepted the roll of the spinner and has nominated Heads to win. He now has 5 spins to try to
achieve Heads 3 times.
a. Draw a tree diagram of the possible outcomes of the two coins from one spin. State the accompanying
probabilities.
b. Let X be the random variable of both coins showing Heads when a spin occurs. State the values of
p and n.
c. Gus successfully completes his 5 spins and did not achieve Heads in 3 consecutive spins. Construct a
d. Determine 𝜇 and 𝜎, and hence calculate Pr(𝜇 − 2𝜎 ≤ X ≤ 𝜇 + 2𝜎). Give your answers correct to 4 decimal
probability distribution table for X. Give your answers correct to 4 decimal places.
places where appropriate.
10.5 Exam questions

A paddock contains 10 tagged sheep and 20 untagged sheep. Four times each day, one sheep is selected at
random from the paddock, placed in an observation area and studied, and then returned to the paddock.
a. What is the probability that the number of tagged sheep selected on a given day is zero? (1 mark)
b. What is the probability that at least one tagged sheep is selected on a given day? (1 mark)
c. What is the probability that no tagged sheep are selected on each of six consecutive days? Express your
( )c
a
answer in the form where a, b and c are positive integers. (1 mark)
b
3
For a certain population the probability of a person being born with the specific gene SPGE1 is .
5
The probability of a person having this gene is independent of any other person in the population having
this gene.
a. In a randomly selected group of four people, what is the probability that three or more people have the
SPGE1 gene? (2 marks)
b. In a randomly selected group of four people, what is the probability that exactly two people have the
SPGE1 gene, given that at least one of those people has the SPGE1 gene? Express your answer in the
, where a, b, c ∈ Z+ .
b − c4
a3
form 4 (2 marks)

MC Shown below is the graph of p, which is the probability function for the number of times, x, that a ‘6’ is
rolled on a fair six-sided die in 20 trials.
p(x)
0.3
0.2
0.1
0 x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Let q be the probability function for the number of times, w, that a ‘6’ is not rolled on a fair six-sided die in 20
trials. q (w) is given by
A. p (20 − w) B. p 1 − D. p (w − 20) E. 1 − p (w)
w w
( ) ( )
C. p
20 20

MC Items are packed in boxes of 25 and the mean number of defective items per box is 1.4.
Assuming that the probability of an item being defective is binomially distributed, the probability that a box
contains more than three defective items, correct to three decimal places, is
A. 0.037 B. 0.048 C. 0.056 D. 0.114 E. 0.162
MC In a shipment of electrical conductors, it is found that 8% are defective.

A sample of 30 conductors is selected at random.
The standard deviation of the number of defective conductors selected is closest to
A. 4.80 B. 2.4 C. 2.19 D. 2.21 E. 1.49



Answers 10.2 Exam questions

Topic 10 The binomial distribution solutions online.
1. a. 0.0072
10.2 Bernoulli trials b.
Pr(Z = z)
z 0 1
10.2 Exercise 0.9928 0.0072
1. a. No b. Yes c. Yes
d. Yes e. Yes f. No c. 0.9928
2. a. No replacement of ball 2. a. 0.2436 b. 0.58 c. 0.58
b. There are 6 outcomes, not 2. 3. a. 0.11 b. 0.8742
c. Success unknown
3. a. 0.6 b. 0.24
10.3 The binomial distribution
4. a.
x 0 1 10.3 Exercise
Pr(X = x)
5 3 1
4 1 1. a. b. c.
16 16 32
5 5
1 175 54
1 2. a. b. c.
b. 256 256 175
5
7
c. 0.000 32 3.
128
5. a.
Pr(X = x)
x 0 1 4. a. 15 b. 11.25
0.58 0.42 3
5. a. b. 16
c. Var(X) = 0.2436, SD(X) = 0.4936

b. 0.42 4
6. a. See the table at the bottom of the page.*
6. B b. 0.8891
7. a. c. 0.6745
Pr(X = x)
x 0 1
Pr(Z = 0) = 0.0043,
d. 0.0800
0.11 0.89
Pr(Z = 1) = 0.0312,
7. a.
Pr(Z = 2) = 0.1017,
b. i. 0.89 ii. 0.0979 iii. 0.3129
Pr(Z = 3) = 0.1963,
c. 0.89
Pr(Z = 4) = 0.2488,
8. a.
Pr(Y = y) Pr(Z = 5) = 0.2162,

y 0 1
Pr(Z = 6) = 0.1304,
0.67 0.33
Pr(Z = 7) = 0.0540,
Pr(Z = 8) = 0.0147,
b. 0.33
Pr(Z = 9) = 0.0024,
c. 1
Pr(Z = 10) = 0.0002

9. a. 0.7 b. 0.7
10. a. 0.8775
b. See the table at the bottom of the page.*
b.
Pr(Z = z)
z 0 1 c. 0.4164
0.1225 0.8775
c. 0.8775
*6. a.
Pr(Y = y)
y 0 1 2 3 4 5
0.0609 0.2285 0.3427 0.2570 0.0964 0.0145
*7. b.
Pr(Z = z)
z 0 1 2 3 4 5
0.0043 0.0312 0.1017 0.1963 0.2488 0.2162
Pr(Z = z)
z 6 7 8 9 10
0.1304 0.0540 0.0147 0.0024 0.0002
8. a. See the table at the bottom of the page.* There is a probability of 0.9228 that a maximum of
b.
0.9752
b. 1 male will have colour blindness, whereas there is a
c. 0.9655
probability of 0.9415 that no females will have colour
blindness.
d. 0.0367
5. a. 0.0922
E(X) = 6.75
9. a. 0.1997 b. 0.4665 c. 0.0034
b. 0.9992
10. a. b. 0.0780 c. i. 10.2 ii. 1.2369
c. 0.8182 d. 0.0613
6. 0.1051
11. a. 0.1938 b. 0.3825
7. a. 0.0101
12. a. i. 32.4 ii. 9.072 b. 0.0319
12.4̇
b. i. 20 ii. 16 c. 0.9580. This means there is a probability of 0.9580 that a
c. i. 16 ii. maximum of 3 people will suffer from anaemia per 100.
13. a. 4.1667 b. 1.8634 8. a. 0.0026 b. 0.0817
0.0093 0.1852 0.9692
E(Z) = 2.24, Var(Z) = 1.5232
14. a. See the table at the bottom of the page.* 9. a. i. ii. iii.
b. b. 3
E(X) = 1.4286, Var(X) = 1.2245

c. 0.9620 10. a.
x 0 1 2 3
Pr(X = x) (1 − p) 3(1 − p) p 3(1 − p)p
15. a.
3 2 2
b. 0.9574 p3
p=
16. a. 0.723 b. 45 1
b.
17. a. 0.38 b. 24 4
18. E 3 3
c. i. ii.
19. C 4 4
20. a. 0.2362 b. 0.0890 11. a. 0.7358 b. 0.0008 c. 0.0574
21. 9 tickets 12. 37
22. 6 games
10.4 Exam questions
10.3 Exam questions Note: Mark allocations are available with the fully worked
Note: Mark allocations are available with the fully worked solutions online.
solutions online. 1. A
1. C 2. D 3. D 2. C
3. E
10.4 Applications
10.4 Exercise 10.5 Review
E(Y) = 3, SD(Y) = 1.4491

1. a. 0.0106 10.5 Exercise
b. Technology free: short answer
2. a. 1 40
1.
ii. Var(Z) = 0.0495, SD(Z) = 0.2225

b. i. 0.05 243
256 256 16
2. a. b. c.
c. 0.9510 625 625 625
3. a. 0.7216 11
3. a. b. 6
b. i. 4.5 ii. 1.7748 16
p = , n = 32
4. a. i. 0.48 ii. 0.6645 3
iii. 0.9227 iv. 0.06 4.
4
v. 0.2437 vi. 0.9415
*8. a.
Pr(X = x)
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0.0004 0.0048 0.0285 0.0971 0.2067 0.2815 0.2397 0.1166 0.0248
*14. a.
Pr(Z = z)
z 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0.0672 0.2215 0.3127 0.2452 0.1154 0.0326 0.0051 0.0003

Pr(HH) = , Pr(HT) = , Pr(TH) = , Pr(TT) =

Pr(X > 18) = Pr(X = 19) + Pr(X = 20)
5. a. X ~ Bi(20, p) 1 1 1 1
20. a.
4 4 4 4
Pr(X > 18) = 20 C19 (1 − p)p19 + p20
1– H
Pr(X > 18) = 20(1 − p)p19 + p20

2
Pr(X = 20) = p
1– H
2 1– T
Pr(X = 20) = 6 Pr(X > 18)

20 2
20(1 − p)p19 + p20 = 6p20

1
0 = 6p20 − p20 − 20(1 − p)p19

1– –
2 H
2 T
0 = 5p20 − 20p19 + 20p20

1–
0 = 25p20 − 20p19
2 T
0 = 5p19 (5p − 4)
1
( )
b. X ~ Bi 5,
p = 0 or 5p − 4 = 0
4
∴ n = 5, p =
5p = 4
1
p=
4
4
d. 𝜇 = 1.25, 𝜍 = 0.9682,
c. See the table at the bottom of the page.*
Pr(𝜇 − 2𝜍 ≤ X ≤ 𝜇 + 2𝜍) = 0.9844

5
As p > 0, p = .
4
b. E(X) = 16, Var(X) = 3.2

5
10.5 Exam questions
6. a. 5p(1 − p) b. p =
4 1 Note: Mark allocations are available with the fully worked
5 solutions online. ( )6
Technology active: multiple choice 16 65 16
1. a. b. c.
7. C 81 81 81
8. A 297
2. a.
9. E 625
, a = 6, b = 5, c = 2
10. B
54 − 24
63
b.
11. E
12. D 3. A
13. E 4. B
14. D 5. E
15. B
16. E
b. 𝜇 = 0.96, 𝜍 = 0.9398, 𝜇 − 2𝜍 = −0.9196,

17. a. 24.87%
𝜇 + 2𝜍 = 2.8396
c. The result lies outside the 95% limit, so there would be
concerns about the production process.
18. a. 0.0210 b. 0.5015 c. 27
25
19. a.
7
b. 0.8554
d. Var(X) = 3.3163, SD(X) = 1.8211

c. 0.6523
*20. c.
Pr(X = x)
x 0 1 2 3 4 5
0.2373 0.3955 0.2637 0.0879 0.0146 0.0010
“c11ContinuousProbabilityDistributions_PrintPDF” — 2022/6/21 — 13:39 — page 611 — #1
Continuous probability
11 distributions
LEARNING SEQUENCE
11.1 Overview .............................................................................................................................................................. .612
11.2 Continuous random variables and probability functions ....................................................................613
11.3 The continuous probability density function ...........................................................................................625
11.4 Measures of centre and spread ...................................................................................................................632
11.5 Linear transformations ..................................................................................................................................... 645
11.6 Review ................................................................................................................................................................... 651

11.1 Overview
11.1.1 Introduction
In contrast with discrete random variables, which deal with numbers that are counted, continuous random
variables are values that are obtained by measuring, for example heights, weights or time taken. A continuous
random variable may assume any value within a given range.
A probability density function is such that the area under the curve is 1 and f(x) ≥ 0 for all x-values. Some
functions are quite basic, but others are more elaborate and have particular applications, such as the
Kumaraswamy distribution, which is used in relation to the storage volume of a reservoir. The Birnbaum–
Saunders distribution, also called the fatigue life distribution, is used in reliability applications to model failure
times. The Erlang distribution was developed with the purpose of examining the number of telephone calls that
could be made simultaneously to switchboard operators. Erlang’s work has now been expanded to encompass
queue waiting times.
KEY CONCEPTS
space and examples of continuous random variables
• continuous random variables:
– construction of probability density functions from non-negative functions of a real variable
– specification of probability distributions for continuous random variables using probability
– calculation and interpretation of mean, 𝜇, variance, 𝜎 , and standard deviation of a continuous

density functions
2

– calculation of probabilities for intervals defined in terms of a random variable, including
conditional probability.
11.2 Continuous random variables and

probability functions
LEARNING INTENTION
• define and identify probability density functions
• determine unknown values of given probability density functions.
11.2.1 Probability density functions

eles-xxxx
Discrete data is data that is finite or countable, such as the number of soft-centred chocolates in a box of soft-
and hard-centred chocolates.
A continuous random variable assumes an uncountable or infinite number of possible outcomes between two
values. That is, the variable can assume any value within a given range. For example, the birth weights of babies
and the number of millimetres of rain that falls in a night are continuous random variables. In these examples,
that is just what the weight scale’s output said. In reality, he may have weighed 4.463 279 … kilograms.
the measurements come from an interval of possible outcomes. If a newborn boy is weighed at 4.46 kilograms,
Therefore, a possible range of outcomes is valid within an interval that depends on the precision of the scale.
Consider an Australian health study that was conducted. The study targeted young people aged 5 to 17 years old.
They were asked to estimate the average number of hours of physical activity they participated in each week.
The results of this study are shown in the following histogram.
Physical activity
y
400 364
350 347
300
Frequency
250
200 156
150
100 54
50 32
10 7
0
x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Hours
0 ≤ x < 1 means from 0 seconds to 59 minutes and 59 seconds, and so on, because x is not restricted to integer
Remember, continuous data has no limit to the accuracy with which it is measured. In this case, for example,
values. In the physical activity study, x taking on a particular value is equivalent to x taking on a value in an
appropriate interval. For instance,
Pr(X = 0.5) = Pr(0 ≤ X < 1)

Pr(X = 1.5) = Pr(1 ≤ X < 2)
TOPIC 11 Continuous probability distributions 613

and so on. From the histogram,
Pr(X = 2.5) = Pr(2 ≤ X < 3)
=
(364 + 347 + 156 + 54 + 32 + 10 + 7)
156
=
156
970
In another study, the nose lengths, X millimetres, of 75 adults were measured. This data is continuous because
the results are measurements. The result of the study is shown in the table and accompanying histogram.
27.5 < X ≤ 32.5

Nose length Frequency
32.5 < X ≤ 37.5

2
37.5 < X ≤ 42.5

5
42.5 < X ≤ 47.5

17
47.5 < X ≤ 52.5

21
52.5 < X ≤ 57.51

11
57.5 < X ≤ 62.5

7
62.5 < X ≤ 67.5

6
67.5 < X ≤ 72.5

5
1
Nose length
y
35
30
Frequency
25
20
15
10
5
0
x
27.5 32.5 37.5 42.5 47.5 52.5 57.5 62.5 67.5 72.5
Length in mm
It is possible to use the histogram to find the number of people who have a nose length of less than 47.5 mm.
2 + 5 + 17 + 21
Pr (nose length is < 47.5) =
=
75
45
=
75
3
5
It is worth noting that we cannot find the probability that a person has a nose length that is less than 45 mm, as
this is not the end point of any interval. However, if we had a mathematical formula to approximate the shape of
the graph, then the formula could give us the answer to this important question.
In the histogram, the midpoints at the top of each bar have been connected by line segments. If the class intervals
were much smaller, say 1 mm or even less, these line segments would take on the appearance of a smooth curve.
This smooth curve is of considerable importance for continuous random variables, because it represents the
probability density function for the continuous data.
This problem for a continuous random variable can be addressed by using calculus.
Probability density function conditions
For any continuous random variable, X, the f (x)

probability density function is such that
Pr(a < X < b) = f(x)dx

b
∫
a
which is the area under the curve from x = a to x = b.

A probability density function must satisfy the
• f(x) ≥ 0 for all x ∈ [a, b]

following conditions: 0 x
a b
f(x) dx = 1; this is absolutely critical.

b
∫
•
a
• Pr(X = x) = 0, where x ∈ [a, b]

Other properties are:
• Pr(a < X < b) = Pr(a ≤ X < b) = Pr(a < X ≤ b) = Pr(a ≤ X ≤ b) =

b
∫
f(x) dx
a
• Pr(X < c) = Pr(X ≤ c) = f(x) dx when x ∈ [a, b] and a < c < b.

c
∫
a
In theory, the domain of a continuous probability density function is R, so that

∞
f(x)dx = 1.
∫
−∞
However, if we must address the condition that
f(x)dx = 1,
b
∫
a
then the function must be zero everywhere else.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Continuous random variables (int-6433)

WORKED EXAMPLE 1 Probability density functions
Sketch the graph of each of the following functions and state whether each function is a probability
2(x − 1), 1 ≤ x ≤ 2 0.5, 2 ≤ x ≤ 4 0≤x≤2

density function.
{ −x
a. f(x) = b. f(x) = c. f(x) =
{ {
2e
0, elsewhere 0, elsewhere 0, elsewhere
Sketch the graph of f(x) = 2(x − 1)

THINK WRITE
over the domain 1 ≤ x ≤ 2, giving

a. 1. a. f (x)
an x-intercept of 1 and an end point 2 (2, 2)
horizontal lines for y = 0 either side

of (2, 2). Make sure to include the
f (x) = 2(x – 1)
of this graph.
Note: This function is known as a
triangular probability function because
of its shape.
0 (1, 0) (2, 0) x
2. Inspect the graph to determine if the Yes, f(x) ≥ 0 for all x-values.
that is, f(x) ≥ 0 for all x ∈ [a, b].

function is always positive or zero,
Area of shaded region = × base × height

3. Calculate the area of the shaded region Method 1: Using the area of triangles
2 (x − 1) dx − 1.
2 1
∫
= ×1×2
to determine if 2
1
1
=1
2
Method 2: Using calculus
Area of shaded region = 2(x − 1) dx

2
∫
1
= (2x − 2) dx
2
= [x2 − 2x]21
1
= (22 − 2(2)) − (12 − 2(1))

= 0−1+2
=1
f(x) ≥ 0 for all values, and the area
under the curve = 1. Therefore, this
4. Interpret the results.
is a probability density function.
Sketch the graph of f(x) = 0.5 for

2 ≤ x ≤ 4. This gives a horizontal line,
b. 1. b. f (x)
with end points of (2, 0.5) and (4, 0.5).
lines for y = 0 on either side of this

Make sure to include the horizontal
graph. f (x) = 0.5

0.5 (2, 0.5) (4, 0.5)
Note: This function is known as a
uniform or rectangular probability
density function because of its
rectangular shape. (2, 0) (4, 0)
0 x

3. Calculate the area of the shaded region Again, it is not necessary to use
0.5 dx = 1.
4
calculus to find the area.
∫
Area of shaded region = length × width
to determine if Method 1: Using the area of a rectangle
= 2 × 0.5
2
=1
Method 2: Using calculus
Area of shaded region =

4
∫
0.5 dx
= [0.5x]42
2
= 0.5(4) − 0.5(2)
= 2−1
=1
f(x) ≥ 0 for all values, and the area
under the curve = 1. Therefore, this is
Sketch the graph of f(x) = 2e−x for

a probability density function.
0 ≤ x ≤ 2. End points will be (0, 2) and

c. 1. c. f (x)
(2, 2e−2 ). Make sure to include the

horizontal lines for y = 0 on either side
(0, 2)
of this graph.
f (x) = 2e–x
( ) 2
2, –
e2
(0, 0) (2, 0) x


2e dx = 2 e−x dx
2 2
−x
∫ ∫
3. Calculate the area of the shaded region
2e−x dx = 1. = 2[−e−x ]20

2
0 0
∫
= 2(−e−2 + e0 )
to determine if
= 2(−e−2 + 1)
0
= 1.7293
f(x) ≥ 0 for all values. However, the area

under the curve ≠ 1. Therefore, this is
not a probability density function.

c. 1. On a Graphs page, c. 1. On a Graph & Table
complete the entry screen, complete the
f 1(x) = 2e−x |0 ≤ x ≤ 2 y1 = 2e−x |0 ≤ x ≤ 2

line for function 1 as: entry line for y1 as:
then press ENTER. then press ENTER.

Select the ‘Graph’
icon to draw the
graph.
2. To find the area under the 2. To find the area under

curve, press MENU, then the curve, select:
7: Integral • Integral
Type ‘0’ when prompted
∫
• dx
for the lower bound, then
press ENTER. Type ‘2’ Type ‘0’ to bring up
when prompted for the the dialogue box,
upper bound, then press then complete the
ENTER. fields as:
The area appears on the Lower: 0
screen. Upper: 2
Select OK.
f(x) ≥ 0 for all values. However, Answer the question. f(x) ≥ 0 for all values. However,
the area under the curve ≠ 1. the area under the curve ≠ 1.
3. Answer the question. 3.
Therefore, this is not a probability Therefore, this is not a

density function. probability density function.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2 Determining unknown values in probability density functions
Given that the functions below are probability density functions, calculate the value of a in each
a(x − 1)2 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 4 ae , x > 0

{ −4x
a. f(x) = b. f(x) =
function.{
0, elsewhere 0, elsewhere
THINK WRITE
f(x) dx = 1
4
∫
a. 1. As the function has already been defined as a a.
probability density function, this means that 0
a(x − 1)2 dx = 1
4
the area under the graph is definitely 1.
∫
0
a (x − 1)2 dx = 1
4
∫
2. Remove a from the integral, as it is a constant.
(x − 1)3
0
=1
[ ]4
3. Anti-differentiate and substitute in the a
terminals. 3 0
− =1
[ ]
33 (−1)3
a
3 3
a 9+ =1
( )
1
4. Solve for a.
3
a× =1
28
a=
3
3
28
∞
f(x) dx = 1
∫
b. 1. As the function has already been defined as a b.
probability density function, this means that
∞
0
ae−4x dx = 1
the area under the graph is definitely 1.
∫
∞
0
e−4x dx = 1
∫
2. Remove a from the integral, as it is a constant. a
0
a × lim e−4x dx = 1
k
k→∞ ∫
3. To evaluate an integral containing infinity as
one of the terminals, we find the appropriate 0
limit.
a × lim − e =1
[]k
1 −4x
4. Anti-differentiate and substitute in the
k→∞ 4
terminals. ( −4k
a × lim − + =1
0
)
e 1
k→∞ 4 4
a × lim − 4k + =1
( )
1 1
k→∞ 4e 4

a 0+ =1
( )
1
5. Solve for a. Remember that a number divided
=1
by an extremely 4
( large
) number is effectively
= 0.
a
1
a=4
zero, so lim 4
k→∞ e4k
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Probability density functions (int-6434)
11.2 Exercise

Technology free
1. A small car-hire firm keeps note of the age and kilometres covered by each of the cars in their fleet.
Generally, cars are no longer used once they have either covered 350 000 kilometres or are more than five
years old. The following information describes the ages of the cars in their current fleet.
0<x≤1
Age Frequency Age of rental car
1<x≤2
10 y
30
2<x≤3
26 25
Frequency
3<x≤4
28 20
4<x≤5
20 15
5<x≤6
11 10
6<x≤7
4 5
0
1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
x
Age in years
i. Pr(X ≤ 2)
a. Determine:
ii. Pr(X > 4).
i. Pr(1 < X ≤ 4)
b. Determine:
ii. Pr(X > 1 | X ≤ 4) .
2. The battery life for batteries in television remote controls was investigated in a study.
Remote battery life

y
Hours of life Frequency 35
0 < x ≤ 15 15 30
Frequency
25
15 < x ≤ 30 33 20
15
30 < x ≤ 45 23 10
45 < x ≤ 60 26 5
0
60 < x ≤ 75 3 x
0 15 30 45 60 75
Battery life in hours
a. State how many remote control batteries were included in the study.
b. Calculate the probability that a battery will last more than 45 hours.
A new battery producer is advocating that their batteries have a long life of 60 + hours. If it is known
c. Calculate the probability that a battery will last between 15 and 60 hours.
d.
calculate the probability that these new batteries will have a life of 60 + hours.
that this is just advertising hype because these batteries are no different from the batteries in the study,
3. A number of experienced shot-putters were asked to aim for a line 10 metres

away.
After each of them put their shot, its distance from the 10-metre line was
measured. All of the shots were on or between the 8- and 10-metre lines. The
results of the measurements are shown, where X is the distance in metres from
the 10-metre line.
Shot-put throws
y
80
0 < x ≤ 0.5
Metres Frequency 70
0.5 < x ≤ 1
60
Frequency
75
50
1 < x ≤ 1.5
63 40
1.5 < x ≤ 2
45 30
17 20
10
0
x
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Distance in metres
a. State how many shot-put throws were measured.
i. Pr(X > 0.5) ii. Pr(1 < X ≤ 2)

b. Calculate:
c. A guest shot-putter is visiting the athletics club where the measurements are being conducted. His shot-
putting ability is equivalent to the abilities of the club members. Determine the probability that he puts the
shot within 50 cm of the 10-metre line if it is known that he put the shot within 1 metre of the 10-metre
line.
4. WE1 Sketch the graph of each of the following functions and state whether each function is a probability
density function.
e , 0 ≤ x ≤ loge (3) 0.25, −2 ≤ x ≤ 2
a. f(x) = { 4 b. f(x) = {
1 2x
0, elsewhere
0, elsewhere

𝜋 𝜋
5. Sketch each of the following functions and determine whether each one is a probability density function.
−
≤x≤ − , −e ≤ x ≤ −1
a. f(x) = { 2 b. f(x) = {
1 1
cos(x),
2 2 x
𝜋
cos(x) + 1, ≤x≤ sin(x), 0 ≤ x ≤ 𝜋

c. f(x) = { d. f(x) = { 2
3𝜋 1
4 4
6. WE2 Given that the function is a probability density function, calculate the value of n.
n(x3 − 1), 1≤x≤3

f(x) = {
0, elsewhere
7. Given that the function is a probability density function, calculate the value of a.
−ax, −2 ≤ x < 0
f(x) = {2ax, 0≤x≤3
0, elsewhere
Technology active
8. Sketch each of the following functions and determine whether each function is a probability density
√ , ≤x≤4 , 1<x≤2
function.
a. f(x) = { 2 x b. f(x) = { 2 x − 1
1 1 1
√
2
9. MC The rectangular function, f, is defined by the rule
0.25 < x < 1.65

f(x) = {
c,
0, elsewhere
The value of the constant c, given that f is a probability density function, is:
7 2 3 5
a. 1 b. c. d. e.
5 3 4 7
10. The graph of a function, f, is shown. y
If f is known to be a probability density function, show that
1
the value of z is . (0, z)
3
11. Calculate the value of the constant m in each of the
m(6 − 2x), 0 ≤ x ≤ 2
following if each function is a probability density function.
a. f(x) = {
(5, 0)
(–1, 0) 0 x
me−2x , x≥0
0, elsewhere
b. f(x) = {
me2x , 0 ≤ x ≤ loge 3
0, elsewhere
c. f(x) = {
0, elsewhere
12. Let X be a continuous random variable with the probability density function
x2 + 2kx + 1, 0≤x≤3
f(x) = {
0, elsewhere
Show that the value of k is −

11
.
9
13. X is a continuous random variable such that
𝜋
MC
0<x<
f(x) = {
n sin(3x) cos(3x),
12
0, elsewhere
If f is known to be a probability density function, the value of the constant, n, is:

1 1 1
A. 12 B. C. 6 D. E.
6 8 12
14. A function, f, is defined by the rule
x>0
f(x) = {
loge (x),
0, elsewhere
f(x) dx = 1, determine the value of the real constant a.

a
∫
a. If
1
b. State whether this function defines a probability density function.
15. X is a continuous random variable such that f (x)
, 2≤x≤a
( )
f(x) = { 2
1
loge
x (a, –12 log (–a2))
e
2
1 log –
–
2 e 2
a
()
0, elsewhere
f(x) dx = 1. The graph of this function is shown.

a
∫
and
2
Determine the value of the constant a. 0 (2, 0) (a, 0) x
16. X is a continuous random variable such that
−x, −1 ≤ x < 0
f(x) = {x, 0≤x≤a
0, elsewhere
where a is a constant.
Y is another continuous random variable such that
, 1≤y≤e
f(y) = { y
1
0, elsewhere
a
∫
a. Sketch the graph of the function for X and determine f(x) dx.
−1

∫
b. Sketch the graph of the function for Y and determine f(y) dy.
1
f(x)dx = f(y)dy.
a e
∫ ∫
c. Calculate the value of the constant a if
−1 1
11.2 Exam questions

MC A probability density function f is given by
cos (x) + 1 k < x < (k + 1)

f (x) = {
0 elsewhere
where 0 < k < 2.
3𝜋 − 1 𝜋−1 𝜋
C. 𝜋 − 1
The value of k is
A. 1 B. D. E.
2 2 2
MC The function f is a probability density function with rule
0≤x≤1
f (x) = {ae 1<x≤2
aex
0 otherwise
The value of a is
2e − 1
1 1 1
A. 1 B. e C. D. E.
e 2e
MC A continuous random variable, X, has a probability density function defined by
for 0 ≤ x ≤ 3
f (x) = {
cx2
0 elsewhere
Select which of the following options is correct.

A. c = B. c = C. c =
3 26 1
D. c = E. c = 9
26 3 14
1
9
11.3 The continuous probability density function

LEARNING INTENTION
• calculate various probabilities for a given probability distribution function, including conditional
probability.
11.3.1 Continuous probability density functions

eles-xxxx
As stated in subtopic 11.2, if X is a continuous random f (x)
variable, then
Pr (a ≤ X ≤ b) = f (x) dx.
b
∫
a
continuous probability function, the x-axis, the line x = a and

In other words, by finding the area between the curve of the
the line x = b, providing f(x) ≥ 0, then we are finding

Pr(a ≤ X ≤ b). It is worth noting that because we are
dealing with a continuous random variable, Pr(X = a) = 0.
0 x
a b
Consequently, we can calculate probabilities as follows.
Calculating probabilities within a probability density function

Pr(a ≤ X ≤ b) = Pr(a < X ≤ b) = Pr(a ≤ X < b) = Pr(a < X < b)
Pr(a ≤ X ≤ b) = Pr(a ≤ X ≤ c) + Pr(c < X ≤ b), where a < c < b.
This property is particularly helpful when the probability density function is a hybrid function and the required
probability encompasses two functions.
WORKED EXAMPLE 3 Calculating probabilities
A continuous random variable, X, has a probability density function, f, defined by
⎧−ax, −3 ≤ x ≤ 0
f(x) = ⎨ax, 0<x≤3
⎪
⎪0, elsewhere
⎩
c. Determine Pr(1 ≤ X ≤ 3). d. Determine Pr(X < 2 ∣ X > −1).

a. Sketch the graph of f. b. Calculate the value of the constant, a.

a. f(−3) = 3a and f(3) = 3a

THINK WRITE
sections. The first graph, f(x) =

a. The hybrid function contains three
−ax, is a straight line with end

f (x)
(–3, 3a) (3, 3a)
3a
points of (0, 0) and (−3, 3a). The
second graph is also a straight line
and has end points of (0, 0) and
the f(x) = 0 lines for x > 3 and

(3, 3a). Don’t forget to include
x < −3. (–3, 0) (0, 0) (3, 0)

0 x
f(x) dx = 1 to solve f(x) dx = 1

3 3
∫ ∫
b. Use the fact that b.
−3 −3
for a.
× 3 × 3a + × 3 × 3a = 1
Using the area of a triangle, we find:
1 1
+ =1
2 2
9a 9a
9a = 1
2 2
a=
1
c. Pr(1 ≤ X ≤ 3) = f(x) dx
3 9
∫
c. Identify the part of the function that
values 1 ≤ X ≤ 3 are within the region

the required x-values sit within: the 1
where f(x) = x. =
3 ( )
1 1
∫
x dx
9 9
1
=
[ ]3
1 2
x
18
= (3)2 − (1)2
1
1 1
=
18 18
8
=
18
4
9
Note: The method of finding the area of a trapezium
Pr(X < 2 ∩ X > −1)

could also be used.
d. Pr(X < 2 | X > −1) =

Pr(X > −1)
d. 1. State the rule for the conditional
Pr(−1 < X < 2)

=
probability.
Pr(X > −1)
2. Find Pr(−1 < X < 2). As the Pr(−1 < X < 2) = Pr(−1 < X < 0) + Pr(0 ≤ X < 2)
interval is across two functions,
the interval needs to be split.
= − x dx +
0 2
1 1
∫ 9 ∫ 9
3. To find the probabilities we need x dx
to find the areas under the curve. −1 0
=− x dx +
0 2
1 1
∫ 9 ∫ 9
x dx
−1 0
=− +
[ ]0 [ ]2
1 2 1 2
4. Anti-differentiate and evaluate x x
after substituting the terminals. 18 −1 18 0
=− (0) − (−1) + (2)2 − (0)2

( )
1 2 1 2 1 1
18 18 18 18
= +
1 4
18 18
=
5
18
5. Find Pr(X > −1). As the interval Pr(X > −1) = Pr(−1 < X < −1) + Pr(0 ≤ X ≤ 3)
is across two functions, the
interval needs to be split.
= − x dx +
0 3
1 1
∫ 9 ∫ 9
6. To find the probabilities we need x dx
−1
As Pr(0 ≤ X ≤ 3) covers exactly
to find the areas under the curve. 0
=− x dx +
0
1 1
∫ 9
Pr(0 ≤ X ≤ 3) = . (The entire
half the area under the curve,
−1
1 2
2
area under the curve is always
1 for a probability density
function.)
=− +
[ ]0
1 2 1
7. Anti-differentiate and evaluate x
after substituting the terminals. 18 −1 2
=− (0) − (−1) +
( )
1 2 1 2 1
18 18 2
= +
1 9
18 18
=
10
18
=
5
Pr(−1 < X < 2)

9
Pr(X < 2 ∣ X > −1) =
to find Pr(X < 2 ∣ X > −1). Pr(X > −1)
8. Now substitute into the formula
= ÷
5 5
= ×
18 9
5 9
=
18 5
1
2

11.3 Exercise

Technology free
1. The continuous random variable X has a uniform rectangular probability density function defined by
, 1≤x≤6
f(x) = { 5
1
0, elsewhere
a. Sketch the graph of f. b. Determine Pr(2 ≤ X ≤ 5).
2. The continuous random variable X has a probability density function given by
4x3 , 0≤x≤a
f(x) = {
0, elsewhere
c. Determine Pr(0.5 ≤ X ≤ 1).

a. Calculate the value of the constant a. b. Sketch the graph of f.
3. WE3 A continuous random variable, X, has a probability density function, f, defined by
k(2 + x), −2 ≤ x < 0

f(x) = {k(2 − x), 0≤x≤2
0, elsewhere
1
a. Sketch the graph of f. b. Show that the value of k is .
c. Determine Pr(−1 ≤ X ≤ 1). d. Determine Pr(X ≥ −1 ∣ X ≤ 1).

4
4. The continuous random variable Z has a probability density function given by
−z + 1, 0≤z<1
f(z) = {z − 1, 1≤z≤2
0, elsewhere
b. Calculate Pr(Z < 0.75).

c. Calculate Pr(Z > 0.5).
a. Sketch the graph of f.
5. Let X be a continuous random variable with a probability density function defined by
0≤x≤𝜋
f(x) = { 2
1
sin(x),
0, elsewhere
𝜋
<X<
( )
3𝜋
b. Calculate Pr .
𝜋|
4 4
c. Calculate Pr X > | X <

( )
4|
3𝜋
.
4
6. The continuous random variable Z has a probability density function defined by
𝜋 𝜋
− ≤z≤
f(z) = { 2
1
cos(z),
2 2
0, elsewhere
a. Sketch the graph of f and verify that y = f(z) is a probability density function.
𝜋 𝜋
b. Calculate Pr − ≤ Z ≤
( )
.
6 4
Technology active
7. The amount of petrol sold daily by a busy service
station is a uniformly distributed probability
density function. A minimum of 18 000 litres and
a maximum of 30 000 litres are sold on any given (18, k) (30, k)
k
day. The graph of the function is shown. Determine:
a. the value of the constant k
Frequency
b. the probability that between 20 000 and

25 000 litres of petrol are sold on a given day
c. the probability that as much as 26 000 litres of
petrol were sold on a particular day, given that it
was known that at least 22 000 litres were sold.
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32
Petrol sold (thousands of litres)
8. The continuous random variable U has a probability density function defined by
1 − (2u − 3u2 ), 0≤u≤a

f(u) = {
1
4
0, elsewhere
b. Pr(U < 0.75)

where a is a constant. Calculate:
c. Pr(0.1 < U < 0.5) d. Pr(U = 0.8).

a. the value of the constant a
9. MC The continuous random variable X has a probability density function given as
3e−3x , x≥0
f(x) = {
0, elsewhere
Pr(0 ≤ X ≤ 1), correct to 4 decimal places, is:

A. 0.3167 B. 0.9502 C. 1.8964 D. 0.0498 E. 0.6833

10. MC The continuous random variable X has a probability density function given as
3e−3x , x≥0
f(x) = {
0, elsewhere
Pr(X > 2), correct to 4 decimal places, is:

A. 1 B. 0.0498 C. 0.0025 D. 0.0008 E. 0.4060
11. The continuous random variable X has a probability density function defined by
1≤x≤a
f(x) = { e
log (x2 ),
0, elsewhere
b. Pr(1.25 ≤ X ≤ 2).
x, 0≤x≤2
f(x) = { 8
3 2
0, elsewhere
a. Pr(X > 1.2)

Calculate:
b. Pr(X > 1 ∣ X > 0.5)

c. the value of n such that Pr(X ≤ n) = 0.75.
13. The graph of the probability function f (z)

(0, 1–π )
f(z) =
𝜋(z2 + 1)
1
1
f (z) = —
π(z2 + 1)
a. Calculate, correct to 4 decimal places, Pr(−0.25 < Z < 0.25).

is shown.
b. Suppose another probability density function is defined as

0 z
, −a ≤ x ≤ a
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3
f(x) = { x + 1
1
2
0, elsewhere
Determine the value of the constant a. Give your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
, 1 ≤ z ≤ e2
f(z) = { 2z
1
0, elsewhere
2
e
∫
a. Sketch the graph of f and shade the area that represents f(z) dz.
1
2
e
∫
b. Determine f(z) dz. Explain your result.
1
The continuous random variable U has a probability density function defined by
e4u , 0≤u≤a
f(u) = {
0, elsewhere
∫
c. Sketch the graph of f and shade the area that represents f(u) du, where a is a constant.
0
d. Determine the exact value of a.
11.3 Exam questions

MC The continuous random variable, X, has a probability density function given by
3𝜋 ≤ x ≤ 5𝜋
( )
f (x) = { 4
1 x
cos
2
0 elsewhere
3+2
The value of a such that Pr (X < a) =
√
is
4
19𝜋 14𝜋 10𝜋 29𝜋 17𝜋
A. B. C. D. E.
6 3 3 6 3
Let X be a continuous random variable with probability density function
−4x loge (x) 0<x≤1
f (x) = {
0 elsewhere
Part of the graph of f is shown below. The graph has a turning point at x = .
1
e
x
0 1 1
e
a. Show by differentiation that
k loge (x) − 1
xk ( )
2
k
k−1
is an antiderivative of x loge (x), where k is a positive real number. (2 marks)
b. Calculate Pr X >
( )
1
. (2 marks)
e

The continuous random variable Z has a probability density function defined by

3, 0≤z≤a
−
f (z) = {
z
e
0, elsewhere
f (z) dz = 1
a
where a is a constant. Find:
∫
a. the value of the constant a such that (2 marks)
b. Pr(0 < Z < 0.7), correct to 4 decimal places

0
c. Pr(Z < 0.7 ∣ Z > 0.2), correct to 4 decimal places

(1 mark)
d. the value of b, correct to 2 decimal places such that Pr(Z ≤ b) = 0.54.

(2 marks)
(2 marks)

LEARNING INTENTION
• calculate the mean of a probability density function
• calculate percentiles of a probability density function
• determine the variance and standard deviation of a probability density function.
11.4.1 Measures of central tendency

eles-xxxx
The mean
Remember that for a discrete random variable,
x=n
E(X) = 𝜇 = ∑ xn Pr(X = xn )
x=1
This definition can also be applied to a continuous random variable.

∞
We define E(X) = 𝜇 =
∫
xf(x) dx.
−∞
The mean of a probability density function

If f(x) = 0 everywhere except for x ∈ [a, b], where the function is defined, then
E(X) = 𝜇 = x f(x)dx
b
∫
a
and the function of X, g (x), has a mean defined by
∞
E(g(x)) = 𝜇 =
∫
g(x)f(x)dx
−∞
Consider the continuous random variable, X, which has a probability density function defined by
x2 , 0≤x≤1
f(x) = {
0, elsewhere
For this function,
E(X) = 𝜇 =
1
∫
xf(x)dx
0
=
1
∫
x(x2 )dx
0
=
1
∫
x3 dx
0
=
[ ]1
x4
4 0
= −0
14
4
=
1
4
Similarly, if the continuous random variable X has a probability density function of
7e−7x , x≥0
f(x) = {
0, elsewhere
then
∞
E(X) = 𝜇 =
∫
xf(x)dx
0
= lim
k
7xe−7x dx
k→∞ ∫
= 0.1429
0
where CAS technology is required to determine the integral.

If we again consider
x2 , 0≤x≤1
f(x) = {
0, elsewhere

then
E(X) =
1
∫
2
x2 f(x)dx
0
=
1
∫
x4 dx
0
=
[ ]1
x5
5 0
= −0
15
5
=
1
5
This definition is important when we investigate the variance of a continuous random variable.
Percentiles
If a person wishes to know the value below which a certain percentage of the values lie, this is equivalent to
working out a percentile. For example, the 60th percentile is the value below which 60% of the data lie.
Percentiles
The percentile value, p, is given by:
Pr(X ≤ p) = q
or
f(x)dx = q
p
∫
−∞
where q is the percentile amount, such as 0.7 for the 70th percentile.
Other percentiles that are frequently calculated are the 25th percentile or lower quartile, Q1 , and the 75th
percentile or upper quartile, Q3 .
The interquartile range

The interquartile range is calculated as:
IQR = Q3 − Q1
Consider the continuous random variable X, which has a probability density function of
, 0≤x≤2
f(x) = { 4
x3
0, elsewhere
The 50th percentile is given by Pr(0 ≤ x ≤ p) = 0.5:
dx = 0.5
p
x3
∫ 4
=
0
[ 4 ]p
x 1
16 0 2
−0 =
p4 1
p4 = 8
16 2
p= ±
√
4
8
p = 1.6818 (0 ≤ m ≤ 2)
Pr(0 ≤ x ≤ a) = 0.25:
To find the lower quartile, we make the area under the curve equal to 0.25. Thus, the lower quartile is given by
dx = 0.25
a
x3
∫ 4
=
0
[ 4 ]a
x 1
16 0 4
−0 =
a4 1
a4 = 4
16 4
a= ±
√
4
4
a = Q1 = 1.4142 (0 ≤ a ≤ m)
given by Pr(0 ≤ x ≤ n) = 0.75:

Similarly, to find the upper quartile, we make the area under the curve equal to 0.75. Thus, the upper quartile is
dx = 0.75
n
x3
∫ 4
=
0
[ 4 ]n
x 3
16 0 4
−0 =
n4 3
n4 = 12
16 4
n= ±
√
4
12
n = Q3 = 1.8612 (m ≤ x ≤ 2)
So the interquartile range is given by
Q3 − Q1 = 1.8612 − 1.4142
= 0.4470

WORKED EXAMPLE 4 The mean of a probability density function
A continuous random variable, Y, has a probability density function, f, defined by

ky, 0 ≤ y ≤ 1
f(y) =
{
0, elsewhere
b. Calculate the value of the constant k.
c. Calculate the mean of y.
a. The graph f(y) = ky is a straight

THINK WRITE
a. f (y)
line with end points at (0, 0) k (1, k)
include the lines f(y) = 0 for

and (1, k). Remember to
y > 1 and y < 0.
(0, 0) (1, 0) y
ky dy = 1 to find the ky dy = 1
1 1
∫ ∫
b. Solve b.
0 0
value of k.
k y dy = 1
1
∫
0
=1
[ ]1
y2
k
2 0
−0 = 1
k(1)2
=1
2
k
k=2
2
Using the area of a triangle also enables you to
×1×k = 1
find the value of k.
1
=1
2
k
k=2
2
𝜇=
1
∫
c. 1. State the rule for the c. i. y (2y)dy
mean. 0
=
1
∫
2y2 dy
0
=
[ ]1
2y3
2. Anti-differentiate and
simplify. 3
= −0
0
2(1)3
=
3
2
3
c. 1. On a Calculator page, c. 1. On the Main
complete the entry screen, select:
line as: • Interactive
• Calculation
(y × 2y) dy
1
∫ ∫
•
0
Select ‘Definite’,
then press ENTER. then complete the
Expression: y × 2y
Note: The integral fields as:
template can be
found by pressing the Variable: y
‘Templates’ button. Lower: 0
(2 ∗ y, y, 0, m) = 0.5, m
Upper: 1 solve
( )
∫
Select OK.
WORKED EXAMPLE 5 The interquartile range
0≤y≤1
For the function in Worked example 4, f(y) =
{
2y,
, calculate, correct to 4 decimal places:
0, elsewhere
a. the lower and upper quartiles of Y b. the inter-quartile range of Y.
THINK WRITE
f(y) dy = 0.25
a
∫
a. 1. State the rule for the lower quartile, Q1 . a.
0
2y dy = 0.25
a
y = 0.25
0
[ 2 ]a
a2 − 0 = 0.25
2. Anti-differentiate and solve for Q1 .
0
a = ± 0.25
√
a = Q1 = 0.5 (0 ≤ y ≤ 1)

f(y) dy = 0.75
n
∫
3. State the rule for the upper quartile, Q3 .
0n
2y dy = 0.75
∫
y = 0.75
[0 2 ]n
n2 − 0 = 0.75
4. Anti-differentiate and solve for Q3 .
0
n = ± 0.75
√
n = Q3 = 0.8660 (0 ≤ y ≤ 1)
b. IQR = Q3 − Q1
= 0.8660 − 0.5
b. 1. State the rule for the interquartile range.
= 0.3660
simplify.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities Mean (int-6435)
Median and percentiles (int-6436)
11.4.2 Measures of spread

eles-xxxx
Variance, standard deviation and range
The variance and standard deviation are important measures of spread. From previous topics we know that
Var(X) = E(X2 ) − [E(X)]
For continuous probability functions,

∞
Var(X) = (x − 𝜇)2 f(x)dx

∫
−∞
∞
= x2 − 2x𝜇 + 𝜇2 f(x)dx
( )
∫
−∞
∞ ∞ ∞
= x2 f(x)dx − 2xf(x)𝜇 dx + 𝜇2 f(x)dx

∫ ∫ ∫
−∞ −∞ −∞
∞ ∞
= E X2 − 2𝜇 xf(x)dx + 𝜇2
( )
∫ ∫
1f(x)dx
−∞ −∞
=E X − 2𝜇 × E(X) + 𝜇
( 2
) 2
= E X2 − 2𝜇2 + 𝜇2
( )
= E X2 − 𝜇2
( )
= E X2 − [E(X)]2
( )
∞ ∞
f(x) dx = 1 and xf(x)dx = 𝜇 = E(X).

∫ ∫
Two important facts were used in this proof:
−∞ −∞
The variance and standard deviation of a probability distribution function

If f(x) = 0 everywhere except for x ∈ [a, b], where the function is defined, then
Var(X) = E(X2 ) − [E(X)]
= x f(x)dx − x f(x)dx
b b
∫ ∫
2
a a
and
SD(X) =
√
Var(X)
, 1≤x≤6
The range is calculated as the highest value minus the lowest value, so for the probability density function given
by f(x) = { 5
1
, the highest possible x-value is 6 and the lowest is 1.
0, elsewhere
Therefore, the range for this function = 6 − 1
=5
WORKED EXAMPLE 6 Variance and standard deviation

For a continuous random variable, X, with a probability density function, f, defined by
⎪ x + 2, −4 ≤ x ≤ −2
⎧1
f(x) = ⎨ 2
⎪0, elsewhere
⎩
find:
a. the mean
b. the variance
c. the standard deviation, correct to 4 decimal places.
THINK WRITE
−2
a. 𝜇 =
∫
a. 1. State the rule for the mean and xf(x) dx
simplify. −4
−2
= x + 2 dx
( )
1
∫
x
−4
2
−2 (
= x + 2x dx
)
1 2
∫
−4
2

]−2
= x +x
[
1 3 2
6 −4
= (−2) + (−2) − (−4) + (−4)

( ) ( )
1 3 2 1 3 2
−4
6 6
= +4+ − 16
32
3 3
= −2
2
3
b. 1. Write the rule for variance. b. Var(X)2 = E(X2 ) − [E(X)]2
E(X2 ) =
b
∫
2. Find E(X2 ) first. x2 f(x)dx
−2
a
= x + 2 dx
( )
1
∫
2
x
−4
2
−2 (
= x + 2x2 dx
)
1 3
∫ 2
−4
]−2
= x + x
[
1 4 2 3
8 3 −4
= (−2) + (−2) − (−4) + (−4)

( ) ( )
1 4 2 3 1 4 2 3
8 3 8 3
= 2− − 32 +
16 128
= −30 +
3 3
112
=
3
22
3
3. Substitute E(X) and E(X2 ) into the Var(X) = E(X2 ) − [E(X)]2
= − −
( )2
rule for variance. 22 8
= −
3 3
22 64
= −
3 9
66 64
=
9 9
2
9
c. 1. Write the rule for standard deviation. c. SD(X) = Var(X)

√
=
√
2
2. Substitute the variance into the rule
= 0.4714
and evaluate. 9
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Variance, standard deviation and range (int-6437)
11.4 Exercise

Technology free
1. Calculate the mean for each of the following probability density functions.
− x + 1, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2
a. f(x) = { 2
1
0, elsewhere
, x≥1
b. f(x) = { x2
1
0, elsewhere
0 ≤ x ≤ 0.5
2. Calculate the mean and variance for each of the following probability density functions.
a. f(x) = {
4x,
1≤x≤3
0, elsewhere
b. f(x) = {
0.5,
0, elsewhere
3. WE4 The continuous random variable Z has a probability density function of
√ , 1≤z≤a
f(z) = {
1
z
0, elsewhere
a. Calculate the value of the constant a.
b. Calculate the mean of Z
4. The continuous random variable, Z, has a probability density function of
, 1≤z≤a
f(z) = { z2
3
0, elsewhere
3
a. Show that the value of a is .
2
c. Calculate the value of p such that Pr (1 ≤ Z ≤ p) = 0.5

b. Calculate the mean value of f.

5. Consider the continuous random variable X with a probability density function of
h(2 − x), 0≤x≤2

f(x) = {h(x − 2), 2<x≤4
0, elsewhere
where h is a constant. Calculate:
a. the value of the constant h
b. E(X)
c. Var(X).
Technology active
6. Let X be a continuous random variable with a probability density function of
√ , 0≤x≤1
f(x) = { 2 x
1
0, elsewhere
a. Prove that f is a probability density function.

b. Calculate E(X).
7. The continuous random variable, Y, has a probability density function of
0≤y≤a
f(y) = {
√
y,
0, elsewhere
c. the value of k such that Pr (0 ≤ y ≤ k) = 0.6

b. E(Y)
8. WE6 For the continuous random variable Z, the probability density function is
≤z≤
f(z) = {
1 e
2 loge (2z),
2 2
0, elsewhere
Find the mean, variance and standard deviation, correct to 4 decimal places.
9. The function
3e−3x , x≥0
f(x) = {
0, elsewhere
defines the probability density function for the continuous random variable, X. Find the mean, variance and
standard deviation of X.
10. The time in minutes that an individual must wait in line to be served at the local bank branch is defined by
f(t) = 2e−2t , t ≥ 0
where T is a continuous random variable.

a. Calculate the mean waiting time for a customer in the queue, correct to 1 decimal place.
b. Calculate the standard deviation for the waiting time in the queue, correct to 1 decimal place.
11. WE5 The continuous random variable Y has a probability density function defined by
, 0≤y≤
f(y) = { 3
y2 √
3
9
0, elsewhere
a. the lower and upper quartiles of Y b. the interquartile range of Y.
, 1≤z≤8
f(y) = { z
a
0, elsewhere
a. Calculate the value, correct to 4 decimal places, of the constant a.
b. Calculate E(Z) correct to 4 decimal places.
c. Calculate Var(Z) and SD(Z), correct to 4 decimal places.
d. Determine the interquartile range for Z, correct to 4 decimal places.
e. Determine the range for Z.
13. X is a continuous random variable. The graph of the probability density f (x)
function
f(x) = (sin(2x) + 1) for 0 ≤ x ≤ 𝜋

𝜋
1
1 2
–
f (x) = –
π (sin(2x) + 1)
π
is shown.
(π, –π1 )
a. Show that f(x) is a probability density function.
(0, –π1 )
b. Calculate E(X) correct to 4 decimal places.
c. Calculate, correct to 4 decimal places: x
0
0.25 0.5 0.75 1
i. Var(X) ii. SD(X).
14. The continuous random variable Y has a probability density function
, 2 ≤ y ≤ 7.9344
( )
f(y) = {
y
0.2 loge
2
0, elsewhere
a. Verify that f is a probability density function.

b. Calculate E(Y) correct to 4 decimal places.
c. Calculate Var(Y) and SD(Y) correct to 4 decimal places.
d. State the range.
15. The continuous random variable Z has a probability density function
z − 1, 1≤z≤a
f(z) = {
√
0, elsewhere
a. Calculate the value of the constant a correct to 4 decimal places.
i. E(Z) ii. E(Z2 ) iii. Var(Z) iv. SD(Z).

ax − bx2 , 0≤x≤2
f(x) = {
0, elsewhere
Determine the values of the constants a and b if E(X) = 1.
17. a. State the derivative of 4 − x2 .

√
b. Hence, determine the mean value of the probability density function defined by
, 0≤x≤
√
f(x) = { 𝜋 4 − x2
3
√ 3
0, elsewhere
18. Consider the continuous random variable X with a probability density function of
a≤x≤b
f(x) = {
k,
0, elsewhere
where a, b and k are positive constants.

b. Show that k =
b−a
1
a. Sketch the graph of the function f. .
c. Determine E(X) in terms of a and b. d. Determine Var(X) in terms of a and b.
11.4 Exam questions
A random variable X had the probability density function f given by
, 1≤x≤2
f(x) = { x2
k
0, elsewhere
a. Show that k = 2.
where k is a positive real number.
(1 mark)
b. Find E(X). (2 marks)
MC The graph of the probability density function of a continuous
random variable, X, is shown below.
1
6
If a > 2, then E (X) is equal to

O 2 a
A. 8 B. 5 C. 4 D. 3 E. 2

Source: VCE 2013 Mathematical Methods (CAS) Exam 1, Q8; © VCAA.
A continuous random variable, X, has a probability density function
𝜋 𝜋x
if x ∈ [0, 2]
( )
f (x) = { 4
cos
4
0 otherwise
𝜋x 𝜋x 𝜋x 𝜋x
= + sin
( ( )) ( ) ( )
d
Given that x sin cos , find E (X).
dx 4 4 4 4
11.5 Linear transformations

LEARNING INTENTION
• calculate the mean and variance when linear transformations are applied to a probability density
function.
11.5.1 Transformations
eles-xxxx
Sometimes it is necessary to apply transformations to a continuous random variable. A transformation is a
change that is applied to the random variable. The change may consist of one or more operations that may
involve adding or subtracting a constant or multiplying or dividing the variable by a constant.
Suppose a linear transformation is applied to the continuous random variable X to create a new continuous
random variable, Y. For instance
Y = aX + b
It can be shown that E(Y) = E(aX + b) = aE(X) + b

and Var(Y) = Var(aX + b) = a2 Var(X).
First let us show that E(Y) = E(aX + b) = aE(X) + b.
∞
Since E(X) =
∫
xf(x)dx,
−∞
∞
then E(aX + b) = (ax + b)f(x)dx.

∫
−∞
Using the distributive law, it can be shown that this is equal to

∞ ∞
E(aX + b) = axf(x) dx +
∫ ∫
bf(x) dx
−∞ −∞
∞ ∞
=a xf(x) dx + b
∫ ∫
f(x) dx
−∞ −∞

But E(X) =
∫
xf(x)dx, so
−∞
∞
E(aX + b) = aE (X) + b
∫
f(x) dx
−∞
∞
f(x)dx = 1 , so E(aX + b) = aE (X) + b

∫
Also,
−∞
Also note that E(aX) = aE(X) and E(b) = b.

Now let us show that Var(Y) = Var(aX + b) = a2 Var(X).
Since Var(X) = E(X2 ) − [E(X)]2 ,
Var (aX + b) = E ((aX + b)2 ) − [E(aX + b)]2
∞
= (ax + b)2 f(x)dx − (aE(X) + b)2

∫
−∞
∞
= (a2 x2 + 2abx + b2 )f(x)dx − [a2 [E(X)]2 + 2abE(X) + b2 ]

∫
−∞
Using the distributive law to separate the first integral, we have

∞ ∞ ∞
Var(aX + b) = a x f (x)dx + 2abxf(x)dx + b2 f(x)dx − a2 [E(X)]2 − 2abE(X) − b2

∫ ∫ ∫
2 2
−∞ ∞ −∞ ∞ −∞ ∞
= a2 x2 f(x)dx + 2ab xf(x)dx + b2 f(x)dx − a2 [E(X)]2 − 2abE(X) − b2

∫ ∫ ∫
−∞ −∞ −∞
∞ ∞ ∞
But E(X) = xf(x) dx, E(X2 ) = f(x) dx = 1 for a probability density function. Thus,
∫ ∫ ∫
x2 f(x) dx and
−∞ −∞ −∞
Var(aX + b) = a2 E(X2 ) + 2abE(X) + b2 − a2 [E(X)]2 − 2abE(X) − b2

= a2 E(X2 ) − a2 [E(X)]2
= a2 (E(X)2 − [E(X)]2 )
= a2 Var(X)
Thus, we can calculate the mean and variance of linear transformations as follows.
Mean and variance of linear transformations

E(aX + b) = aE(X) + b
and
WORKED EXAMPLE 7 Mean and variance of linear transformations
a. E(2X + 1) b. Var(2X + 1)
A continuous random variable, X, has a mean of 3 and a variance of 2. Determine:
e. E(X2 − 5).
c. E(X2 )
d. E(3X2 )
a. Use E(aX + b) = aE(X) + b to find E(2X + 1). a. E(2X + 1) = 2E(X) + 1

THINK WRITE
= 2(3) + 1
=7
b. Use Var(aX + b) = a2 Var(X) to find Var(2X + 1). b. Var(2X + 1) = 22 Var(X)

= 4×2
=8
c. Use Var(X) = E(X2 ) − [E(X)] to find E(X2 ). c. Var(X) = E(X2 ) − [E(X)]

2 2
2 = E(X2 ) − 32
2 = E(X2 ) − 9
E(X2 ) = 11
d. Use E(aX2 ) = aE(X2 ) to find E(3X2 ). d. E(3X2 ) = 3E(X2 )

= 3 × 11
= 33
e. Use E(aX2 + b) = aE(X2 ) + b to find E(X2 − 5). e. E(X2 − 5) = E(X) − 5

= 11 − 5
2
=6
11.5 Exercise

Technology free
a. E(2Y − 3) b. Var(2Y − 3)
1. WE7 A continuous random variable, Y, has a mean of 4 and a variance of 3. Determine:
c. E(Y2 ) d. E(Y(Y − 1)).
2. For a continuous random variable Z, where E(Z) = 5 and Var(Z) = 2, determine:

a. E(3Z − 2) b. Var(3Z − 2)
Z −1 .
( )
2 1 2
c. E(Z ) d. E
3

3. The continuous random variable X has a probability density f (x)

function defined by
−kx, −2 ≤ x ≤ 0
f(x) = {kx, 0<x≤2
(–2, 2k) (2, 2k)
2k
0, elsewhere
where k is a constant. The graph of the function is shown.

a. Calculate the value of the constant k. (–2, 0) 0 (2, 0) x
Evaluate E(5X + 3) and Var(5X + 3).

b. Determine E(X) and Var(X).
Evaluate E((3X − 2)2 ).

c.
d.
4. The probability density function for the continuous random variable X is
mx(2 − x), 0≤x≤2

f(x) = {
0, elsewhere
where m is a constant. Determine:

a. the value of the constant m
c. E(5 − 2X) and Var(5 − 2X).

b. E(X) and Var(X)
Technology active
, 0≤z≤a
f(z) = { z + 1
2
0, elsewhere
where a is a constant. Calculate, correct to 4 decimal places:

c. i. E(3Z + 1) ii. Var(3Z + 1) iii. E(Z 2 + 2).

b. the mean and variance of Z
, 1≤z≤a
f(z) = {
5 loge (z)
√
z
0, elsewhere
where a is a constant. Given a = 1.7755, determine, correct to 4 decimal places:

a. E(Z) and Var(Z) b. E(3 − 2Z) and Var(3 − 2Z).
√ , 1≤z≤a
f(z) = { z
3
0, elsewhere
a. Calculate the value of the constant a.
b. Calculate the mean and variance of Z correct to 4 decimal places.
i. E(4 − 3Z) ii. Var(4 − 3Z).

c. Determine, correct to 4 decimal places:
8. MC The length of time it takes for an electric kettle to come

to the boil is a continuous random variable with a mean of
1.5 minutes and a standard deviation of 1.1 minutes.
If each time the kettle is brought to the boil is an independent
event and the kettle is boiled five times a day, calculate the
standard deviation of the total time taken for the kettle to boil
during a day.
A. 30.25 minutes
B. 1.21 minutes
C. 7.5 minutes
D. 5.5 minutes
E. 10.1 minutes
9. Two continuous random variables, X and Y, are related such that Y = aX + 5 where a is a positive integer and
E(aX + 5) = Var(aX + 5). The mean of X is 9 and the variance of X is 2. Determine:
b. E(Y) and Var(Y).
10. The continuous random variable X is transformed so that Y = aX + 3 where a is a positive integer. If E(X) = 5
and Var(X) = 2, calculate the value of the constant a, given that E(Y) = Var(Y). Then calculate both E(Y) and
Var(Y) to verify this statement.
11. A continuous random variable, X, is transformed so that Y = aX + 1, where a is a positive constant. If
E(X) = 2 and Var(X) = 7, determine the value of the constant a, given E(Y) = Var(Y). Then calculate both
E(Y) and Var(Y) to verify this statement. Give your answers correct to 4 decimal places.
12. The mass, Y kilograms, of flour sold in bags labelled as
1 kilogram is known to have a probability density function
given by
k(2y + 1), 0.9 ≤ y ≤ 1.25

f(y) = {
0, elsewhere
b. Calculate the expected mass of a bag of flour, correct to
3 decimal places.
c. On a particular day, the machinery packaging the bags of
flour needed to be recalibrated and produced a batch which
function for Z was given by Z = 0.75Y + 0.45. Calculate

had a mass of Z kilograms, where the probability density
the expected mass of a bag of flour for this particular batch,


11.5 Exam questions
a. E(2 − Y)
The mean of the continuous random variable Y is known to be 3.5, and its standard deviation is 1.2. Determine:
(1 mark)
( )
Y
b. E (1 mark)
2
d. Var(2 − Y)
c. Var(Y) (1 mark)
(1 mark)
( )
Y
e. Var . (1 mark)
2
The continuous random variable X has a probability density function defined by
𝜋
− cos (x), ≤x≤𝜋
f(x) = { 2
0, elsewhere
a. Sketch the graph of f and verify that it is a probability density function. (2 marks)
Calculate E(3X + 1) and Var(3X + 1), correct to 4 decimal places.

b. Calculate E(X) and Var(X), correct to 4 decimal places. (2 marks)
Calculate E((2X − 1)(3X − 2)), correct to 4 decimal places.

c. (2 marks)
d. (2 marks)
The daily rainfall, X mm, in a particular Australian town has a

probability density function defined by
, 0 ≤ x ≤ 3𝜋
( )
f(x) = { k𝜋
x x
sin
3
0, elsewhere
a. Find the value of the constant k. (2 marks)
c. During the winter the daily rainfall is better approximated by W = 2X − 1. Calculate the
b. Calculate the expected daily rainfall, correct to 2 decimal places. (2 marks)
expected daily rainfall during winter, correct to 2 decimal places. (2 marks)

11.6 Review
11.6.1 Summary
doc-37041
Access the Review your Watch teacher-led Practise exam
topic summary results videos questions
11.6 Exercise

⎧ (1 − x), −1 ≤ x < 1
⎪4
1
1. a. Sketch the graph of f(x) = 1

⎨ (x − 1), 1 ≤ x ≤ 3
⎪4
⎩0, elsewhere
b. Show that f(x) is a probability density function.
c. Determine E(X).
2. For a continuous random variable, Z, with E(Z) = 3 and SD(Z) = 1.2, determine:
E(3Z − 2)
a. E(Z2 )
Var(3Z − 2)
b.
E (Z(Z + 2))
c.
E ((Z − 2)(Z + 1)).

d.
e.
3. X is a random variable with a probability density function given by
𝜋
0≤x≤
f(x) = {
2 sin(4x),
4
0, elsewhere
𝜋
Calculate:
a. Pr X <
( )
𝜋| 𝜋
b. the mean
c. Pr X < | X<
( )
8|
.
6

4. The continuous random variable Y has a probability density function defined by
gy2 , 0≤y≤h
f(y) = {
0, elsewhere
where g and h are constants and E(Y) = .

3
2
a. Evaluate the values of the constants g and h.
b. Determine Var(Y).
i. E(2Y + 1) ii. Var(2Y + 1) iii. E(Y2 − 1) iv. E(Y(Y + 4)).

c. Determine:
5. The continuous random variable X has a probability density function of
mx − nx2 , −3 ≤ x ≤ 0
f(x) = {
0, elsewhere
where m and n are constants. Determine the values of m and n if E(X) = − .

3
2
6. a. Determine the derivative of 3x cos(𝜋x).
f(x) = 𝜋 sin(𝜋x) for 0 ≤ x ≤

b. Hence, find the mean of the continuous random variable X with a probability density function of
1
and zero elsewhere.
2

A survey was taken to determine the amount of time, X hours, that teenagers spend interacting with digital
devices during a 24-hour period. The table of findings and histogram are shown.
0≤x≤1
Time in hours Frequency
1<x≤2
20
2<x≤3
50
3<x≤4
60
20
Teenagers’ interaction with a digital device
70
60
Frequency
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4
Time (hours)
7. MC The number of teenagers in the survey was:

A. 100 B. 150 C. 280 D. 40 E. 80
8. MC Pr(X ≤ 3) is equal to:

13 2 1 7 2
A. B. C. D. E.
15 5 4 15 15
9. MC A continuous random variable, X, has a probability density function defined by
e, 0≤x≤m
f(x) = { 2
1 x
0, elsewhere
The exact value of the constant m is:

1 1
A. loge 9 B. loge 7 C. loge 9 D. loge 3 E. loge 7
3 3
10. MC The graph of a rectangular or uniform probability f (x)
density function, f(x), is shown. (1, 0.2) (a, 0.2)
The value of the constant a is: 0.2
A. 5
B. 4
C. 6 0.1 y = f (x)
D. 2
E. 3
0 x
1 a
11. MC A continuous probability density function is defined by
0≤x≤1
f(x) = {
2x,
0, elsewhere
The mean and variance of X are respectively:

2 1 1 2 1 1
A. and B. and C. and
3 2 18 3 2 18
2 1 1 2
D. and E. and
3 18 2 3
12. MC Y is a continuous random variable with a probability density function of
3y2 , 0≤y≤1
f(y) = {
0, elsewhere
Pr(0.2 < Y < 0.7) is equal to:

A. 0.5 B. 0.008 C. 0.343 D. 0.335 E. 0.3

The continuous random variable Z has a probability density function defined by
𝜋 𝜋
− <z<
f(z) = { 3
1
√ cos(z),
3 3
0, elsewhere

𝜋
E. −0.324
13. MC The mean of z is:
A. 0 B. 1.209 C. 1 D.
6
𝜋
Pr Z <
( )
14. MC is equal to:
1+ 3
6
√ √ √
3 2 3
1+ 3
1 2
A. √ B. √ C. √ D. E. √
2 3 3 2 3 2

The continuous random variable X is transformed so that Y = 2X − 1. The mean of X is 3 and the variance of
X is 1.5.
15. MC E(Y) and Var(Y) are respectively equal to:
A. 5 and 6 B. 2 and 12 C. 5 and 12 D. 2 and 6 E. 7 and 6
16. MC E(X2 − 1) is equal to:

A. 3.75 B. 10.5 C. 8 D. 9 E. 9.5

17. The continuous random variable, Y, has a probability density function defined by
4− , 0.5 ≤ y ≤ a
f(y) = {
1
y2
0, elsewhere
where a is a constant. Calculate:

c. the value of p such that Pr (0.5 ≤ y ≤ p) = 0.5.

b. i. E(Y) ii. Var(Y) iii. SD(Y)
18. The continuous random variable, Z, has a probability density function defined by
, 0≤z≤k
( )
f(z) = { 2
1 z
sin
4
0, elsewhere
where k is a constant. Determine:

a. the value of the constant k
b. E(Z) and Var(Z)
c. the interquartile range of Z.
f (x)
19. The graph of the probability density function
f(x) = , x ≥ 0 for the continuous random variable X

1 + x2
4x
is shown.
a. If X is a continuous random variable with a probability
density function of f(x) = for 0 ≤ x ≤ a and zero

1 + x2
4x
f (x) = – 4x
1 + x2
elsewhere, calculate the value of the constant a.
b. Calculate the 30th percentile.
(0, 0)
0 x
20. Beran has just spread lawn seed on his nature strip. With constant watering and plenty of sunshine, the time
it takes for the lawn seed to germinate, T days after the seeding, can be determined by the probability density
ke−0.15t , t≥0
function
f(t) = {
0, elsewhere

b. Calculate the expected period of time for the germination of the lawn seed. Give your answer correct to
the nearest day.
c. Calculate the standard deviation for the germination time, correct to 2 decimal places.
d. Calculate the probability that the time it takes for the lawn seed to germinate is more than 7 days, given
that the time taken is less than 10 days.
11.6 Exam questions

Source: VCE 2017 Mathematical Methods Exam 2, Section B, Q3; © VCAA.
The time Jennifer spends on her homework each day varies, but she does some homework every day.
The continuous random variable T, which models the time, t, in minutes, that Jennifer spends each day on her
homework, has a probability density function f, where
⎧ (t − 20) 20 ≤ t < 45
⎪ 625
1
f (t) = 1 (70 − t) 45 ≤ t ≤ 70
⎨
⎪ 625
⎩0 elsewhere
a. Sketch the graph of f on the axes provided below. (3 marks)

y
1
25
1
50
t
0 20 40 60 80 100

Find Pr (25 ≤ T ≤ 55).

Find Pr (T ≤ 25 ∣ T ≤ 55).
b. (2 marks)
Find a such that Pr (T ≥ a) = 0.7, correct to four decimal places.

c. (2 marks)
d. (2 marks)
e. The probability that Jennifer spends more than 50 minutes on her homework on any given
8
day is . Assume that the amount of time spent on her homework on any day is independent of
25
the time spent on her homework on any other day.
i. Find the probability that Jennifer spends more than 50 minutes on her homework on more than
three of seven randomly chosen days, correct to four decimal places. (2 marks)
ii. Find the probability that Jennifer spends more than 50 minutes on her homework on at least
two of seven randomly chosen days, given that she spends more than 50 minutes on her
homework on at least one of those days, correct to four decimal places. (2 marks)
f. Let p be the probability that on any given day Jennifer spends more than d minutes on her homework.
Let q be the probability that on two or three days out of seven randomly chosen days she spends more
than d minutes on her homework.
Express q as a polynomial in terms of p. (2 marks)
g. i. Find the maximum value of q, correct to four decimal places, and the value of p for which this
maximum occurs, correct to four decimal places. (2 marks)
ii. Find the value of d for which the maximum found in part g.i. occurs, correct to the nearest
minute. (2 marks)
MC A continuous random variable X, has a probability density function defined by
𝜋x
for 0 ≤ x ≤ 8
( )
f (x) = {
k sin
8
0 elsewhere
𝜋 𝜋
A. k = B. k = C. k = D. k = E. k = 8
Determine which of the following options is correct.
𝜋 𝜋
16 8
16 8
MC A continuous random variable X, has a probability density function defined by
12 (x − 1) (x − 2)2 for 1 ≤ x ≤ 2
f (x) = {
0 elsewhere
A. x = 1 B. x = C. x = D. x = E. x = 2
The mean is
7 4 8
5 3 5
A probability density function is defined by
k a2 − x2 −a < x < a
f (x) = {
( )
0 otherwise
Find the exact value of a that gives a standard deviation of 2.
MC The time T spent waiting for a tram to arrive is a continuous random variable, and has a probability density
function defined by
2e−2t for t ≥ 0
f (x) = {
0 elsewhere
The variance is equal to

1 1 1
A. B. √ C. D. 0.26 E. 2
2 2 4



Answers b. f (x)
1 (–1, 1)
Topic 11 Continuous probability f (x) = – –
x 1
distributions (–e, –1e)

11.2 Continuous random variables and
probability functions (–e, 0) (–1, 0) 0 x
11.2 Exercise
9 4
1. a. i. ii. This is a probability density function as the area is
25 25
1 unit2 .
37 37
b. i. ii. c. f(x)
50 42
2. a. 100 b.
29
100
( 𝜋 , √2 + 2
–
4 2 )
41 3 f(x) = cos (x) + 1
c. d.
50 100
3. a. 200
b. i.
5
8
ii.
31
100
( 3𝜋 , 2 – √2
––
4 2 )
0 x
c.
21 (–𝜋4 , 0) (––3𝜋4 , 0) 𝜋
𝜋
46
4. a. This is not a probability density function as the area is
f (x)
unit2 .
1 2
f (x) = – e2x
4 d.
9
–
4 ( 9
loge 3, –
4 ) 1 sin(x)
f(x) f (x) = –
2
1
–
2
( )
2 2
1
𝜋, –
–
( ) 1
0, –
4
(0, 0) x
(loge 3, 0) x
(0, 0) 𝜋 (𝜋, 0)
–
This is a probability density function as the area is 2
1 unit2 . This is a probability density function as the area is
1 unit2 .
6. n =
b. f (x) 1
18
7. a =
1
f (x) = 0.25 11
8. a. f (x)
(–2, 0.25) (2, 0.25)
f (x) = –1
2 x
(0.5, 0.71)
0 x 0.71
(–2, 0) (2, 0) (4, 0.25)
This is a probability density function as the area is x

0 (0.5, 0)
1 unit2 . (4, 0)
5. a. f (x) This is not a probability density function as the area is

1.2929 unit2 .
(0, 0.5) f (x) = 0.5 cos(x)
(– –π2 , 0) (–π2 , 0)
0 x
– 3π
– π
–– π
–– π
– π
– 3π
–
2 2 4 4 2 2
This is a probability density function as the area is
1 unit2 .
a2 + 1
−x dx + x dx =
0 a
b. f (x)
∫ ∫
1
f (x) = –––––
2 x–1
−1
2
0
b. f(y)
(1, 1)
(2, 0.5) 1
0.5 f (y) = 1–
y
0 (1, 0) (2, 0) x 1–
(e, –1e)
e
This is a probability density function as the area is
1 unit2 .
9. E 0 (1, 0) (e, 0) y
f(z)dz = 1
5
dy = 1
e
∫
10. 1
−1 ∫ y
Atriangle = 1
a=1
1
bh = 1
c.
1
×6×z = 1
1
3z = 1
1. D
2
E
z=
2.
1 3. D
3
11. a. m = m=2 m=
1 1 11.3 The continuous probability density
b. c.
8 4 function
11.3 Exercise
(x2 + 2kx + 1)dx = 1
3
∫
12. 1. a. f (x)
x + kx + x = 1
0[ ]3
1 3 2 ( )1
1, –
5
1
f(x) = –
5
( ) 1
6, –
5
3
(3) + k(3) + 3 − 0 = 1
( ) 0
1 3 2
9 + 9k + 3 = 1
3
9k + 12 = 1
9k = −11
0 (1, 0) (6, 0) x
k=−
11 3
13. n = 12 2. a. a = 1
9 b.
5
14. a. a = e b. f (x)
As f(x) ≥ 0 and f(x) dx = 1, this is a probability density

e
(1, 4)
∫
b. 4
f (x) = 4x3
1
a = 2e
function.
15.
16. a. f (x)
(–1, 1) 1
f (x) = –x (a, a)
(0, 0) (1, 0) x
f (x) = x
15
c.
16
(–1, 0) (0, 0) (a, 0) x

3. a. f (x) 6. a. f(z)
(0, 2k)
f (x) = k(2 + x) f (x) = k(2 – x) (0, –12 ) 1 cos(z)
f (z) = –
2
(–2, 0) 0 (2, 0) x
b. A =
0 z
1
bh
(– –π2 , 0) (–π2 , 0)
2
1 = × 4 × 2k 𝜋
1
]𝜋
1 = 4k
2
cos(z) dz =
2 [
1 1 2
∫ 2
k=
𝜋
sin(z)
𝜋 −
1 2
−
𝜋 𝜋
2
= sin − sin −
4 2 ( ) ( )
3 1 1
c. 2 2 2 2
= +
4
1 1
6
=1
d. 2 2
7
4. a. f (z)
the curve is 1 and f(z) ≥ 0 for all values of z.

This is a probability density function as the area under
2+1
(0, 1) (2, 1) √
b.
f (z) = z – 1 f (z) = –z + 1 4
1 5 1
7. a. b. c.
12 12 2
a=1
(0, 0) (1, 0) (2, 0) z
183
8. a. b. c. 0.371 d. 0
256
15
b. 9. B
32
a = 2.1555
10. C
5
c. 11. a. b. 0.7147
8
5. a. y 98 8 1
12. a. b. c. 63
125 9
1 sin(x) 13. a. 0.1560 b. a = 0.55

y=–
1
–
2 14. a. f (z)
2
1
f (z) = –
(1, 0.5) 2z
0.5 1
(0, 0) x
(e , –
2
2e )
2
π
– (𝜋, 0)
2 0 z
(1, 0) (e2, 0)
√
2 2 2
dz = 1. As f(z) ≥ 0 and f(z) dz = 1, this is a

b. e e
2
2 2−2
1
∫ 2z ∫
√ b.
c.
1 1
probability density function.
b. E(Z ) = 3 loge
( )
c. f (u)
3
2
p=
6
c.
5
5. a. h =
1
(a, e4a)
f (u) = e4u 4
b. 2
c. 2
dx =
1 −1
(0, 1) 1 1
1
∫ 2√x ∫ 2
6. a. x 2 dx
0 0
=
−
1
(0, 0) u 1 1
2∫
(a, 0)
x 2 dx
=
[0 ]
1 1 1
a=
2x 2
1 2
= (2 1 − 2 0)
0
d. loge (5) 1 √ √
4
2
= ×2
=1
1. B 2
As f(x) ≥ 0 for all x-values and the area under the

2. a. See the worked solution in the online resources.
b. 1 −
3
e2 curve is 1, f(x) is a probability density function.
3. a. a = 3 loge
( ) 1
3 b.
b. 0.6243
2 3
7. a. 1.3104
c. 0.5342 d. 0.60
c. k = 0.9322
b. 0.7863
8. E(Z ) = 1.0486, Var(z) = 0.0440, SD(Z ) = 0.2099

E(X ) = , Var(X ) = , SD(X ) =

11.4 Exercise
Mean = Mean =
2 1 1 1 1
1. a. b. 9.
3 4 3 9 3
Mean = Mean = 2
10. a. 0.5 min
1
11. a. Q1 = 1.3104, Q3 = 1.8899

2. a. b. b. 0.5 min
Variance =
6
Variance =
1
5
3
12. a. a = 0.4809
144 b. 0.5795
a=
9 19
c. Var(Z) = 3.8195, SD(Z) = 1.9571

3. a. b. b. 3.3663
4 12
dz = 1
a
3 d. 3.0751
∫ z2
4. a.
𝜋 𝜋
e. 7
(sin(2x) + 1) dx = (sin(2x) + 1) dx
a1
3z−2 dz = 1 ∫ 𝜋 𝜋 ∫
1 1
∫
13. a.
[−3z−1 ]a1 = 1
0 0
1
= − cos(2x) + x
[ ]x
[− ]a1 = 1 𝜋
1 1
3
2
= − cos(2𝜋) + 𝜋 − − cos(0) + 0
z (( 0 ) ( ))
− + =1 𝜋
3 3 1 1 1
2 2
= − +𝜋+
a 1 ( )
− +3 = 1 𝜋
3 1 1 1
=1
a 2 2
− = −2
3
3 = 2a As f(x) ≥ 0 for all x-values and the area under the curve is
a
a=
3 1, f(x) is a probability density function.
2 b. 1.0708

c. i. 0.5725 2. a. 13 b. 18
ii. 0.7566 c. 27 d. 8
k=
f(y) dy = dy = 1
7.9344 7.9344 ( ) 1
y 3. a.
∫ ∫
E(X ) = 0, Var(X ) = 2
14. a. 0.2 loge 4
2
E(5X + 3) = 3, Var(5X + 3) = 50
2 2 b.
c. Var(Y ) = 2.1600, SD(Y ) = 1.4697 E((3X − 2)2 ) = 22

5.7278
b. c.
d.
m=
3
d. 5.9344 4. a.
E(X ) = 1, Var(X ) = 0.2

15. a. 2.3104
4
E(5 − 2X ) = 3, Var(5 − 2X ) = 0.8

b.
b. i. 1.7863
a = 0.6487
c.
ii. 3.3085
E(Z ) = 0.2974, Var(Z ) = 0.0349

5. a.
iii. 0.1176
b.
iv. 0.3430
16. a = , b =
c. i. 1.8922
3 3
ii. 0.3141
2 4
17. a. − √ E(Z ) = 1.4921, Var(Z ) = 0.0361
x iii. 2.1234
4 − x2
E(3 − 2Z ) = 0.0158, Var(3 − 2Z ) = 0.1444
6. a.
b.
𝜋 a=
3 49
b.
7. a.
E(Z ) = 1.1759, Var(Z ) = 0.0109

18. a. f (x) 36
b.
c. i. 0.4722 ii. 0.0978
a=5
f (x) = k 8. D
E(Y ) = 50, Var(Y ) = 50

(a, k) (b, k) 9. a.
10. a = 3, E(Y ) = 18, Var(Y ) = 18

k
b.
11. a = 0.5469, E(Y ) = 2.0938, Var(Y ) = 2.0938
12. a. k =
400
b. 1.081 kg c. 1.261 kg
441
0 (a, 0) (b, 0) x
11.5 Exam questions
−1.5
k dx = 1
b
∫
1. a. b. 1.75
b.
c. 1.44 d. 1.44
[kx]ba = 1
a e. 0.36
kb − ka = 1
k(b − a) = 1
2. a. f (x)
(π, 1)
k=
1
b−a
1
b+a
c. f (x) = –cos(x)
(a − b)2
2
d.
12
0 x
11.4 Exam questions (– –π2 , 0) (π, 0)
𝜋
1. a. See the worked solution in the online resources.
(− cos(x))dx = − sin(x) 𝜋
b. loge (4) [ ]𝜋
∫
𝜋
2. B
3. 2 −
2
𝜋 𝜋
4
= − sin(x) + sin
2 ( )
= 0+1
2
11.5 Linear transformations
11.5 Exercise =1
As f(x) ≥ 0 for all x-values and the area under the curve is
1. a. 5 b. 12
c. 19 d. 15
1, f(x) is a probability density function.
E(X ) = 2.5708, Var(X ) = 0.1416

E(3X + 1) = 8.7124, Var(3X + 1) = 1.2743
b. 10. C
E((2X − 1)(3X − 2)) = 24.5079

c. 11. D
k=9
d. 12. D
3. a. 13. A
b. 5.61 mm 14. C
c. 10.21 mm 15. A
16. E
11.6 Review
11.6 Exercise Technology active: extended response
17. a. 1
b. i. 0.8069
1. a. y
ii. 0.0156
p = 0.8202
iii. 0.1248
c.
k=
(–1, 0.5) (3, 0.5)
0.5 4𝜋
y = f (x) 18. a.
E(Z) = 2.7394,
3
Var(Z) = 0.9912
b.
0 x
(–1, 0) (1, 0) (3, 0) c. 1.56
19. a. 0.8054 b. 0.4023
A=
3
20. a. 0.15 b. 7 days
∫
b. f(x)dx c. 6.67 d. 0.1632
−1
= ×2× + ×2×
1 1 1 1 11.6 Exam questions
2 2 2 2 1. a.
= +
y
1 1
1
( )
45, –1
25
=1
2 2 –
25
As f(x) ≥ 0 for all x-values and the area under the curve is
1, f(x) is a probability density function.
–1
c. 1 50
2. a. 10.44 b. 7
c. 12.96 d. 16.44
𝜋
e. 5.44
3 0 x
3. a. b. 20 40 60 80 100
4 8
2 4
c. b.
3 5
g= , h=2
3 1
4. a. c.
a = 39.3649
8 41
3 d.
b.
20 e. i. 0.1534
q p = 7p2 (p − 1)4 (2p + 3)

3 7 2 ii. 0.7626
c. i. 4 ii. iii. iv. 8 ( )
5 5 5 f.
m=− , n=
ii. d = 49 minutes
2 2 g. i. 0.5665
5.
6. a. 3 cos(𝜋x) − 3𝜋x sin(𝜋x)

3 9
2. B
𝜋 4. a = 2 5
1 3. B √
b.
5. C
7. B
8. A
9. D

“c12TheNormalDistrubution_PrintPDF” — 2022/6/13 — 13:34 — page 1 — #1
The normal
12 distribution
LEARNING SEQUENCE
12.1 Overview ....................................................................................................................................................................2
12.2 The normal distribution ........................................................................................................................................ 3
12.3 Calculating probabilities and the standard normal distribution ......................................................... 11
12.4 The inverse normal distribution ...................................................................................................................... 18
12.5 Mixed probability application problems ......................................................................................................23
12.6 Review ..................................................................................................................................................................... 32

12.1 Overview
12.1.1 Introduction
The normal distribution is sometimes
referred to as the bell curve. It is also called
the Gaussian curve, after mathematician
Carl Friedrich Gauss, although he was
not actually the first discover the normal
distribution. That honour went to Abraham
de Moivre, who was a statistician and
gambling consultant in the eighteenth
century. He noticed that when the number
of events, such as flipping a coin, increased,
the shape of the binomial distribution
approached a smooth curve. He was able
to find a mathematical expression for this
curve, which we now know as the normal
distribution. Gauss and Pierre-Simon
Laplace were also significant contributors
in the development of the normal distribution.
The importance of the normal curve stems from the fact that many phenomena have distributions that are at least
approximately normally distributed, such as measurement errors, IQ scores, salaries, and the heights, weights
and strength of people. The study scores for a VCE subject are also normally distributed with a mean of 30 and a
standard deviation of approximately 7. This is why such a large percentage of students score around 30 and only
a very small percentage score about 45.
KEY CONCEPTS
space and examples of continuous random variables
– standard normal distribution, N (0, 1), and transformed normal distributions, N 𝜇, 𝜎 , as

• continuous random variables:
2
( )
examples of a probability distribution for a continuous random variable

– effect of variation in the value(s) of defining parameters on the graph of a given probability
density function for a continuous random variable
– calculation of probabilities for intervals defined in terms of a random variable, including
conditional probability.
12.2 The normal distribution

LEARNING INTENTION
• define a normal distribution
• describe how the mean and standard deviation affect the curve of a normal distribution
• state the three key probabilities associated with the normal distribution.
12.2.1 Introduction
eles-xxxx
The normal distribution is arguably the most important distribution in statistics. It is characterised by the well-
known bell-shaped curve, which is symmetrical about the mean (as well as the median and mode). Continuous
random variables such as height, weight, time and other naturally occurring phenomena are frequently analysed
with normal distribution calculations.
Normal distributions may vary depending on their means and Graph 3
standard deviations. The diagram shows three different normal
distributions.
Graph 1 has mean of −1 and a standard deviation of 0.5.
Graph 1
Graph 2 has a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1.
Graph 2
Graph 3 has a mean of 3 and a standard deviation of 0.25.
The probability density function for the normal distribution is x
given by –1 0 3
f(x) = √
−1
𝜍
( x−𝜇 )2
𝜎 2𝜋
1
e 2
where the parameters 𝜇 and 𝜎 are the mean and standard deviation f (x)
of the distribution respectively.
— 1
We say that 𝜎√ 2π
X ~ N 𝜇, 𝜎 2
( )
meaning X is distributed normally with the mean and variance

specified.
0 𝜇 x
As the mean and standard deviation can vary, and the area under the median
graph must be constant and equal to 1, in effect, changing the mean mode
and the standard deviation transforms the normal curve.
The normal distribution curve

Changing the standard deviation affects the normal curve twofold. The transformed curve will
display:
𝜎
1
• dilation by a factor from the x-axis
• dilation by a factor 𝜎 from the y-axis.
TOPIC 12 The normal distribution 3

Changing the mean has the effect of a translation parallel to the x-axis.
The normal probability density function has the following f (x)
• f(x) = √ , x∈R
characteristics.
−1
𝜎
( x−𝜇 )2
𝜎 2𝜋
1 1
e 2 —
𝜎√ 2π
• 𝜇 = median = mode
• The distribution is symmetrical about the mean.
when x = 𝜇.
1
𝜎 2𝜋
• The maximum value is √
∞
• The curve continues infinitely in both directions. 0 x
f(x)dx = 1
𝜇
median
∫
• mode
−∞
WORKED EXAMPLE 1 The normal distribution curve

A normal probability density function is defined by
f(x) = √ e 2 , x ∈ R.
2 − 1 (2(x−1))2
2𝜋
a. State the mean and standard deviation of the distribution.

b. State what effect the mean and standard deviation have on the graph of the normal distribution.
THINK WRITE
a. Use f(x) = a. f(x) =

−1 −1
𝜍 √ e 2 𝜍
( x−𝜇 )2 x−𝜇)2
𝜎 2𝜋 𝜎 2𝜋
1 1
(
√ e 2 to determine
𝜇 and 𝜎.
=√ e 2
2 − 1 (2(x−1))2
2𝜋
= 2, so 𝜎 = and 𝜇 = 1.
𝜎
1 1
2
b. 𝜎 =
1
b. The mean has the effect of a translation parallel is a dilation of factor 2 from the x-axis and a
to the x-axis. The standard deviation has the 2
1
effect of dilations from both the x- and y-axes. dilation of factor from the y-axis.
𝜇 = 1 means a translation of 1 unit in the positive

2
x-direction.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity The normal distribution (int-6438)
12.2.2 Important intervals and their probabilities

eles-xxxx
Often we are required to find the proportion of a population for a given interval. Using the property that the
symmetry of the normal distribution is about the mean, we are able to predict with certainty the following facts.
Probabilities within 1, 2, 3 standard deviations of the mean

• Approximately 68% of the population will fall within 1 standard deviation of the mean:
Pr(𝜇 − 𝜎 ≤ X ≤ 𝜇 + 𝜎) ≈ 0.68
• Approximately 95% of the population will fall within 2 standard deviations of the mean:
Pr(𝜇 − 2𝜎 ≤ X ≤ 𝜇 + 2𝜎) ≈ 0.95
We say that a randomly chosen member of the population will most probably be or is highly
likely to be within 2 standard deviations of the mean.
• Approximately 99.7% of the population will fall within 3 standard deviations of the mean:
Pr(𝜇 − 3𝜎 ≤ X ≤ 𝜇 + 3𝜎) ≈ 0.997
We say that a randomly chosen member of the population will almost certainly be within
3 standard deviations of the mean.
This is shown in the following graphs.
0.68 0.95
x x
𝜇–𝜎 𝜇 𝜇+𝜎 𝜇 – 2𝜎 𝜇 𝜇 + 2𝜎
0.997
x
𝜇 – 3𝜎 𝜇 𝜇 + 3𝜎
A more comprehensive breakdown of the proportion of the population for each standard deviation is shown on
the following graph .

0.997 within 3 standard deviations
0.95 within
2 standard deviations
0.68 within
1 standard deviation
0.0235 0.34 0.34 0.0235

0.0015 0.0015
0.135 0.135
x
𝜇 – 3𝜎 𝜇 – 2𝜎 𝜇 – 𝜎 𝜇 𝜇 + 𝜎 𝜇 + 2𝜎 𝜇 + 3𝜎
WORKED EXAMPLE 2 Important probabilities of the normal curve
The heights of the women in a particular town are normally distributed with a mean of
165 centimetres and a standard deviation of 9 centimetres.
a. Determine the approximate probability that a woman chosen at random has a height that is
between 156 cm and 174 cm.
b. Determine the approximate probability that a woman chosen at random is taller than 174 cm.
c. Determine the approximate percentage of the women in this particular town who are shorter than
147 cm.
THINK WRITE
a. Determine how many standard deviations from a. Let X be the height of women in this particular
𝜇 + 𝜎 = 165 + 9
the mean the 156–174 cm range is. town.
= 174
𝜇 − 𝜎 = 165 − 9
= 156
the mean, Pr(156 ≤ X ≤ 174) ≈ 0.68.

Since the range is one standard deviation from
b. Use the fact that Pr(156 ≤ X ≤ 174) ≈ 0.68 to b.

calculate the required probability. Sketch a graph
to help.
0.68
Since Pr(156 ≤ X ≤ 174) ≈ 0.68,

x
156 165 174
Pr(X < 156) ∪ Pr (X > 174) ≈ 1 − 0.68

= 0.32
Pr(X < 156) = Pr(X > 174)

Because of symmetry,
=
0.32
= 0.16
2
Thus, Pr (X > 174) ≈ 0.16.
𝜇 − 𝜎 = 165 − 9
= 156
c. 1. Determine how many standard deviations c.
𝜇 − 2𝜎 = 165 − 2 × 9
147 cm is from the mean.
= 147
147 cm is 2 standard deviations from the mean.
165 + 2 × 9 = 183
The corresponding upper value is
Pr(147 ≤ X ≤ 183) ≈ 0.95
2. Using symmetry, calculate Pr(X < 147).
0.95
x
147 165 183
Pr(X < 147) ∪ Pr(X > 183) ≈ 1 − 0.95

Thus,
= 0.05
and by symmetry,
Pr(X < 147) = Pr(X > 183) ≈
0.05
= 0.025
2
Thus, approximately 2.5% of the population of

women in this particular town are shorter than
147 cm.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity The 68 − 95 − 99.7% rule (int-6439)

12.2 Exercise

Technology free
1. WE1 A normal probability density function is defined by
f (x) = √ e 2 , x ∈ R.
10 − 1
)2
10(x−1)
(
3
3 2𝜋
a. State the mean and standard deviation of the distribution.

2. The probability density function of a normal distribution is given by
f(x) = √
−1
)2
1 x−2
(
e 2 3
3 2𝜋
a. State the mean and the standard deviation of the distribution.

b. Sketch the graph of the probability function.
3. Scores on a commonly used IQ test are known to be normally distributed with a mean of 120 and a standard
deviation of 20.
i. 𝜇 ± 𝜎 ii. 𝜇 ± 2𝜎 iii. 𝜇 ± 3𝜎.

a. Determine:
i. Pr(X < 80) ii. Pr(X > 180).

b. Determine:
4. WE2 The results of a Mathematical Methods test are normally distributed with a mean of 72 and a standard
deviation of 8.
a. Determine the approximate probability that a student who sat the test has a score that is greater than 88.
b. Determine the approximate proportion of the students who sat the test and had a score that was less
than 48.
c. Determine the approximate percentage of the students who sat the test and scored less than 80.
5. A continuous random variable, X, is known to be normally distributed with a mean of 15 and a standard
deviation of 5. State the range between which approximately:
a. 68% of the values lie b. 95% of the values lie c. 99.7% of the values lie.
6. A normal probability density function, X, has a mean of 24 and a standard deviation of 7. Determine the
a. Pr(X < 31) b. Pr(10 < X < 31) c. Pr(X > 10 ∣ X < 31).
approximate values for:
7. The number of pears harvested from each tree in a large

orchard is normally distributed with a mean of 230 and
a standard deviation of 25. Determine the approximate
probability that the number of pears harvested from a
randomly selected tree is:
a. less than 280
b. between 180 and 280
c. is greater than 180, given that less than 280 pears were
harvested.
Technology active
8. MC The length of pregnancy for a human is normally distributed with a mean of 275 days and a standard
deviation of 14 days. A mother gave birth after less than 233 days. Select the approximate probability of this
happening for the general population.
A. 0.0015 B. 0.05 C. 0.003 D. 0.0235 E. 0.025
9. MC The results of a Year 12 Biology examination are known to be normally distributed with a mean of 70
and a standard deviation of 6. Select the approximate percentage of students sitting for this examination who
can be expected to achieve a score that is greater than 88.
A. 2.35% B. 0.3% C. 99.85% D. 0.15% E. 99.7%
10. In a particular area of Australia, the annual rainfall,

X mm, is known to be normally distributed with a mean
of 305 mm and a standard deviation of 50 mm.
Pr(205 < X < 355).

a. Calculate the approximate value of
b. Evaluate k such that Pr(X < k) ≈ 0.025.

c. Evaluate h such that Pr(X < h) ≈ 0.0015.
11. A continuous random variable, X, is normally distributed

with a mean of 72.5 and a standard deviation of 8.4.
Pr(64.1 < X < 89.3)

Determine the approximate values for:
Pr(X < 55.7)

a.
Pr(X > 47.3 ∣ X < 55.7)

b.
m such that Pr(X > m) ≈ 0.16.

c.
d.
12. A normal distribution has a probability density function of
f(x) = √ .
1 − 1 (x−3)
2
e 2
2𝜋
∞
f(x) dx = 1.
∫
a. Using CAS technology, verify that
b. State 𝜇 and 𝜎.
−∞
c. Sketch the graph of the probability function.
13. Consider the normal probability density function
f(x) = √ , x ∈ R.
−1
)2
1 x+2
(
e 2 4
4 2𝜋

f(x) dx = 1
∫
a. Using CAS technology, verify that
b. State 𝜇.
−∞
14. A normal probability density function is given by
f(x) = √ e 2 , x ∈ R.
−1
)2
1 x+4
(
10
10 2𝜋
a. State the values of 𝜇 and 𝜎.

c. Determine:
i. Var(X) ii. E X2 .
( )
d. Verify that this is a probability density function.
15. f(x) = √ e 2 , x ∈ R defines a normal probability density function.

−1
)2
5(x−2)
5
(
a. State the values of 𝜇 and 𝜎.

2
2 2𝜋
b. Calculate E X2 .
( )
12.2 Exam questions
Sketch the probability density curve for the random variable X, which is normally distributed with mean 12 and
standard deviation of 1.5.
The diagram below shows the graphs of two normal distributions curves, with means 𝜇1 and 𝜇2 and standard
deviations 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 respectively.

MC
X1 ~ N(μ1, σ12)
2
X2 ~ N(μ2, σ2)
A. 𝜇1 = 𝜇2 and 𝜎1 = 𝜎2 B. 𝜇1 < 𝜇2 and 𝜎1 = 𝜎2 C. 𝜇1 = 𝜇2 and 𝜎1 < 𝜎2

Select the true statement from the following.
D. 𝜇1 < 𝜇2 and 𝜎1 > 𝜎2 E. 𝜇1 < 𝜇2 and 𝜎1 < 𝜎2
The study score of a subject is normally distributed with a mean 𝜇 = 30 and a standard deviation 𝜎 = 7.
a. Determine the approximate percentage of student scores that are between 23 and 37.
b. Determine the approximate percentage of student scores that are above 44.
12.3 Calculating probabilities and the standard

normal distribution
LEARNING INTENTION
• calculate probabilities associated with normal distributions
• define the standard normal distribution
• standardise data values.
12.3.1 The standard normal distribution

eles-xxxx
Suppose we are comparing the results of two students
on two similar IQ tests. Theo obtained 92 on one IQ
test, for which the results were known to be normally
distributed with a mean of 80 and a standard deviation
of 6. Samara obtained 88 on a similar IQ test,
for which the results were known to be normally
distributed with a mean of 78 and a standard deviation
of 10. Which student was the most successful?
This question is very difficult to answer unless
we have some common ground for a comparison.
This can be achieved by using a transformed or
standardised form of the normal distribution called
the standard normal distribution. The variable in
a standard normal distribution is always denoted by Z, so that it is immediately understood that we are dealing
with the standard normal distribution. The standard normal distribution always has a mean of 0 and a standard
To find the value of Z, we find the difference between the x-value and the mean, x − 𝜇. To find how many
deviation of 1, so that Z indicates how many standard deviations the corresponding X-value is from the mean.
standard deviations this equals, we divide by the standard deviation, 𝜎.
The standard normal distribution

• The variable is denoted by Z.
x−𝜇
• To standardise a data value, x, use the rule z =
• The mean is 0 and the standard deviation is 1.
𝜎
.
x−𝜇
Therefore, if z = , 𝜇 = 0 and 𝜎 = 1, the probability density function is given by
𝜎
f(z) = √ e 2 , z ∈ R.
1 − 1 z2
2𝜋

Remember that 𝜇 ± 3𝜎 encompasses approximately 99.7% of the data,

so for the standard normal curve, these figures are 0 ± 3 × 1 = 0 ± 3.
f (z)
Therefore, approximately 99.7% of the data lies between −3 and 3.

For the standard normal distribution, we say Z ~ N(0, 1).
x−𝜇
Let us return to the comparison between Theo and Samara.
For Theo: X~N(80, 62 ), z =

𝜎
92 − 80
= z
=
6 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
12
=2
6
x−𝜇
For Samara: X ~ N(78, 102 ), z =
𝜎
88 − 78
=
=
10
10
=1
10
Theo’s mark lies within 2 standard deviations of the mean, so it lies in the top 2.5%, whereas Samara’s mark is 1
standard deviation from the mean, so it is in the top 16%. Hence, Theo performed better than Samara.
Obviously, not all data values will lie exactly 1, 2 or 3 standard deviations from the mean. In these cases
calculate probabilities associated with the normal distribution for any value of 𝜇 and 𝜎.
technology such as a CAS calculator is needed to calculate the required probability. CAS can be used to
WORKED EXAMPLE 3 Probabilities of the normal distribution
i. Pr(Z < 2.5)

a. Calculate the values of the following probabilities correct to 4 decimal places.
ii. Pr(−1.25 ≤ Z ≤ 1.25)
i. Calculate Pr(X > 27) correct to 4 decimal places.

b. X is a normally distributed random variable such that X ~ N(25, 32 ).
ii. Convert X to a standard normal variable, Z.
THINK WRITE
a. i. 1. Sketch a graph to help understand the a. i. f (z)
problem.
z
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
2. Use CAS to find the probability. The Pr(z < 2.5) = 0.9938
is −∞. The mean is 0 and the standard

upper limit is 2.5 and the lower limit
deviation is 1.
ii. 1. Sketch a graph to help understand the ii. f (z)
problem.
Pr(−1.25 ≤ Z ≤ 1.25) = 0.7887

z
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
2. Use CAS to find the probability. The
is −1.25.
upper limit is 1.25 and the lower limit
b. i. 1. Sketch a graph to help understand the b. i.

problem.
Pr(X > 27) = 0.2525

x
25 27
The upper limit is ∞ and the lower limit

2. Use CAS to find the probability.
is 27.
The mean is 25 and the standard deviation
x −𝜇
ii. z =
is 3.
𝜎
ii. 1. Write the rule to standardise X.
27 − 25
2. Substitute the mean and standard z=
=
deviation. 3
2
3


a. i. 1. On a Calculator a. i. 1. On the Main
page, press MENU, screen, select:
then select: • Interactive
5: Probability • Distribution/
5: Distributions Inv. Dist
2: Normal Cdf… • Continuous
Complete the fields • normCDf
Lower Bound: −∞
as: Complete the
Lower: −∞
fields as:
𝜇: 0
Upper Bound: 2.5
𝜍: 1 𝜍: 1
Upper: 2.5
then Select OK. 𝜇: 0

then select OK.
2. The answer appears Pr(z < 2.5) = 0.9938 2.The answer Pr(z < 2.5) = 0.9938
on the screen. appears on the
screen.
a. ii. 1. On a Calculator a. ii. 1. On the Main
5: Distributions Inv.Dist
as: Complete the
−1.25 Lower: −1.25

Lower Bound: fields as:
𝜇: 0 𝜍: 1
Upper Bound: 1.25 Upper: 2.5
𝜍: 1 𝜇: 0
then Select OK. then select OK.
Pr(−1.25 ≤ Z ≤ 1.25) = 0.7887 Pr(−1.25 ≤ Z ≤ 1.25)

= 0.7887
2. The answer appears 2. The answer
screen.
b. i. 1. On a Calculator b. i. 1. On the Main

as: Complete the
Upper Bound: ∞
Lower Bound: 27 fields as:
𝜇: 25 Upper: ∞
Lower: 27
𝜍: 3 𝜍: 3
then Select OK. 𝜇: 25
then select OK.
2. The answer appears Pr(X > 27) = 0.2525 2. The answer Pr(X > 27) = 0.2525
screen.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivities Calculation of probabilities (int-6440)
The standard normal distribution (int-6441)
12.3 Exercise

Technology active
1. For a particular type of laptop computer, the length of time, X hours, between charges of the battery is
normally distributed such that
X ~ N(50, 152 )
Calculate Pr(50 < X < 70), correct to 4 decimal places.
a. Pr(Z ≤ 2) b. Pr(Z ≤ −2)

2. If Z ~ N(0, 1), calculate, correct to 4 decimal places:
c. Pr(−2 < Z ≤ 2) d. Pr(Z > 1.95) ∪ Pr(Z < −1.95).

3. Convert the variable in the following expressions to a standard normal variable, Z, and use it to write an
a. Pr(X < 61), X ~ N (65, 9) b. Pr(X ≥ 110), X ~ N(98, 225) c. Pr(−2 < X ≤ 5), X ~ N(2, 9).
equivalent expression. Use your calculator to evaluate each probability, correct to 4 decimal places.
i. Pr(Z < 1.2) ii. Pr(−2.1 < Z < 0.8)

4. WE3 a. Calculate the values of the following probabilities correct to 4 decimal places.
i. Calculate Pr(X > 37) correct to 4 decimal places.

b. X is a normally distributed random variable such that X ~ N(45, 62 ).
ii. Convert X to a standard normal variable, Z.
a. If Pr(X < a) = 0.35 and Pr(X < b) = 0.62, evaluate:

5. X is a continuous random variable and is known to be normally distributed.
i. Pr(X > a) ii. Pr(a < X < b).

b. If Pr(X < c) = 0.27 and Pr(X < d) = 0.56, evaluate:
i. Pr(c < X < d) ii. Pr(X > c ∣ X < d).
a. Determine k if Pr(X > 32) = Pr (Z > k).

6. A random variable, X, is normally distributed with a mean of 20 and a standard deviation of 5.
b. Determine k if Pr(X < 12) = Pr (Z > k).
7. A speed camera is used to measure the speeds of cars on a

freeway.
The speeds are normally distributed with a mean of
98 km/h and a standard deviation of 6 km/h. Calculate the
probability, correct to 4 decimal places, that a car picked
at random is travelling at:
a. more than 110 km/h
b. less than 90 km/h
c. a speed between 90 km/h and 110 km/h.
8. MC A large number of students took a test in Physics. Their final grades have a mean of 72 and a standard
deviation of 12. If the distribution of these grades can be approximated by a normal distribution, calculate
the percentage of students, correct to 2 decimal places, who:
a. gained a score of more than 95
A. 5.18% B. 97.24% C. 94.82% D. 4.13% E. 2.76%
b. should pass the test if grades greater than or equal to 55 are considered passes.
A. 89.13% B. 92.17% C. 93.25% D. 7.83% E. 10.87%
9. A salmon farm in Tasmania has a very large number of salmon in its ponds.
It is known that the lengths of the salmon from this farm are normally
distributed with a mean of 38 cm and a standard deviation of 2.4 cm. A
randomly chosen fish from this farm was measured as 39.5 cm. If salmon
with lengths in the top 15% are considered to be gourmet salmon, determine
whether this particular fish can be classified as gourmet.
10. The labels on packets of sugar say the bags have a weight of 1 kg. The actual mean weight of the bags is
1.025 kg in order to minimise the number of bags which may be underweight. If the weight of the bags is
normally distributed with a standard deviation of 10 g, calculate the percentage of bags, correct to 2 decimal
places, that would be expected to weigh:
a. more than 1.04 kg
b. less than 996 g, the legal meaning of underweight.
11. Teresa has taken her pulse each day for a month after
going for a brisk walk. Her pulse rate in beats per minute
is known to be normally distributed with a mean of
80 beats per minute and a standard deviation of 5 beats
per minute. After her most recent walk she took her pulse
rate. Calculate the probability, correct to 4 decimal places,
that her pulse rate was:
a. in excess of 85 beats per minute
b. equal to or less than 75 beats per minute
c. between 78 and 82 beats per minute, given that it was
higher than 75 beats per minute.
12. Jing Jing scored 85 on the mathematics section of a scholarship examination, the results of which were
known to be normally distributed with a mean of 72 and a standard deviation of 9. Rani scored 18 on the
mathematics section of a similar examination, the results of which were normally distributed with a mean of
15 and a standard deviation of 4. Assuming that both tests measure the same kind of ability, determine which
student has the higher score.
the mean, 𝜇, and standard deviation, 𝜎, for each examination are given.
13. Juan’s results in Chemistry, Mathematical Methods and Physics are shown in the table below. The marks, X,
Subject Mark, X Mean, 𝜇 Standard deviation, 𝜎 Standardised mark, Z

Chemistry 72 68 5
Maths Methods 75 69 7
Physics 68 61 8
Complete the table by finding Juan’s standardised mark for each subject and use this to determine in which
subject he did best when compared to his peers.
14. A continuous random variable, Z, has a probability density function defined by f(z) = 0.025e−0.025z , z ≥ 0.
of 3. In order to find k such that Pr(Z > k) = Pr(Y < k),

A second continuous random variable, Y, is distributed normally with a mean of 25 and a standard deviation
f(z) dz =
k
∫ ∫
g(y)dy
k −∞
must be solved. Calculate the value of k, correct to 2 decimal places.

12.3 Exam questions

Let X be a normally distributed random variable with a mean of 6 and a variance of 4. Let Z be a random
a. Find Pr(X > 6).

variable with the standard normal distribution
b. Find b such that Pr(X > 7) = Pr(Z < b).

(1 mark)
(1 mark)
MC The random variable, X, has a normal distribution with mean 12 and standard deviation 0.25.
If the random variable, Z, has the standard normal distribution, then the probability that X is greater than 12.5 is
A. Pr(Z < −4) B. Pr(Z < −1.5) C. Pr(Z < 1)

equal to
D. Pr(Z ≥ 1.5) E. Pr(Z > 2)

MC If Z has the standard normal distribution, and a and b are positive real numbers, state which of the following
A. Pr(Z ≥ −a) = 1 − Pr(Z < −a)

is false.
B. Pr(Z ≤ a) = 0.5 + Pr(0 < Z < a)

C. Pr(−a ≤ Z ≤ b) = Pr(−a < Z < 0) + Pr(0 < Z < b)
D. Pr(a ≤ Z ≤ b) = Pr(Z < b) + Pr(Z > a) − 0.5
E. Pr(Z = a) = 0
12.4 The inverse normal distribution

LEARNING INTENTION
• calculate values that correspond to particular probabilities
• calculate unknown means and standard deviations.
12.4.1 The inverse normal distribution

eles-xxxx
CAS technology provides an easy way to find a Z or X value, given
a probability for a normal distribution. Suppose X is normally
wish to find Pr(X ≤ a) = 0.72.

distributed with a mean of 32 and a standard deviation of 5. We
0.72
The key information to enter into your calculator is the known

probability, that is, the area under the curve. It is essential to input
the correct area so that your calculator knows if you are inputting x
32 a
the ‘less than’ area or the ‘greater than’ area.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4 Determining values that correspond to given probabilities
a. m given that Pr(X ≤ m) = 0.85, X ~ N(15.2, 1.52 )

If X is a normally distributed random variable, determine, correct to 2 decimal places:
b. n given that Pr (X > n) = 0.37, X ~ N 22, 2.752

c. p given that Pr(37.6 − p ≤ X ≤ 37.6 + p) = 0.65, X ~ N(37.6, 122 ).
( )
a. Pr(X ≤ m) = 0.85, 𝜇 = 15.2, 𝜎 = 1.5

THINK WRITE
m = 16.75
a. Use the probability menus on the CAS
calculator to find the required X value.
b. Pr(X > n) = 0.37, 𝜇 = 22, 𝜎 = 2.75

n = 22.91
b. Use the probability menus on the CAS
calculator to find the required X value.
Note: It may be a requirement to input the
Pr(X < n) = 1 − 0.37

‘less than’ area, so
= 0.63
c. 1. Sketch a graph to visualise the problem. Due c.
to symmetry, the probabilities either side of
the upper and lower limits can be calculated.
0.65
0.175 0.175
x
37.6 – p 37.6 37.6 + p
1 − 0.65 = 0.35
Pr(X < 37.6 − p) = Pr(X > 37.6 + p)
=
0.35
= 0.175
2
Pr(X < 37.6 − p) = 0.175

Pr(X < 37.6 − p) = 0.175. 37.6 − p = 26.38
2. Determine p by finding X given that
p = 37.6 − 26.38
= 11.22
Note: p could also be found by using the
upper limit.


a. 1. On a Calculator a. i. 1. On the Main
3: Inverse • Inverse
Normal… • invNormCDf
Complete the fields Complete the
as: fields as:
𝜇: 15.2
Area: 0.85 Tail setting: Left
𝜍: 1.5 𝜍 ∶ 1.5
prob: 0.85
then Select OK. 𝜇 ∶ 15.2

then select OK.
2. The answer appears m = 16.75 2. The answer m = 16.75

screen.
Quantiles and percentiles

Quantiles and percentiles are terms that enable us to convey information about a distribution. Quantiles refer to
find the 0.7 quantile of a standard normal distribution, we find a such that Pr(Z < a) = 0.7.
the value below which there is a specified probability that a randomly selected value will fall. For example, to
Percentiles are very similar to quantiles. For the example of Pr(Z < a) = 0.7, we could also be asked to find the
70th percentile for the standard normal distribution.
12.4.2 Calculating the mean or standard deviation

eles-xxxx
Steps for determining the mean or standard deviation

If the mean or standard deviation is unknown:
• the known probability needs to be linked to the standard normal distribution and the
corresponding z-value calculated via CAS
x−𝜇
• once the z-value has been found, the missing mean or standard deviation can be calculated via the
rule z = .
𝜎
WORKED EXAMPLE 5 Determining the mean and standard deviation
a. For the normally distributed variable X, the 0.15 quantile is 1.9227 and the mean is 2.7. Calculate
the standard deviation of the distribution, correct to 2 decimal places.
b. X is normally distributed so that the 63rd percentile is 15.896 and the standard deviation is 2.7.
Calculate the mean of X, correct to 2 decimal places.
THINK WRITE
Pr(X < 1.9227) = 0.15

a. 1. Write the probability statement. a. The 0.15 quantile is 1.9227.
Pr(Z < z) = 0.15

z = −1.0364
2. Find the corresponding standardised value, Z,
by using CAS.
x−𝜇
z=
𝜎
3. Write the standardised formula connecting z
1.9227 − 2.7
and x.
− 1.0364 =
for 𝜎. 𝜎
4. Substitute the appropriate values and solve
− 1.0364 𝜎 = −0.7773
𝜎 = 0.75
Pr(X < 15.896) = 0.63

b. 1. Write the probability statement. b. The 63rd percentile is 15.896.
Pr(Z < z) = 0.63

z = 0.3319
by using CAS.
x−𝜇
z=
𝜎
15.896 − 𝜇
and x.
0.3319 =
for 𝜇.
4. Substitute in the appropriate values and solve
0.8960 = 15.896 − 𝜇
2.7
𝜇 = 15.00
12.4 Exercise

Technology active
1. WE4 If X is a normally distributed random variable, determine the value of a, correct to 2 decimals places,
a. Pr(X ≤ a) = 0.16, X ~ N(41, 6.7 ) b. Pr(X > a) = 0.21, X ~ N(12.5, 2.7 )

given that:
c. Pr(15 − a ≤ X ≤ 15 + a) = 0.32, X ~ N(15, 4 )

2 2
2
2. Calculate the values of m and n if X is normally distributed and Pr(m ≤ X ≤ n) = 0.92 when 𝜇 = 27.3 and
𝜎 = 8.2. The specified interval is symmetrical about the mean. Give your answers correct to 2 decimal
places.
a. Pr(Z < z) = 0.39 b. Pr(Z ≥ z) = 0.15 c. Pr(−z < Z < z) = 0.28.

3. If Z ~ N(0, 1), calculate the value of z correct to 4 decimal places given that:

a. Pr(X < a) = 0.72 b. Pr(X > a) = 0.32

4. If X ~ N(37.5, 8.622 ), determine a correct to 2 decimal places such that:
c. Pr(37.5 − a < X < 37.5 + a) = 0.88.
5. For a standard normal distribution, determine, correct to 4 decimal places:
6. If X is distributed normally with 𝜇 = 43.5 and 𝜎 = 9.7, determine, correct to 4 decimal places:
a. the 0.57 quantile b. the 63rd percentile.
a. the 0.73 quantile b. the 24th percentile.
7. WE5a X is distributed normally with a mean of 112, and the 42nd percentile is 108.87. Calculate the
standard deviation of the distribution, correct to 1 decimal place.
value of 𝜇, correct to 1 decimal place.

2
8. X is a normally distributed random variable such that X ~ N(𝜇, 4.45 ). If the 0.11 quantile is 32.142, find the
9. WE5 X is distributed normally with a standard deviation of 5.67, and Pr(X > 20.952) = 0.09. Find the mean
of X, giving your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
10. MC X is distributed normally with a standard deviation of 3.5, and Pr(X < 23.96) = 0.28. The mean for X is
D. −22
closest to:
A. 26 B. 25 C. 22 E. 21
11. X ~ N(115, 𝜎 2 ) and the 76th percentile is 122.42. Find the value of 𝜎, giving your answer correct to
1 decimal place.
X is distributed normally with 𝜇 = 41 and Pr(X > 55.9636) = 0.11. The standard deviation is:
B. −12.2 C. −1.2
12. MC
A. 10.5 D. 12.2 E. 1.5
13. X is distributed normally and Pr(X < 33.711) = 0.36, while Pr(X < 34.10) = 0.42. Find the mean and the
standard deviation of X, giving your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
14. X is distributed normally such that Pr(X > 18.35) = 0.31 and the 45th percentile is 15.09. Find 𝜇 and 𝜎 for X,
giving your answers correct to 1 decimal place.
15. X is distributed normally such that Pr(X < 39.9161) = 0.5789 and Pr(X > 38.2491) = 0.4799. Find the mean
and the standard deviation of X, giving your answers correct to 2 decimal places.
16. Pr(a < X < b) = 0.52 and the specified interval is symmetrical about the mean. If X is normally distributed
with a mean of 42.5 and a standard deviation of 10.3, find Pr(X > a | X < b).
12.4 Exam questions

MC The lengths of plastic pipes that are cut by a particular machine are a normally distributed random variable,
X, with a mean of 250 mm.

Z is the standard normal random variable.
If Pr(X < 259) = 1 – Pr(Z > 1.5), then the standard deviation of the lengths of plastic pipes, in millimetres, is
A. 1.5 B. 3 C. 6 D. 9 E. 12

MC The random variable X is normally distributed.
The mean of X is twice the standard deviation of X.
If Pr(X > 5.2) = 0.9, then the standard deviation of X is closest to

A. 7.238 B. 14.476 C. 3.327 D. 1.585 E. 3.169

MC The weights of packets of lollies are normally distributed with a mean of 200 g.
If 97% of these packets of lollies have a weight of more than 190 g, then the standard deviation of the
distribution, correct to one decimal place, is
A. 3.3 g B. 5.3 g C. 6.1 g D. 9.4 g E. 12.1 g
12.5 Mixed probability application problems

LEARNING INTENTION
• apply your knowledge of normal distributions to a range of application problems
• answer mixed probability questions.
12.5.1 Applications
eles-xxxx
Application problems involving the normal distribution cover a wide range of topics. Such questions will not
only incorporate theory associated with the normal distribution but may also include other areas of probability
you have previously studied.
WORKED EXAMPLE 6 Mixed probability
distributed with a mean of 𝜇 grams and a standard deviation of 6 grams. The advertised weight of
The amount of instant porridge oats in packets packed by a particular machine is normally
a packet is 500 grams.
𝜇 = 505 grams. Give your answer to 4 decimal places.

a. Calculate the proportion of packets that will be underweight (less than 500 grams) when
b. Calculate the value of 𝜇 required to ensure that only 1% of packets are underweight. Give your
c. As a check on the setting of the machine, a random sample of 5 boxes is chosen and the setting is
places, that the setting on the machine is changed when 𝜇 = 505 grams.
changed if more than one of them is underweight. Determine the probability, correct to 4 decimal
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Rewrite the information in the question using a. X is the amount of instant porridge oats in a
2. Use CAS to find Pr(X < 500). Pr(X < 500) = 0.2023
appropriate notation. packet and X ~ N(505, 62 ).
b. 1. State the known probability. b. Pr(X < 500) = 0.01
Pr(Z < z) = 0.01

z = −2.3263
by using CAS.

x−𝜇
z=
𝜎
500 − 𝜇
and x.
−2.3263 =
for 𝜇.
4. Substitute the appropriate values and solve
−13.9581 = 500 − 𝜇
6
𝜇 = 513.96 g
c. 1. The wording of the question (sample of 5 c. Let Y = the number of underweight packets.
boxes) indicates that this is now a binomial Y ~ Bi(5, 0.2023)
distribution. Rewrite the information in the
Pr(Y > 1) = 1 − Pr(Y ≤ 1)

question using appropriate notation.
= 1 − 0.7325
2. Using CAS, calculate the probability.
= 0.2675
12.5 Exercise

Technology active
1. WE6 Packages of butter with a stated weight of
500 grams have an actual weight of W grams, which is
normally distributed with a mean of 508 grams.
a. If the standard deviation of W is 3.0 grams, calculate,
correct to 4 decimal places:
i. the proportion of packages that weigh less than
500 grams
ii. the weight that is exceeded by 99% of the packages.
b. If the probability that a package weighs less than
500 grams is not to exceed 0.01, determine the
maximum allowable standard deviation of W. Give your
2. Chocolate Surprise is a toy that is packed inside an egg-shaped chocolate. A certain manufacturer provides
four different types of Chocolate Surprise toy — a car, an aeroplane, a ring and a doll — in the proportions
given in the table.
3k2 + 2k
Toy Proportion
6k2 + 2k
Car
k2 + 2k
Aeroplane
Ring
Doll 3k
a. Show that k must be a solution to the equation 10k2 + 9k − 1 = 0.

b. Evaluate the value of k.
In response to customer demand, the settings on the machine that produce Chocolate Surprise have been
changed so that 25% of all Chocolate Surprises produced contain rings. A sample of 8 Chocolate Surprises is
randomly selected from a very large number produced by the machine.
c. Calculate the expected number of Chocolate Surprises that contain rings.
d. Calculate the probability, correct to 4 decimal places, that this sample has exactly 2 Chocolate Surprises
that contain rings.
e. Determine the smallest sample size that should be taken so that the probability of selecting no Chocolate
Surprise that contain a ring is at most 0.09.
A Chocolate Surprise is considered defective if it weighs less than 100 grams. The weight of a Chocolate
Surprise is known to be normally distributed with a mean of 125 grams.
f. If 8.2% of the Chocolate Surprises produced are defective, determine, to the nearest gram, the standard
deviation for the weight of the Chocolate Surprises.
3. A particular brand of car speedometer was tested for accuracy. The
error measured is 0 km/h and a standard deviation of 0.76 km/h.
Speedometers are considered unacceptable if the error is more
than 1.5 km/h. Calculate the proportion of speedometers that are
unacceptable. Give your answer correct to 4 decimal places.
4. The heights of adult males in Perth can be taken as normally distributed
with a mean of 174 cm and a standard deviation of 8 cm. Suppose the
Western Australian Police Force accepts recruits only if they are at least
180 cm tall.
a. Calculate the percentage of Perth adult males who satisfy the height
requirement for the Western Australian Police Force. Give your
b. Determine the minimum height, to the nearest centimetre, that the
Western Australian Police Force would have to accept if it wanted
a quarter of the Perth adult male population to satisfy the height
requirement.
5. a. Farmer David grows avocados on a farm on Mount

Tamborine, Queensland.
The average weight of his avocados is known to be
normally distributed with a mean weight of 410 grams
and a standard deviation of 20 grams.
i. the probability that an avocado chosen at random
weighs less than 360 grams.
ii. the probability that an avocado that weighs less than
360 grams weighs more than 340 grams.
b. Farmer Jane grows avocados on a farm next to
farmer David’s. If Y represents the average weight
normally distributed where Pr(Y < 400) = 0.4207 and

of Jane’s avocados, the weights of which are also
Pr(Y > 415) = 0.3446, calculate the mean and standard

deviation of the weights of Jane’s avocados. Give
answers correct to the nearest integer.

6. A manufacturer produces metal rods whose lengths are normally distributed with a mean of 145.0 cm and a
standard deviation 1.4 cm.
a. Determine the probability, correct to 4 decimal places,
that a randomly selected metal rod is longer than
146.5 cm.
b. A metal rod has a size fault if its length is not within
d cm either side of the mean. The probability of a metal
rod having a size fault is 0.15. Calculate the value of d,
giving your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
c. A random sample of 12 metal rods is taken from a
crate containing a very large number of metal rods.
Determine the probability that there are exactly 2 metal
rods with a size fault, giving your answer correct to
4 decimal places.
are good or have some kind of fault. The materials cost is $5 per rod. The metal rods are sorted into three
d. The sales manager is considering what price, x dollars, to sell each of the metal rods for, whether they
bins. The staff know that 15% of the manufactured rods have a size fault and another 17% have some other
fault. The profit, Y dollars, is a random variable whose probability distribution is shown in the following
table.
Pr(Y = y)
x−5
Bin Description Profit ($y)
A Good metal rods that are sold for a
x dollars each
B Metal rods with a size fault — these are 0 0.15
x−8
not sold but recycled.
C Metal rods with other faults — these are 0.17
sold at a discount of $3 each.
i. Determine the value of a.

ii. Determine the mean of Y in terms of x.
iii. Hence or otherwise, evaluate, the selling price of good rods so that the mean profit is zero.
iv. The metal rods are stored in the bins until a large number is ready to be sold. Determine what
proportion of the rods ready to be sold are good rods.
7. A company sells two different products, X and Y, for $5.00 and $6.50 respectively. Regular markets exist
for both products, with sales being normally distributed and averaging 2500 units (standard deviation 700)
and 3000 units (standard deviation 550) respectively each week. It is company policy that if in any one week
the market for a particular product falls below half the average, that product is advertised as a ‘special’ the
following week.
a. Calculate the probability, correct to 4 decimal places, that product X will be advertised as a ‘special’ next
week.
b. Calculate the probability, correct to 4 decimal places, that product Y will be advertised as a ‘special’ next
week.
c. Calculate the probability, correct to 4 decimal places, that both products will be advertised as a ‘special’
next week.
d. If 40% of the company’s product is product X and 60% is product Y, calculate the probability correct to 4
decimal places that:
i. one product is a ‘special’
ii. if one product is advertised as ‘special’, then it is product X.
8. The height of plants sold at a garden nursery supplier are

normally distributed with a mean of 18 cm and a standard
deviation of 5 cm.
a. Complete the following table by determining the
proportions for each of the three plant sizes, correct
Description of plant Plant size (cm) Cost in $ Proportion of plants

Small Less than 10 cm 2.00
Medium 10−25 cm 3.50
Large Greater than 25 cm 5.00
b. Evaluate the expected cost, to the nearest dollar, for 150 plants chosen at random from the garden nursery.
9. A fruit grower produces peaches whose weights are

normally distributed with a mean of 185 grams and a
standard deviation of 20 grams.
Peaches whose weights exceed 205 grams are sold to the
cannery, yielding a profit of 60 cents per peach. Peaches
whose weights are between 165 grams and 205 grams are
sold to wholesale markets at a profit of 45 cents per peach.
Peaches whose weights are less than 165 grams are sold
for jam at a profit of 30 cents per peach.
a. Determine the percentage of peaches sold to the
canneries correct to 2 decimal places.
b. Determine the percentage of peaches sold to the
wholesale markets correct to 2 decimal places.
c. Calculate the mean profit per peach correct to the
nearest cent.
10. The Lewin Tennis Ball Company makes tennis balls
whose diameters are distributed normally with a mean
of 70 mm and a standard deviation of 1.5 mm. The tennis
balls are packed and sold in cylindrical tins that each hold
five tennis balls. A tennis ball fits in the tin if the diameter
is less than 71.5 mm.
a. Calculate the probability, correct to 4 decimal places,
that a randomly chosen tennis ball produced by the
Lewin company fits into the tin.
The Lewin management would like each ball produced to

have a diameter between 68.6 mm and 71.4 mm.
b. Calculate the probability, correct to 4 decimal places, that a randomly chosen tennis ball produced by the
Lewin company is in this range.
c. A tin of five balls is selected at random. Calculate the probability, correct to 4 decimal places, that at least
one ball has a diameter outside the range of 68.6 mm to 71.4 mm.

d. Determine what should the new standard deviation be, correct to 4 decimal places. Lewin management
wants engineers to change the manufacturing process so that 99.5% of all balls produced have a diameter
between 68.6 mm and 71.4 mm. The mean is to stay at 70 mm but the standard deviation is to be changed.
11. The Apache Orchard grows a very juicy apple called the
Fugee apple. Fugee apples are picked and then sorted by
diameter in three categories:
• small — diameter less than 60 mm
• jumbo — the largest 15% of the apples
• standard — all other apples.
Diameters of Fugee apples are found to be normally
distributed with a mean of 71 mm and a standard deviation
of 12 mm.
a. A particular apple is the largest possible whose diameter
lies within two standard deviations of the mean.
Calculate the diameter. Give your answer correct to the
nearest millimetre.
b. Calculate, correct to 4 decimal places, the probability that a Fugee apple, selected at random, has a
diameter less than 85 mm.
c. Calculate the percentage of apples (to the nearest 1 per cent) that is sorted into the small category.
d. Determine, correct to the nearest millimetre, the minimum diameter of a jumbo Fugee.
e. An apple is selected at random from a bin of jumbo apples. Calculate the probability, correct to 4 decimal
places, that it has a diameter greater than 100 mm.
f. The Apache Orchard receives the following prices for Fugee apples:
• small — 12 cents each
• standard — 15 cents each
• jumbo — 25 cents each.
Calculate the orchard’s expected income, correct to the nearest dollar, for a container of 2500 unsorted
apples.
g. Some apples are selected before sorting and are packed into bags of six to be sold at the front gate of the
orchard. Calculate the probability, correct to 4 decimal places, that one of these bags contains at least two
jumbo apples.
12. A brand of disinfectant is sold in two sizes: standard and large. For each size, the contents, in litres, of
a randomly chosen bottle is normally distributed with a mean and standard deviation as shown in the
following table.
Bottle size Mean Standard deviation

Standard 0.765 L 0.007 L
Large 1.015 L 0.009 L
a. Calculate the probability, correct to 4 decimal places, that a randomly chosen standard bottle contains less
than 0.75 litres.
b. Calculate the probability, correct to 4 decimal places, that a box of 12 randomly chosen large bottles
contains at least 4 bottles whose contents are each less than 1 litre.
13. Amalie is gathering data on two particular species of yellow butterflies: the lemon emigrant and the yellow
emigrant, which can be very difficult to tell apart as the intensity of the yellow can be confusing. Both
species are equally likely to be caught in a particular area of Australia. One technique for telling them apart
is by measuring the lengths of their antennae. For the lemon emigrant, the antennae are distributed normally
with a mean of 22 mm and a standard deviation of 1.5 mm.
In the region where Amalie is hunting for yellow butterflies, 45% of the yellow butterflies are lemon
emigrants and 55% are lemon emigrants.
a. Calculate the probability, correct to 4 decimal places, that a randomly chosen lemon emigrant butterfly
will have antennae which are shorter than 18 mm.
b. Amalie knows that 8% of the yellow emigrants have antennae that are shorter than 15.5 mm, and 8%
of yellow emigrant butterflies have antennae that are longer than 22.5 mm. Assuming that the antenna
lengths are normally distributed, determine the mean and standard deviation of the antenna length of
yellow emigrant butterflies, giving your answers correct to the nearest 0.1 mm.
c. Calculate the probability, correct to 4 decimal places, that a random sample of 12 butterflies from the
region will contain 5 yellow emigrant butterflies.
14. The daily error (in seconds) of a particular brand of clock is known to be normally distributed. Only those
clocks with an error of less than 3 seconds are acceptable. Determine, correct to 4 decimal places:
a. the mean and standard deviation of the distribution of error if 2.5% of the clocks are rejected for losing
time and 2.5% of the clocks are rejected for gaining time
b. the probability that fewer than 2 clocks are rejected in a batch of 12 such clocks.
12.5 Exam questions

variable with a mean of 120 days and a standard deviation of 𝜎 days.

MC Butterflies of a particular species die T days after hatching, where T is a normally distributed random
value of 𝜎 is closest to
If, from a population of 2000 newly hatched butterflies, 150 are expected to die in the first 90 days, then the
A. 7 days B. 13 days C. 17 days D. 21 days E. 37 days

Source: VCE 2014 Mathematical Methods (CAS) Exam 2, Section 2, Q4 a–e; © VCAA.
Patricia is a gardener and she owns a garden nursery. She grows and sells basil plants and coriander plants.
The heights, in centimetres, of the basil plants that Patricia is selling are distributed normally with a mean of
14 cm and a standard deviation of 4 cm. There are 2000 basil plants in the nursery.
a. Patricia classifies the tallest 10 per cent of her basil plants as super.
What is the minimum height of a super basil plant, correct to the nearest millimetre? (1 mark)

b. Patricia decides that some of her basil plants are not growing quickly enough, so she plans to move them
to a special greenhouse. She will move the basil plants that are less than 9 cm in height.
How many basil plants will Patricia move to the greenhouse, correct to the nearest
whole number? (2 marks)
c. The heights of the coriander plants, x centimetres, follow the probability density function
h(x), where (1 mark)
𝜋 𝜋x
0 < x < 50
h(x) = { 100
( )
sin
50
0 otherwise
State the mean height of the coriander plants.

d. Patricia thinks that the smallest 15 per cent of her coriander plants should be given a new type of
plant food.
Find the maximum height, correct to the nearest millimetre, of a coriander plant if it is to be
given the new type of plant food. (2 marks)
e. Patricia also grows and sells tomato plants that she classifies as either tall or regular. She finds
that 20 per cent of her tomato plants are tall.
A customer, Jack, selects n tomato plants at random.
Let q be the probability that at least one of Jack’s n tomato plants is tall.
Find the minimum value of n so that q is greater than 0.95. (2 marks)
Mani is a fruit grower. After his oranges have been picked, they are sorted by a machine, according to size.
Oranges classified as medium are sold to fruit shops and the remainder are made into orange juice.
The distribution of the diameter, in centimetres, of medium oranges is modelled by a continuous random
variable, X, with probability density function
(x − 6)2 (8 − x) 6≤x≤8
f(x) = { 4
3
0 otherwise
a. i. Find the probability that a randomly selected medium orange has a diameter greater
than 7 cm. (2 marks)
ii. Mani randomly selects three medium oranges.
Find the probability that exactly one of the oranges has a diameter greater than 7 cm.
a
Express the answer in the form , where a and b are positive integers. (2 marks)
b
b. Find the mean diameter of medium oranges, in centimetres. (1 mark)
c. For oranges classified as large, the quantity of juice obtained from each orange is a normally
distributed random variable with a mean of 74 mL and a standard deviation of 9 mL.
What is the probability, correct to three decimal places, that a randomly selected large orange
produces less than 85 mL of juice, given that it produces more than 74 mL of juice? (2 marks)
d. Mani also grows lemons, which are sold to a food factory. When a truckload of lemons arrives
at the food factory, the manager randomly selects and weighs four lemons from the load. If one or more
of these lemons is underweight, the load is rejected. Otherwise it is accepted.
It is known that 3% of Mani’s lemons are underweight.

i. Find the probability that a particular load of lemons will be rejected. Express the answer
correct to four decimal places. (2 marks)
ii. Suppose that instead of selecting only four lemons, n lemons are selected at random from a
particular load.
Find the smallest integer value of n such that the probability of at least one lemon being
underweight exceeds 0.5. (2 marks)

12.6 Review
12.6.1 Summary
doc-37042
Access the Review your Watch teacher-led Practise past VCAA
12.6 Exercise

distribution. Use the result that Pr(Z < 1) = 0.84, correct to 2 decimal places, to determine:
1. Let X be normally distributed with a mean of 76 and a standard deviation of 6. Let Z be a standard normal
b. the probability that 70 < X < 76

a. the probability that X is greater than 82
c. the probability that X > 70 given that X < 76.
2. A random variable, X, is normally distributed with a mean of 31 and a standard deviation of 6. State how the
mean and standard deviation affect the shape of the normal distribution graph (in terms of transformations).
3. The time Lee Yin spends swimming each day is normally
distributed with a mean of 35 minutes and a standard deviation
of 4 minutes. Determine the approximate percentage of swims
that are:
a. between 31 and 39 minutes
b. less than 43 minutes
c. between 27 and 39 minutes.
4. If Pr(X > m) = 0.65, evaluate:

a. Pr(X < m) b. Pr(X > −m).
a. X~N(15, 22 ), X = 22 b. X~N(180, 25), X = 192

5. By standardising, convert the following X-values to Z-values.
6. a. If Pr(m < X < n) = 0.54 and Pr(X < n) = 0.72, determine Pr(X ≤ m).
b. If Pr(m < X < n) = 0.75 and Pr(X > n) = 0.18, determine Pr(X ≤ m).
7. MC The diagram below shows two normal distributions with means 𝜇1

and 𝜇2 and variances 𝜎12 and 𝜎22 .
𝜇1 < 𝜇2 and 𝜎1 < 𝜎2

State which one of the following sets of statements is true.
𝜇1 > 𝜇2 and 𝜎1 < 𝜎2

A.
𝜇1 < 𝜇2 and 𝜎1 > 𝜎2

B.
𝜇1 > 𝜇2 and 𝜎1 > 𝜎2

C.
𝜇1 > 𝜇2 and 𝜎1 = 𝜎2
Blue: X1 ~ N(𝜇1, 𝜎12) x
D.
E. Pink: X2 ~ N(𝜇1, 𝜎22)
8. MC Chris carefully measures the quantity of orange juice contained

in 1-litre cartons of a particular brand. He finds the actual quantity
of orange juice is approximately normally distributed with a mean of
1.05 litres and a standard deviation of 0.05 litres.
The proportion of cartons that contain more than 1 litre of orange juice
is closest to:
A. 0.16
B. 0.84
C. 0.90
D. 0.10
E. 0.05
9. MC If Z is a standard normal distribution, state which one of the following is not true.
A. The mean, median and mode of Z are all the same.
Pr(Z < −1) = 1 − Pr(Z > 1)

B. The mean is zero and the standard deviation is 1.
Pr(Z > 0) = 0.5

C.
Pr(−3 < Z < 3) = 0.997

D.
E.
10. MC Let X be normally distributed with a mean of 𝜇 and a standard deviation of 𝜎. State which one of the
Pr(X < 𝜇) = 0.5

following is not always true.
Pr(𝜇 − 𝜎 < X < 𝜇 + 𝜎) ≈ 0.68

A.
Pr(X < a) = 1 − Pr(X > a)

B.
Pr(𝜇 − 2𝜎 < X < 𝜇 + 2𝜎) ≈ 0.95

C.
Pr(a < X < b) = Pr(X < b) − Pr(X > a)

D.
E.
11. MC The random variable X has a normal distribution with a mean of 4.9 and a standard deviation of 1.4. If Z
Pr(Z < 1)
is a standard normal distribution, then the probability that X is less than 3.5 is equal to:
Pr(Z > 1)
A.
1 − Pr(Z < −1)

B.
Pr(Z > −1)

C.
Pr(−1 < Z < 1)

D.
E.

12. MC The eggs laid by a particular breed of chicken have a mass that is
normally distributed with a mean of 63 grams and a standard deviation of
2.7 grams.
The probability, correct to 4 decimal places, that a single egg chosen at
random has a mass between 60 grams and 65 grams is:
A. 0.1332
B. 0.7705
C. 0.6373
D. 0.2294
E. 0.8667
7. For a given number a, Pr(X > a) = 0.20. Correct to 2 decimal places, a is equal to:
13. MC The continuous random variable X is normally distributed with a mean of 32 and a standard deviation of
A. 26.11 B. 36.72 C. 27.28 D. 37.89 E. 35.89
14. MC In an orchard of 3000 apple trees, it is found that

2570 trees have a height greater than 2.9 metres. The
of 𝜇 and a standard deviation of 0.3 metres. The value of

heights of the trees are normally distributed with a mean
𝜇 is closest to:
A. 3.220
B. 2.580
C. 3.315
D. 2.485
E. 2.850
15. MC The weights of bags of flour are normally distributed with a mean of 255 grams and a standard
deviation of 14 grams. If 45% of the bags weigh more than x grams, then the maximum possible value of x
is closest to:
A. 253.2
B. 260.4
C. 258.6
D. 249.6
E. 256.8
A. −1.0364 C. −0.8416
16. MC The 0.85 quantile for the standard normal distribution is approximately equal to:
B. 0.8416 D. 1.0364 E. 0
17. X is a normally distributed variable for which Pr(X < 47) = 0.3694 and Pr(X > 56) = 0.3385.
b. Determine the integer value of a given that Pr(51 − a < X < 51 + a) = 0.7566. Hence, calculate, correct to
a. Calculate the mean and standard deviation of X. Give your answers to the nearest integer.
4 decimal places, Pr(X > 51 − a | X < 51 + a) .

c. Calculate:
i. Var(X) ii. E(X2 )
18. In a chocolate factory, the material for the making of each

chocolate is sent to one of two machines, machine A and
machine B.
The time, X seconds, taken to produce a chocolate
by machine A is distributed normally with a mean of
2.5 seconds and a standard deviation of 0.7 seconds. The
time, Y seconds, taken to produce a chocolate by machine
B has the probability density function
y<0
⎧
⎪ y
0,
, 0≤y≤3
f (y) = 12 .
⎨
⎪ 1 −0.5(y −3)
, y>3
⎩3
e
i. Pr(2 ≤ X ≤ 5) ii. Pr(2 ≤ Y ≤ 5).

a. Calculate, correct to 4 decimal places:
b. Determine E(Y).
c. It can be shown that Pr(Y ≤ 2) =

1
. A random sample of 10 chocolates produced by machine B is chosen.
6
Calculate the probability, correct to 4 decimal places, that exactly 4 of the 10 chocolates took 2 seconds or
d. i. Determine Pr(X ≤ 2), correct to 4 decimal places

less to produce.
ii. A sample of 10 chocolates produced by machine A is chosen at random. Determine the probability,
correct to 4 decimal places, that exactly 4 of the 10 chocolates took 2 seconds or less to produce.
19. Pieter has a strawberry farm in the Dandenong Ranges in
the outer suburbs of Melbourne. The average length of a
strawberry is normally distributed with a mean of 3.5 cm and
a standard deviation of 0.8 cm.
supplier for $6.50 per kilogram. Strawberries that are between

Strawberries that are longer than 4.5 cm are sold to a restaurant
$4.50 per kilogram, and strawberries that are less than 2.5 cm
2.5 cm and 4.5 cm long are sold to a supermarket supplier for
long are sold to a manufacturer of jam for $1.75 per kilogram.

Determine, correct to 2 decimal places:
a. the percentage of strawberries that are sold to the restaurant
supplier
b. the percentage of strawberries that are sold to the jam
manufacturer
c. the mean profit for a kilogram of strawberries.
Pieter’s neighbour, Marta, also has a strawberry farm. Y is the average length of a strawberry from Marta’s
farm and is distributed normally.
strawberries if Pr(Y > 4.5) = 0.0316 and Pr(Y < 2.5) = 0.1587.
d. Calculate the mean and standard deviation, correct to 1 decimal place, of the average length of Marta’s

20. Merilyn is training to throw a javelin at the next Australian

Athletics Championship. The ‘A standard’ throwing
distance in an authorised competition is 65 metres.
The current Olympic record for the women’s javelin is
72.28 metres. If Merilyn is to be selected in an Olympic
training squad, she must throw to the A standard.
Merilyn feels confident that the distance in metres that
she can throw the javelin from the marked throwing line
is normally distributed with a mean of 64.5 metres and a
standard deviation of 3.5 metres.
a. Complete the following table. Give probabilities correct to 4 decimal places.
Distance thrown Probability

Less than the A standard
Greater than the A standard but less than the Olympic
record
Greater than the Olympic record
b. 90% of Merilyn’s throws travel at least m metres. Calculate the value of m correct to 2 decimal places.
c. Merilyn throws a javelin that does not reach the Olympic record. Calculate the probability, correct to
4 decimal places, that it reaches the A standard.
Merilyn’s sponsor offers her an incentive to perform her best in competitions. The cash rewards for each
throw are shown in the following table.
$500
Length of throw Amount paid ($)
$1000
Less than the A standard
$5000
Between the A standard and the Olympic record
Greater than the Olympic record
d. Calculate Merilyn’s expected reward, correct to the nearest dollar, for each throw she completes in a
competition.
e. In a particular competition Merilyn completes 5 throws. Calculate:
i. the total reward she would expect to receive, correct to the nearest 10 dollars
ii. the probability, correct to 4 decimal places, that at least 3 of her throws will be over the A standard
iii. the expected number of times she will be over the A standard, correct to 2 decimal places.
12.6 Exam questions

Source: VCE 2015 Mathematical Methods (CAS) Exam 1, Q6; © VCAA.
Let the random variable X be normally distributed with mean 2.5 and standard deviation 0.3.
a. Find b such that Pr(X > 3.1) = Pr(Z < b).

Let Z be the standard normal random variable, such that Z~N(0, 1).
b. Using the fact that, correct to two decimal places, Pr(Z < −1) = 0.16, find Pr(X < 2.8 | X > 2.5 .
(1 mark)
Write the answer correct to two decimal places. (2 marks)

MC The random variable X has a normal distribution with mean 12 and standard deviation 0.5. If Z has the
A. Pr(Z > −1) B. Pr(Z < −0.5) C. Pr(Z > 1) D. Pr(Z ≥ 0.5) E. Pr(Z < 1)
standard normal distribution, then the probability that X is less than 11.5 is equal to

Source: Adapted from VCE 2020 Mathematical Methods Exam 2, Section B, Q3; © VCAA.
A transport company has detailed records of all its deliveries. The number of minutes a delivery is made before
or after its scheduled delivery time can be modelled as a normally distributed random variable, T, with a mean of
zero and a standard deviation of four minutes. A graph of the probability distribution of T is shown below.
y
t
–12 –11 –10 –9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
a. If Pr(T ≤ a) = 0.6, find a to the nearest minute. (1 mark)

b. Find the probability, correct to three decimal places, of a delivery being no later than three
minutes after its scheduled delivery time, given that it arrives after its scheduled delivery time. (2 marks)
deliveries over the interval −3 ≤ t ≤ 2.

c. Using the model described on above, the transport company can make 46.48% of its
It has an improved delivery model with a mean of k and a standard deviation of four minutes.
deliveries can be made over the interval −4.5 ≤ t ≤ 0.5

Find the values of k, correct to one decimal place, so that 46.48% of the transport company’s
(2 marks)
d. A rival transport company claims that there is a 0.85 probability that each delivery it makes will
arrive on time or earlier.
Assume that whether each delivery is on time or earlier is independent of other deliveries.
Assuming that the rival company’s claim is true, find the probability that on a day in which the
rival company makes eight deliveries, fewer than half of them arrive on time or earlier. Give
your answer correct to three decimal places. (2 marks)
e. Assuming that the rival company’s claim is true, consider a day in which it makes n deliveries. (1 mark)
i. Express, in terms of n, the probability that one or more deliveries will not arrive on time or earlier.
ii. Hence, or otherwise, find the minimum value of n such that there is at least a 0.95 probability that one
or more deliveries will not arrive on time or earlier.
f. An analyst from a government department believes the rival transport company’s claim is only true for
delivery arriving on time or earlier is x, where 0.3 ≤ x ≤ 0.7.

deliveries made before 4 pm. For deliveries made after 4 pm, the analyst believes the probability of a
After observing a large number of the rival transport company’s deliveries, the analyst believes that the
overall probability that a delivery arrives on time or earlier is actually 0.75.
Let the probability that a delivery is made after 4 pm be y.
Assuming that the analyst’s beliefs are true, find the minimum and maximum values of y. (1 mark)

A. Pr(Z > a) = Pr(Z ≤ a) B. Pr(Z < −a) = Pr(Z > −a)

MC For the standard normal distribution, state which one of the following is true.
C. Pr(Z > a) = 1 − Pr(Z ≥ a) D. Pr(−a < Z < a) = 1 − 2 Pr(Z ≤ −a)

E. Pr(−a < Z < a) = 1 − 2 Pr(Z ≤ a)
2.1. The values a1 and a2 are evenly distributed either side of the mean such that Pr(a1 < X < a2 ) = 0.8. Find the
X is a continuous random variable that is normally distributed, with a mean of 14.2 and a standard deviation of
values of a1 and a2 .


Answers f(x) ≥ 0 for all values of x, and the area under the curve
is 1. Therefore, this function is a probability density
function.
Topic 12 The normal distribution
15. a. 𝜇 = 2, 𝜍 =
2
12.2 The normal distribution 5
= 4.16
12.2 Exercise 104
𝜇 = 1, 𝜍 = 0.3 or
b.
3 25
1. a.
10
12.2 Calculating probabilities and the standard
10
b. Dilation factor parallel to the y-axis, dilation factor normal distribution
3
parallel to the x-axis, translation 1 unit in the positive
10 1.
2. a. 𝜇 = 2, 𝜍 = 3
x-direction
b. f (x)
— 1 (
2, —
1
3 2π )
3 2π
x
5 10 15
2. E
3. a. 68% b. 2.28%
x
–7 –4 –1 0 2 5 8 11
3. a. i. 100 and 140 ii. 80 and 160 iii. 60 and 180
12.3 Exercise
1. 0.4088
b. i. 0.025 ii. 0.0015
2. a. 0.9772 b. 0.0228
4. a. 0.025 b. 0.0015 c. 0.84 c. 0.9545 d. 0.0512
5. a. 10 and 20 b. 5 and 25 c. 0 and 30 3. a. 0.0912 b. 0.2119 c. 0.7501
6. a. 0.84 b. 0.815 c. 0.9702 4. a. i. 0.8849 ii. 0.7703
ii. −
7. a. 0.975 b. 0.95 c. 0.9744 4
b. i. 0.9088
8. A 3
k = 205 h = 155
9. D 5. a. i. 0.65 ii. 0.27
10. a. 0.815 b. c. 29
b. i. 0.29 ii.
m = 80.9 k = 2.4 k = 1.6

11. a. 0.815 b. 0.025 c. 0.94 56
𝜇 = 3, 𝜍 = 1
d. 6. a. b.
12. b. 7. a. 0.0228 b. 0.0912 c. 0.8860
c. f (x) 8. a. E b. B
9. The salmon is in the top 26.6%, so it is not gourmet.
1
(3, 2π ) 10. a. 6.68% b. 0.19%
—
2π
11. a. 0.1587 b. 0.1587 c. 0.3695
12. Jing Jing
13. Chemistry 0.8, Maths Methods 0.86, Physics 0.875; Juan
14. k = 25.24
did best in Physics when compared to his peers.
𝜇 = −2
0 x
1 2 3 4 5 6
12.3 Exam questions
𝜇 = −4, 𝜍 = 10
13. b.
−
14. a. 1
1. a. 0.5 b.
1 2
b. Dilation factor from the x-axis, dilation factor 10 2. E
10
from the y-axis, translation 4 units in the negative 3. D
x-direction
c. i. 100 ii. 116 12.4 The inverse normal distribution
∞
1 x +4 2
dx = 0.9999 ≃ 1
12.4 Exercise
a = 34.34 a = 14.68 a = 1.65
1 −
∫ 10 2𝜋
( )
d. e 2 10 1. a. b. c.
−∞
√

m = 12.94, n = 41.66
−0.2793 𝜍 = 0.4987
2. 10. a. 0.8413 b. 0.6494 c. 0.8845
d.
a = 42.52 a = 41.53 a = 13.40

3. a. b. 1.0364 c. 0.3585
$399
4. a. b. c. 11. a. 95 mm b. 0.8783 c. 18%
d. 83 mm e. 0.0078 f.
5. a. 0.1764 b. 0.3319
g. 0.2236
𝜍 = 15.5
6. a. 49.4443 b. 36.6489
𝜇 = 19.0 mm, 𝜍 = 2.5 mm

12. a. 0.0161 b. 0.0019
𝜇 = 37.6
7.
13. a. 0.0038 b.
𝜇 = 13.35
8.
𝜇 = 0, 𝜍 = 1.5306
c. 0.2225
9.
14. a. b. 0.8816
𝜍 = 10.5
10. A
11. 12.5 Exam questions
𝜇 = 34.6, 𝜍 = 2.5
12. D
1. D
𝜇 = 15.8, 𝜍 = 5.2
13.
2. a. 19.1 cm b. 211 c. 25 cm
𝜇 = 37.68, 𝜍 = 11.21
14. d. 12.7 cm e. 14
15. 11 825
16. 0.6842 3. a. i. or 0.6875 ii.
16 4096
b. 7.2
12.4 Exam questions
c. 0.778
1. C
d. i. 0.1147 ii. 23
2. A
3. B 12.6 Review
12.5 Mixed probability application problems 12.6 Exercise
12.5 Exercise Technology free: short answer
1. a. i. 0.0038 ii. 501.0210 17
1. a. 0.16 b. 0.34 c.
25
3k2 + 2k + 6k2 + 2k + k2 + 2k + 3k = 1
b. 3.4389 grams
1
10k2 + 9k − 1 = 0
2. a. 2. Dilation factor 6 from the x-axis, dilation factor from the
6
y-axis, translation 31 units in the positive y-direction
k=
1 3. a. 68% b. 97.5% c. 81.5%
b.
10 4. a. 0.35 b. 0.35
2
c.
5. a. 3.5 b. 2.4
0.3115
d.
6. a. 0.18 b. 0.07
f. 𝜍 = 18
e. 9

3. 0.0484
7. A
4. a. 22.66% b. 179 cm
8. B
𝜇 = 405, 𝜍 = 25
5. a. i. 0.0062 ii. 0.9625 9. C
b. 10. E
d = 2.0
6. a. 0.1420 11. B
b. 12. C
i. a = 0.68 0.85x − 4.76

c. 0.2924 13. D
iii. $5.60
d. ii.
14. A
iv. 80%
15. E
7. a. 0.0371
16. D
b. 0.0032
𝜇 = 51, 𝜍 = 12
c. 0.0001
d. i. 0.0167 ii. 0.8856
a = 14, Pr(X > 51 − a | X < 51 + a) = 0.8615
17. a.
b. $531
8. a. Small: 0.0548, medium: 0.8644, large: 0.0808 b.
c. i. 144 ii. 2745
9. a. 15.87% b. 68.27% c. 45 cents
12.6 Exam questions

−2
18. a. i. 0.7623 ii. 0.6297
b. 4.083 1. a.
c. 0.0543 b. 0.68
d. i. 0.2375 ii. 0.1313 2. C
19. a. 10.56% 3. a. 1 minute
$4.42/kg c. −2.5
b. 10.56% b. 0.547
𝜇 = 3.2, 𝜍 = 0.7
c.
Pr(X < 65) = 0.5568, Pr(65 < X < 72.28) = 0.4301, e. i. 1 − 0.85
d. d. 0.003
Pr(X > 72.28) = 0.0131

n
20. a. ii. 19
f. Minimum y-value: y =
2
b. 60.01 m 11
Maximum y-value: y =
$774
c. 0.4359 2
i. $3870
d. 3
5. a1 = 11.5087
e. ii. 0.3944 iii. 1.97 4. D
a2 = 16.8913

“c13StatisticalInference_PrintPDF” — 2022/6/13 — 7:08 — page 1 — #1
13 Statistical inference
LEARNING SEQUENCE
13.1 Overview ................................................................................................................................................................. 02
13.2 Population parameters and sample statistics .......................................................................................... 03
13.3 The distribution of the sample proportion ..................................................................................................09
13.4 Confidence intervals ...........................................................................................................................................17
13.5 Review ..................................................................................................................................................................... 24

13.1 Overview
13.1.1 Introduction
Statistical inference describes the process where conclusions are drawn
about the characteristics of a population, based on the analysis of the
sample drawn from it.
It is quite impractical, and in some cases impossible, to analyse the entire
population for a particular situation. Therefore, investigating a sample
is the most common practice. The sample needs to be representative
of the entire population, and where possible, multiple samples should
be analysed, especially if the sample size is small. This then leads to a
sampling distribution.
Statistical inference, of which only the very basic foundations are covered in this course, is used in many
important industries. In the Future Cities area, mathematical models relating to crime, security and resilience
are analysed for urban environments. This knowledge can then be applied to areas such as infrastructure and
transport. Statistical inference can also be used in predictions of weather, or of voting preferences on election
day. In medical research, it can be used to help predict what parts of the brain are active during an MRI scan
while the patient is doing a basic task such as tapping their finger, or to analyse whether a new treatment
program is reducing the progression of cancer.
KEY CONCEPTS
• statistical inference, including definition and distribution of sample proportions, simulations and
confidence intervals:
– distinction between a population parameter and a sample statistic and the use of the sample
statistic to estimate the population parameter
illustrate the distribution of P̂ and variations in confidence intervals between samples

– simulation of random sampling, for a variety of values of p and a range of sample sizes, to
– concept of the sample proportion P̂ =

X
as a random variable whose value varies between
n
samples, where X is a binomial random variable which is associated with the number of items
– approximate normality of the distribution of P̂ for large samples and, for such a situation, the
that have a particular characteristic and n is the sample size
p(1 − p)
√
mean p (the population proportion) and standard deviation
n
̂ − p)̂ ̂ − p)̂
– determination and interpretation of, from a large sample, an approximate confidence interval
p̂ − z , p̂ + z
( √ √ )
p(1 p(1
, for a population proportion where z is the appropriate
n n
example of such an interval where z ≈ 1.96 (the term standard error may be used but is not
quantile for the standard normal distribution, in particular the 95% confidence interval as an
required).
13.2 Population parameters and sample statistics

LEARNING INTENTION
• identify populations and samples
• identify sample statistics and population parameters
• understand different types of sampling.
13.2.1 Samples and populations

eles-####
Suppose you were interested in the percentage of Year 12 graduates who plan to study Mathematics once they
complete school. It is probably not practical to question every student. There must be a way that we can ask a
smaller group and then use this information to make generalisations about the whole group.
A population is a group that you want to know something about, and a sample is the group within the
population that you collect the information from. Normally, a sample is smaller than the population; the
exception is a census, where the whole population is the sample.
The number of members in a sample is called the sample size (symbol n), and the number of members of a
population is called the population size (symbol N). Sometimes the population size is unknown.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1 Samples and populations
A total of 137 people volunteer to take part in a medical trial. Of these, 57 are identified as suitable
candidates and are given the medication. Identify the population and sample size.
n = 57
THINK WRITE
1. 57 people are given the medication. This is the
sample size.
2. We are interested in the group of people who The population is unknown, as we don’t know
might receive the drug in the future. This is the how many people may be given this drug in the
population. future.
TOPIC 13 Statistical inference 3

Using technology to select a sample
each population member a number (from 1 to n = N). Use the random number generator on your calculator to
If you know the population size, it should also be possible to produce a list of population members. Assign
generate a random number between 1 and N. The population member who was allocated that number becomes
the first member of the sample. Continue generating random numbers until the required number of members
has been picked for the sample. If the same random number is generated more than once, ignore it and continue
selecting members until the required number has been chosen.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2 Samples and populations
Cameron has uploaded a popular YouTube video. He thinks that the 133 people in his year group at
school have seen it, and he wants to know what they think. He decides to question 10 people. Identify
the population and sample size.
N = 133
THINK WRITE
1. Cameron wants to know what the people in his
n = 10
year at school think. This is the population.
2. He asks 10 people. This is the sample.

1. A random sample of If each of the 133 students 1. A random sample of people If each of the 133 students
people can be generated in Cameron’s year group is can be generated using in Cameron’s year group
using technology. assigned a number from 1 to technology. is assigned a number from
133, the calculator can randomly 1 to 133, the calculator
select 10 integers between 1 can randomly select 10
and 133 to represent a random integers between 1 and
sample of 10 students. 133 to represent a random
sample of 10 students.
press MENU, then select: complete the entry
5: Probability line as:
4: Random randList (10, 1, 133)
2: Integer then press EXE.
Complete the entry Note: randList can be found
line as: using the down arrow and
randInt (1, 133, 10) then selecting it from the
then press ENTER. catelog.
3. The numbers on the Students assigned numbers 3. The numbers on the screen Students assigned numbers
screen represent the 126, 121, 20, 69, 54, 98, 6, represent the students 92, 37, 122, 85, 78, 127,
students chosen to be 46, 133, and 27 are to be chosen to be included in 33, 66, 14, and 77 are to be
included in the sample. included in the sample. the sample. included in the sample.
13.2.2 Statistics and parameters

eles-####
A parameter is a characteristic of a population, whereas a statistic is a characteristic of a sample. This means
that a statistic is always known exactly (because it is measured from the sample that has been selected). A
parameter is usually estimated from a sample statistic. (The exception is if the sample is a census, in which case
the parameter is known exactly.)
In this unit, we will study binomial data (that means that each data point is either yes/no or success/failure) with
special regard to the proportion of successes.
The relationship between populations and samples
Random
selection
Population: size N Sample: size n

(this is the group we want (this is the group that
to know about) we can measure)
Parameter: p Statistic: p̂
(population proportion) (sample proportion)
WORKED EXAMPLE 3 Statistics and parameters
Identify the following as either sample statistics or population parameters.

a. 43% of voters polled say that they are in favour of banning fast food.
b. According to Australian Bureau of Statistics census data, the average
family has 1.7 children.
c. Between 18% and 23% of Australians skip breakfast regularly.
d. Nine out of 10 kids prefer cereal for breakfast.
THINK WRITE
a. 43% is an exact value that summarises the sample asked. a. Sample statistic
b. The information comes from census data. The census b. Population parameter
questions the entire population.
c. 18%–23% is an estimate about the population. c. Population parameter
d. Nine out of 10 is an exact value. It is unlikely that d. Sample statistic
all kids could have been asked; therefore, it is from a
sample.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Population parameters and sample statistics (int-6442)
13.2.3 Random samples

eles-####
A good sample should be representative of the population. If we consider our initial interest in the proportion
of Year 12 graduates who intend to study Mathematics once they finished school, we could use a Mathematical
Methods class as a sample. This would not be a good sample because it does not represent the population — it is
a very specific group.

In a random sample, every member of the population has the same probability of being selected. The
Mathematical Methods class is not a random sample because students who don’t study Mathematical Methods
have no chance of being selected; furthermore, students who don’t attend that particular school have no chance
of being selected.
population is sampled. For example, if k = 20, a customs official might choose to sample every 20th person
A systematic sample is almost as good as a random sample. In a systematic sample, every kth member of the
who passes through the arrivals gate. The reason that this is almost as good as random sample is that there is
an assumption that the group passing the checkpoint during the time the sample is taken is representative of the
population. This assumption may not always be true; for example, people flying for business may be more likely
to arrive on an early morning flight. Depending on the information you are collecting, this may influence the
quality of the data.
In a stratified random sample, care is taken so that subgroups within a population are represented in a similar
proportion in the sample. For example, if you were collecting information about students in Years 9–12 in your
school, the proportions of students in each year group should be the same in the sample and the population.
Within each subgroup, each member has the same chance of being selected.
A self-selected sample, that is, one where the participants choose to participate in the survey, is almost never
representative of the population. This means, for example, that television phone polls, where people phone in to
answer yes or no to a question, do not accurately reflect the opinion of the population.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4 Sample sizes
A survey is to be conducted in a middle school that has the distribution

Year Number of
detailed in the table below. It is believed that students in different year
level students
levels may respond differently, so the sample chosen should reflect the
7 174
subgroups in the population (that is, it should be a stratified random
8 123
sample). If a sample of 100 students is required, determine how many
from each year group should be selected. 9 147
Total population = 174 + 123 + 147 = 444

THINK WRITE
1. Find the total population size.
Number of Year 7s = × 100

174
2. Find the number of Year 7s to be surveyed.
= 39.2
444
Survey 39 Year 7s.

123
= 27.7
444
Survey 28 Year 8s.

147
= 33.1
444
Survey 33 Year 9s.

5. There has been some rounding, so check that Sample size = 39 + 28 + 33 = 100
the overall sample size is still 100. The sample should consist of 39 Year 7s, 28 Year 8s
and 33 Year 9s.
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Random samples (int-6443)
13.2 Exercise

Technology free
1. WE1 Ms Lane plans to begin her Statistics class each year by telling her students a joke. She tests her joke
on this year’s class (15 students). She plans to retire in 23 years’ time. Identify the population and sample
size.
2. Bruce is able to hem 100 shirts per day. Each day he checks 5 to make sure that they are suitable. Identify
the population and sample size.
3. WE2 On average, Mr Parker teaches 120 students per day. He asks one class of 30 about the amount of
homework they have that night. Identify the population and sample size.
4. Lee-Yin is trying to perfect a recipe for cake pops. She tries 5
different versions before she settles on her favourite. She takes
some samples to school and asks 9 friends what they think.
Identify the population and sample size.
5. You are trying out a new chocolate pudding recipe. You found 40
volunteers to taste test your new recipe compared to your normal
pudding. Half of the volunteers were given a serving the new
pudding first, then a serving of the old pudding. The other half
were given the old pudding first and then the new pudding. The
taste testers did not know the order of the puddings they were
trying. The results show that 31 people prefer the new pudding
recipe.
a. Calculate the population size.
b. Calculate the sample size.
6. You want to test a new flu vaccine on people with a history of chronic asthma. You begin with 500
volunteers and end up with 247 suitable people to test the vaccine.

7. WE3 Identify the following as either sample statistics or population parameters.

a. Studies have shown that between 85% and 95% of lung cancers are related to smoking.
b. About 50% of children aged between 9 and 15 years eat the recommended daily amount of fruit.
8. Identify the following as either sample statistics or population parameters.

a. According to the 2013 census, the ratio of male births per 100 female births is 106.3.
b. About 55% of boys and 40% of girls reported drinking at least 2 quantities of 500 ml of soft drink
every day.
9. In a recent survey, 1 in 5 students indicated that they ate potato crisps or other salty snacks at least four times
per week. State whether this is a sample statistic or a population parameter.
10. Around 25 to 30% of children aged 0 –15 years eat confectionary at least four
times a week. State whether this is a sample statistic or a population parameter.
11. According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics, almost a quarter (24%) of
internet users did not make an online purchase or order in 2012–13. The three
most commonly reported main reasons for not making an online purchase
or order were: ‘Has no need’ (33%); ‘Prefers to shop in person/see the
product’ (24%); and ‘Security concerns/concerned about providing credit card
details online’ (12%). State whether these are sample statistics or population
parameters.
12. According to the 2016 census, there is an average of 2.6 people per household. State whether this is a sample
statistic or a population parameter.
Technology active
13. Use CAS technology to produce a list of 10 random numbers between 1 and 100.
14. Use CAS technology to select a random sample from students in your Mathematical Methods class.
15. WE4 A school has 523 juniors and 621 seniors. You are interested in finding out about their attitudes to
sport and believe that juniors and seniors may respond differently. If a sample of 75 students is required,
determine how many juniors and how many seniors should be selected.
16. In a school, 23% of the students are boarders. For this survey, it is believed that boarders and day students
may respond differently. Calculate how many boarders and day students should be selected to select a
sample of 90 students.
17. A doctor is undertaking a study about sleeping habits. She
decides to ask every 10th patient about their sleeping habits.
a. Identify what type of sample this is.
b. Explain whether this is a valid sampling method.
18. A morning television show conducts a viewer phone-in poll and

announces that 95% of listeners believe that Australia should
become a republic. Comment on the validity of this type of
sample.
19. Tony took a survey by walking around the playground at lunch
and asking fellow students questions. Explain why this is not the
best sampling method.
20. A company has 1500 staff members, of whom 60% are under 50 years of age. 95% of the staff under 50 work
full time, and 78% of the staff over 50 work full time. If a sample of 80 staff is to be selected, identify the
numbers of full-time staff under 50, part-time staff under 50, full time staff over 50 and part-time staff over
50 who should be included in the sample.
13.2 Exam questions
MC In a school population census, it is found that 12% of students attending have no access to the internet at
home. The ‘12%’ represents the value of a ____________.

A. sample B. sample statistic C. sample parameter
D. population E. population parameter
MC To estimate the ratio of females to males at a tennis club, the coach determines the number of females and
males in a particular tennis lesson. The ratio that she then calculates is called a ____________.
A. sample B. sample statistic C. sample parameter
D. population E. population parameter
MC Select the true statement from the following.

A. Sample parameters are used to estimate population statistics.
B. Sample statistics are used to estimate population parameters.
C. Population parameters are used to estimate sample statistics.
D. Population statistics are used to estimate sample parameters.
E. Population proportion is an estimate called a point estimate.
13.3 The distribution of the sample proportion

LEARNING INTENTION
• determine the sample proportion, p̂

• create a sampling distribution table for P̂

• use the binomial distribution to calculate probabilities associated with the sampling distribution
• determine the mean and standard deviation of the sampling distribution.
13.3.1 The sample proportion p̂

eles-####
Let us say that we are interested in the following collection of balls. As you can see in
1
Figure 1, there are 20 balls and of them are red. This means that the population parameter,
4
1
p, is and the population size, N, is 20.
4
Normally we wouldn’t know the population parameter, so we would choose a sample from Figure 1
of 5, that is, n = 5.
the population and find the sample statistic. In this case, we are going to use a sample size
If our sample is the group shown in Figure 2, then as there is 1 red ball, the sample
proportion would be p̂ = .
1
5
Figure 2

A different sample could have a different sample proportion. In the case shown in
Figure 3, p̂ = .
2
In the case shown in Figure 4, p̂ = 0.

5
It would also be possible to have samples for which p̂ = , p̂ = or p̂ = 1, although

3 4 Figure 3
5 5
these samples are less likely to occur.
The sample proportion

p̂ =
number of successful outcomes in the sample Figure 4
sample size
It might seem that using a sample does not give a good estimate about the population. However, the larger the
sample size, the more likely that the sample proportions will be close to the population proportion.
WORKED EXAMPLE 5 The sample proportion
You are trying out a new chocolate tart recipe. You found 40
volunteers to taste test your new recipe compared to your
tart recipe. Calculate the sample proportion, p.̂

normal one. The results show that 31 people prefer the new
n = 40
THINK WRITE
1. There are 40 volunteers. This is the sample
Number of successes = 31
size.
2. 31 people prefer the new recipe.
p̂ =
31
3. Calculate the sample proportion.
40
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Distribution of P̂ (int-6444)
Revision of binomial distributions

In a set of binomial data, each member of the population can have one of two possible values. We define one
value as a success and the other value as a failure. (A success isn’t necessarily a good thing, it is simply the
name for the condition we are counting. For example, a success may be having a particular disease and a failure
may be not having the disease.)
Population proportion and sample proportion

The proportion of successes in a population is called p and is a constant value.
p=
number in the population with the favourable attribute
population size
The proportion of failures in a population is called q, where q = 1 − p.

The sample size is called n.
The number of successes in the sample is called x.
The proportion of successes in the sample, p,̂ will vary from one sample to another.
p̂ =
number in the sample with the favourable attribute
=
sample size
x
n
13.3.2 Sampling distribution of P̂

eles-####
Normally, you would take one sample from a population and make some inferences about the population from
that sample. In this section, we are going to explore what would happen if you took lots of samples of the same
size. (Assume you return each sample back to the population before selecting again.)
Consider our population of 20 balls (5 red and 15 blue). There are 20 C5 = 15 504 possible samples that could be
chosen. That is, there are 15 504 possible ways of choosing 5 balls from a population of 20 balls. A breakdown
of the different samples is shown in the table, where x is the number of red balls in the sample.
p̂
C0 15 C5 = 3003
x Number of samples Relative frequency
5
0 0 0.194
C1 15 C4 = 6825
1 5
1 0.440
5
C2 15 C3 = 4550
2 5
2 0.293
5
C3 15 C2 = 1050
3 5
3 0.068
5
C4 15 C1 = 75
4 5
4 0.005
C5 15 C0 = 1 6.450 × 10−5
5
5
5 1
Total number of samples 15 504
Graphing the distribution of p̂ against the relative frequency of p̂

Relative frequency
results in the following. 0.5
As the value of p,̂ the sample proportion, varies depending on

0.4
0.3
random variable, P.̂

the sample, these values can be considered as the values of the 0.2
0.1
0
0 1 2 3 4 1 p̂
– – – –
5 5 5 5

The graph of the distribution of P̂ can also be represented in a probability distribution table. This distribution is
called a sampling distribution.
x 0 1 2 3 4 5
p̂
1 2 3 4
0 1
Pr(X = x) = Pr(P̂ = p)̂ 6.450 × 10−5

5 5 5 5
0.194 0.440 0.293 0.068 0.005
Sampling where the population is large

It was mentioned earlier that larger samples give better estimates of the population.
Expected value
The sample proportion p̂ in a large sample conforms to P̂ =
X
. As the sample is from a large population, X can
n
be assumed to be a binomial variable.
∴ E(P)̂ = E
X
( )
n
= E(X)
1 1
( )
because is a constant
= × np
n n
1
=p
n
Variance and standard deviation

The variance and standard deviation can be found as follows.
Var(P)̂ = Var
X
( )
=
( )2
1
Var(X)
n
= × npq
1
n2
=
pq
p(1 − p)
n
=
n
p(1 − p)
∴ SD(P)̂ =
√
Expected value and standard deviation

For large samples, the distribution of P̂ has a mean or expected value of E P̂ = p and a standard
p(1 − p)
( )
̂
deviation of SD P =
√
.
( )
n
adopt for this section is that if np ≥ 10, nq ≥ 10 and 10n ≤ N, then the sample can be called large.
There are a number of different ways to decide if a sample is large. One generally accepted method that we will
Consider the distribution of P̂ when N = 1000, n = 50 and p = 0.25.
Relative frequency 0.14

0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0 p̂
0.02 0.06 0.10 0.14 0.18 0.22 0.26 0.30 0.34 0.38 0.42 0.46 1
And consider this distribution of P̂ when N = 1000, n = 50 and p = 0.5.
0.14
Relative frequency
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0 p̂
0.26 0.30 0.34 0.38 0.42 0.46 0.50 0.54 0.58 0.62 0.66 0.70 0.74 1
As these graphs show, the value of p doesn’t matter. The distribution of P̂ is symmetrical about p.
WORKED EXAMPLE 6 Sample size
Consider a population size of 1000 and a sample size of 50. If p = 0.1, state whether this would be a
large sample. If not, determine how big the sample would need to be.
1. Is 10n ≤ N? n = 50 and N = 1000

THINK WRITE
10n = 500
Therefore, 10n ≤ N.
2. Is np ≥ 10? p = 0.1
np = 0.1 × 50
=5
5✓≥ 10
The sample is not large.
np = 10
solving np = 10. 0.1n = 10
3. Find a value for n to make a large sample by
n = 100

10n = 10 × 100
= 1000
4. Check the other conditions.
=N
nq = 100 × 0.9
= 90
nq ≥ 10
A sample size of 100 would be needed for a large
sample.
WORKED EXAMPLE 7 Calculating probabilities involving sample proportions
̂ the random variable of the distribution of sample

There is a very large bag containing thousands of balls. 15% of the balls are known to be striped. A
̂
sample of 20 balls are selected from the bag.
( If P is
proportions of striped balls, calculate Pr P >
3
)
, correct to 4 decimal places.
20
n = 20, p = 0.15 X ~ Bi(20, 0.15)

THINK WRITE
1. A binomial distribution can be used to
approximate this sample distribution.
Pr P̂ > = Pr (X > 3)
3
( )
2. Rewrite the probability calculation.
= Pr (X ≥ 4)
20
3. Use the probability functions on your CAS = 0.3523

calculator to evaluate.
WORKED EXAMPLE 8 Mean and standard deviation

If N = 600, n = 60 and p = 0.3, determine:
a. the mean of the distribution
b. the standard deviation of the distribution, correct to 2 decimal places.
a. E P̂ = p
THINK WRITE
= 0.3
a. The mean is p
( )
p (1 − p)
b. SD P̂ =
√
b. 1. Write the rule for the standard deviation.
( )
n
0.3 × (1 − 0.3)
=
√
= 0.06
simplify. 60
Resources
Resourceseses
Interactivity Sampling distribution of P̂ (int-6445)
13.3 Exercise

Technology free
were counted. Calculate the sample proportion, p.̂

1. WE5 In a 99-gram bag of lollies, there were 6 green lollies out of the 15 that
2. Hang is interested in seedlings that can grow to more than 5 cm tall in the month
more than 5 cm tall after the month. Calculate the sample proportion, p.̂
of her study period. She begins with 20 seedlings and finds that 6 of them are
3. A car manufacturer has developed a new type of bumper that is supposed to

absorb impact and result in less damage than previous bumpers. The cars are
tested at 25 km/h. If 30 cars are tested and only 3 are damaged, calculate the
proportion of undamaged cars in the sample.
4. A standard warranty lasts for 1 year. It is possible to buy an extended warranty
for an additional 2 years. The insurer decides to use the sales figures from
Tuesday to estimate the proportion of extended warranties sold. If 537 units
were sold and 147 of them included extended warranties, estimate the
proportion of sales that will include extended warranties.
5. WE6 Consider a population size of 1000 and a sample size of 50. If p = 0.9, state whether this is a large
sample. If not, determine how big the sample would need to be.
6. If the population size was 10 000 and p = 0.05, determine what a large sample size would be.
7. If N = 1500, n = 150 and p = 0.15, use CAS technology to graph the distribution for P.̂
Technology active
8. A Year 12 Mathematical Methods class consists of 12 girls and 9 boys. A group of 4 students is to be
selected at random to represent the school at an inter-school Mathematics competition.
b. Determine the possible values of the sample proportion, p,̂ of girls.

a. Calculate the value of p, the proportion of girls in the class.
c. Use this information to construct a probability distribution table to represent the sampling distribution of
d. Determine Pr(P̂ > 0.6). That is, find the probability that the proportion of girls in the small group is
the sample proportion of girls in the small group. Give your answer correct to 3 decimal places.
e. Determine Pr(P̂ > 0.5 | P̂ > 0.3 ), correct to 3 decimal places.

greater than 0.6. Give your answer correct to 3 decimal places.
9. In a particular country town, the proportion of employment in the farming industry is 0.62. Five people aged
a. Determine the possible values of the sample proportion, p,̂ of workers in the farming industry.
15 years and older are selected at random from the town.
b. Use this information to construct a probability distribution table to represent the sampling distribution of
the sample proportion of workers in the farming industry. Give your answer correct to 3 decimal places.
c. Calculate the probability correct to 3 decimal places that the proportion of workers in the farming industry
in the sample is greater than 0.5.
A sample of 24 pens are selected from(the bag.)If P̂ is the random variable of the distribution of sample
10. WE7 There is a very large container containing thousands of pens. Of these, 25% are known to be blue.
proportions of blue pens, calculate Pr P̂ ≥

5
24
̂
11. There is a very large container containing several thousand coins. Of these, 40% are known to be gold. A
8 | ̂ 5
proportions of gold coins, calculate Pr P̂ ≥
sample of 25 coins are selected from the
( container. If P is)the random variable of the distribution of sample
|P≥
25 |
25
12. MC Four people are selected for a random sample. P̂ is the random variable that represents the proportion
If Pr(X = 4) = , then Pr(P̂ < 0.5), correct to 4 decimal places, is:

who have visited another country.
1
625
A. 0.2617 B. 0.9492 C. 0.7383 D. 0.0508 E. 0.3125
13. WE8 If N = 500, n = 50 and p = 0.5, determine:

14. If N = 1000, n = 100 and p = 0.8, determine:

15. If N = 1500, n = 150 and p = 0.15, calculate the mean and standard deviation for the distribution of P.̂ Give
your answers correct to 3 decimal places where appropriate.

16. MC If n = 1200 and p = 0.75, calculate the standard deviation for the distribution of P.̂
17. A distribution for P̂ has a mean of 0.12 and a standard deviation of 0.0285. Find the population proportion
A. 0.043 B. 0.012 C. 0.75 D. 0.25 E. 0.052
18. A distribution for P̂ has a mean of 0.81 and a standard deviation of 0.0253. Find the population proportion
and the sample size.
19. A distribution for P̂ has a standard deviation of 0.015. If the sample size was 510 and p > 0.5, calculate the
and the sample size.
20. A distribution for P̂ has a standard deviation of 0.0255. If the sample size was 350, calculate the population
population proportion, correct to 2 decimal places.
proportion, correct to 2 decimal places.
13.3 Exam questions

1
In a large population of fish, the proportion of angel fish is .
Let P̂ be the random variable that represents the sample proportion of angel fish for samples of size n drawn
4
from the population.
Find the smallest integer value of n such that the standard deviation of P̂ is less than or equal to
1
.
100

red. A sample of 16 blocks is taken from the container. For samples of 16 blocks, P̂ is the random variable of the
MC Inside a container there are one million coloured building blocks. It is known that 20% of the blocks are
distribution of sample proportions of red blocks. (Do not use a normal approximation.)
Pr P̂ ≥
3
( )
is closest to
16
A. 0.6482 B. 0.8593 C. 0.7543 D. 0.6542 E. 0.3211
For random samples of five Australians, P̂ is the random variable that represents the proportion who live in
a capital city. Given that Pr P̂ = 0 = , then Pr P̂ > 0.6 , correct to four decimal places, is
MC
( ) 1 ( )
243
A. 0.0453 B. 0.3209 C. 0.4609 D. 0.5390 E. 0.7901
13.4 Confidence intervals

LEARNING INTENTION
• calculate confidence intervals for various levels of confidence
• determine the margin of error
• calculate the sample size needed for a given type of confidence interval.
We have just learned that different samples can have different values for p.̂ So what can one sample tell us about
a population?
Let us say that you are interested in the proportion of the school who buy their lunch. You decide that your
class is a reasonable sample and find out that 25% of the class will buy their lunch today. What can you say
about the proportion of the whole school that will buy their lunch today? Assuming that your class is in fact a
representative sample, you may say that around 25% of the school will buy their lunch. Is it possible to be more
specific? By using confidence intervals, it is possible to say how confident you are that a population parameter
will lie in a particular interval.
13.4.1 Normal approximation to the distribution of P̂

of P̂ with a large sample size, they are normally
eles-####
p(1 − p)
We have learned that when we consider the distributions
distributed with 𝜇 = E P̂ = p and 𝜎 = SD P̂ =
√
. As we don’t know the exact value for p, the best
( ) ( )
̂ − p)̂
n
estimate is p.̂ This means that the best estimate of the standard deviation is
√
p(1
.
x−𝜇
n
We know that for normal distributions, z =
𝜎
p̂ ± p
. This means that, to find the upper and lower values of z, we
can use z = . Rearranging gives us p = p̂ ± z𝜎P̂ .

𝜎P̂

Confidence interval for P
̂ − p)̂
An approximate confidence interval for a population proportion is
given by (p̂ − z𝜎P̂ , p̂ + z𝜎P̂ ), where 𝜎P̂ =

p(1
√
.
n
A 95% confidence interval means that 95% of the distribution is

in the middle area of the distribution. This means that the tails 0.95
combined contain 5% of the distribution (2.5% on each end). The
z-score for this distribution is 1.96.
̂ − p)̂ ̂ − p)̂
The
( confidence interval for this distribution)can be expressed as 0.025 0.025
p̂ − 1.96 , p̂ + 1.96
√ √
p(1 p(1
.
n n –1.96σp̂ 1.96σp̂
p
WORKED EXAMPLE 9 Confidence intervals

There are 20 people in your class and 25% are planning on
buying their lunch. Estimate the proportion of the school
a 95% confidence interval for your estimate, given z = 1.96.

population who will purchase their lunch today. Calculate
Give your answer correct to 4 decimal places.
n = 20
THINK WRITE
p̂ = 0.25
1. There are 20 people in the class. This is the
sample size.
25% are buying their lunch. This is the sample
2. For a 95% confidence interval, z = 1.96. z = 1.96

proportion.
̂ − p)̂
z𝜎P̂ = z
√
p(1
̂ − p)̂ ̂ − p)̂
3. The confidence interval is
p̂ − z , p̂ + z . 0.25 × 0.75
√n
= 1.96
( √ √ )
p(1 p(1
n n
= 0.1898
20
Find z𝜎P̂ .
p̂ − z𝜎P̂ = 0.25 − 0.1898

= 0.0602
4. Identify the 95% confidence interval by finding
p̂ + z𝜎P̂ = 0.25 + 0.1898

the upper and lower values.
= 0.4398
CAS technology can also be used.
5. Write the answer. The confidence interval is (0.0602, 0.4398).

1. On a Calculator page, press 1. On a Statistics screen,
6: Statistics • Calc
6: Confidence intervals • Interval
5: 1-Prop z Interval Select the type as Interval,
Complete the fields as: then select One-Prop Z
Successes, x∶ 5 Int from the drop-down
n∶ 20 menus. Select Next.
C Level: 0.95 Complete the fields as:
Note: The value x = 5

then Select OK. C-Level: 0.95
x∶ 5
represents the sample size, n∶ 20
Note: The value x = 5

which is 25% of the class of then select Next.
20 students.
represents the sample size,
which is 25% of the class
of 20 students.
2. The answer appears on the The confidence interval is 2. The answer appears on the The confidence interval is
screen. (0.0602, 0.4398). screen. (0.0602, 0.4398).
WORKED EXAMPLE 10 Determining sample size
Grow Well are 95% sure that 30% to 40% of shoppers prefer their mulch. Determine the sample size
that was needed for this confidence interval.
30 + 40
THINK WRITE
p̂ =
̂ (p̂ − z𝜎P̂ , p̂ + z𝜎P̂ ), so the value of p̂ must be
1. The confidence interval is symmetric about
= 35%
p∶ 2
= 0.35
halfway between the upper and lower values of
z = 1.96
the confidence interval.
2. State the z-score related to the 95% confidence
interval.

0.3 = p̂ − z𝜎p̂
30%, is equivalent to p̂ − z𝜎P̂ . Substitute the ̂ − p)̂
3. The lower value of the confidence interval,
= p̂ − z
√
p(1
Note: The equation 0.4 = p̂ + z𝜎P̂ could also have 0.35(1 − 0.35)
appropriate values. n√
been used. = 0.35 − 1.96
n = 349.586
n
4. Solve for n.
5. Write the answer. The sample size needed was 350 people.
13.4.2 Other confidence intervals

eles-####
1 − 𝛼 confidence interval. In this case, the tails combined will have

To find other confidence intervals, we can talk in general about a
𝛼
an area of 𝛼 (or each tail). In this case, the z-score that has a tail
1–α
𝛼
2
area of is used. α
– α
–
2 2 2
z–ασP̂ p z–ασP̂
2 2
WORKED EXAMPLE 11 Other confidence intervals

Paul samples 102 people and finds that 18 of them like drinking
coconut milk. Estimate the proportion of the population that
likes drinking coconut milk. Calculate a 99% confidence interval
for your estimate, correct to 3 decimal places.
THINK WRITE
n = 102
p̂ =
1. There are 102 people in the sample.
This is the sample size. 18
=
18 like drinking coconut milk. 102
3
17
2. For a 99% confidence interval, find the For the 99% confidence interval, 1% will be in the
z-score using the inverse standard normal tails, so 0.5% in each tail. Therefore, the area under
z = 2.58
distribution. the normal distribution curve to the left of z is 0.995.
̂ − p)̂
z𝜎P̂ = z
√
p(1
(p̂ − z𝜎P̂ , p̂ + z𝜎P̂ ).
3. The confidence interval is
× 0.82
√n
= 2.58
Find z𝜎P̂ . 3
17
= 0.097
102
p̂ − z𝜎P̂ = − 0.097
3
4. Identify the 99% confidence interval
= 0.079
by finding the upper and lower values, 17
p̂ + z𝜎P̂ = + 0.097
3
= 0.273
17
5. Write the answer. The confidence interval is (0.079, 0.273).
Margin of error
The distance between the endpoints of the confidence interval and the sample estimate is called the margin of
error, M.
Worked example 10 considered a 95% confidence interval, (p̂ − 1.96𝜎P̂ , p̂ + 1.96𝜎P̂ ). In this case the margin of
error would be M = 1.96𝜎P̂ .
Margin of error
̂ − p)̂
For a 95% level of confidence, M = 1.96
p(1
√
.
n
Note that the larger the sample size, the smaller the value of M will be. This means that one way to reduce the
size of a confidence interval without changing the level of confidence is to increase the sample size.
13.4 Exercise

Technology active
1. WE9 Of 30 people surveyed, 78% said that they like breakfast in bed. Estimate the proportion of the
population who like breakfast in bed. Calculate a 95% confidence interval for the estimate. Give your answer
2. Of the 53 people at swimming training today, 82% said that
their favourite stroke is freestyle. Estimate the proportion of the
population whose favourite stroke is freestyle. Calculate a 95%
confidence interval for your estimate, correct to 2 decimal places.
3. WE11 Jenny samples 116 people and finds that 86% of them
plan to go swimming over the summer holidays. Estimate the

proportion of the population who plan to go swimming over the
summer holidays. Calculate a 99% confidence interval for your
estimate, correct to 2 decimal places.

4. Yuki samples 95 people and finds that 30% of them eat chocolate daily. Estimate the proportion of the
population who eat chocolate daily. Determine, correct to 2 decimal places, a 90% confidence interval for
your estimate.
The following information relates to question 5 and 6.
Teleco is being criticised for its slow response time when handling complaints. The company claims that it will
respond within 1 day. Of the 3760 complaints in a given week, a random sample of 250 was selected. Of these, it
was found that 20 of them had not been responded to within 1 day.
5. MC The 95% confidence interval for the proportion of claims that take more than 1 day to resolve is:
A. (0.04, 0.11) B. (0.04, 0.12) C. (0.06, 0.13)
D. (0.05, 0.11) E. (0.03, 0.12)
6. Calculate the 99% confidence interval for the proportion of claims that take less than 1 day to resolve. Give
your answer correct to 3 decimal places.
7. A sample of 250 blood donors have their blood types recorded.
Of this sample, 92 have Type A blood. Calculate the 90%
confidence interval for the proportion of Australians who have
Type A blood. Give your answer correct to 3 decimal places.
8. It is believed that 65% of people have brown hair. A random
selection of 250 people were asked the colour of their hair.
Applying the normal approximation, calculate, correct to
4 decimal places the probability that less than 60% of the people
in the sample have brown hair.
9. Nidya is a top goal shooter. The probability of her getting a goal is 0.8. To keep her skills up, each night
she has 200 shots on goal. Applying the normal approximation, calculate the probability that on Monday
the proportion of times she scores a goal is between 0.8 and 0.9, given that it is more than 0.65. Give your
10. If Parkers want to be 90% confident that between 75% and 85%
of their customers will shop in their store for more than 2 hours,
calculate the sample size that will be needed.
11. WE10 MC In a country town, the 95% confidence interval for
the number of customers that love the homemade apple pie at

Edie’s Eatery is (0.35, 0.45). Determine the sample size that was
needed for this level of confidence.
A. 8 B. 321 C. 369 D. 92 E. 5
12. The 95% confidence interval for the proportion of shoppers that prefer a particular pen at Smooth Writing is
(0.25, 0.35). Calculate the sample size that was needed for this level of confidence.
13. The 99% confidence interval for the proportion of students that prefer to use a particular online company is
(0.20, 0.30). Calculate the sample size that was needed for this level of confidence.
14. Teleco want to be 95% sure that less than 5% of their complaints take more than 1 day to resolve. Calculate
the sample proportion and the size of the sample they need to support this claim.
15. Barton’s Dentistry want to be able to claim that 90% to 98% of people floss daily. They would like 99%
confidence about their claim. Calculate how many people they need to survey.
16. Tatiana is conducting a survey to estimate the proportion of Year 12 students who will take a gap year after
they complete their VCE. Previous surveys have shown the proportion to be approximately 15%. Determine
the required size of the sample so that the margin of error for the survey is 3% in a confidence interval of
approximately 95% for this proportion.
17. Bentons claim that between 85% and 95% of their customers stay for more than 2 hours when they shop. If
they surveyed 100 people, determine how confident they are about that claim.
18. The Hawthorn Football Club claim that between 75% and 80% of their members remain members for at least
10 years. If they surveyed 250 people, determine how confident they are about that claim. Give your answer
to the nearest whole number.
13.4 Exam questions

A box contains many coloured glass beads.
A random sample of 48 beads is selected and it is found that the proportion of blue-coloured beads in this
sample is 0.125.
Based on this sample, a 95% confidence interval for the proportion of blue-coloured glass beads is
A. (0.0314, 0.2186) B. (0.0465, 0.2035) C. (0.0018, 0.2482)
D. (0.0896, 0.1604) E. (0.0264, 0.2136)

Source: VCE 2017, Mathematical Methods Exam 2, Section A, Q5
MC The 95% confidence interval for the proportion of ferry tickets that are cancelled on the intended departure
day is calculated from a large sample to be (0.039, 0.121).
The sample proportion from which this interval was constructed is
A. 0.080 B. 0.041 C. 0.100 D. 0.062 E. 0.059
MC From a survey, 747 out of 1168 Year 12 students said they had obtained their learner’s permit. The 99%
confidence interval for Year 12 students have obtained their learner’s permit is
A. (0.598, 0.682) B. (0.612, 0.668) C. (0.626, 0.654) D. (0.630, 0.650) E. (0.604, 0.676)

13.5 Review
13.5.1 Summary
docx-####
Access the Review your Watch teacher-led Practise past VCAA
13.5 Exercise


1. James has heard that 1 in 10 people have been to Alice Springs. He
goes to the local supermarket and asks every 10th person if they
have been to Alice Springs. He expects that they will all say yes.
Describe you would expect.
2. A school has 1100 students, 600 of whom play sport regularly. A
random sample of 100 students was chosen, and 70 of those were
found to play sport.
b. Calculate the value of the sample proportion, p.̂

a. Calculate the population and sample sizes.
c. Calculate the value of the population parameter, p.
3. Natasha believes that she has a biased coin. She tosses the coin 10 000 times and records 5100 Heads.
a. Calculate the sample size.
b. Calculate the population size.
c. Calculate the sample proportion of Heads.
d. Write an expression for the 95% confidence interval for the likelihood of tossing a Head with this coin.
4. On a particular Friday night, 52 000 people attended the MCG
to watch the AFL. Every 25th person entering the stadium was
asked who they thought would win. Out of the people asked, 1600
people believed that the Hawks would win.
c. Determine p.̂
5. Green High has 132 staff members. Every year, the school offers free flu shots to its staff. This year, 120
people decided to have the shot and 12 of them had a sore arm afterwards.
a. Calculate the value of the sample proportion.
b. Write an expression for the 95% confidence interval for the likelihood of getting a sore arm.
c. Write an expression for the margin of error, M, for the 95% confidence interval.
d. If only 60 people had decided to have the flu shot, determine the effect on the margin of error.
6. In a recent voter survey, an approximate 90% confidence interval for the proportion of people who will vote
a. Calculate the value of p̂ for this confidence interval.

for a republic was (0.62, 0.78).
b. Calculate the value of the margin of error.

7. MC Johansen Enterprises operates for 15 hours per day. It is capable of producing 3000 items per hour.
From each hour’s output, 10 items are chosen for inspection so that the machinery can be adjusted if
A. N = 3000, n = 10 B. N = 3000, n = 15
necessary. Identify which of the following is correct.
C. N = 3000, n = 150 D. N = 45000, n = 10

E. N = 45000, n = 150
8. MC Identify which of the following are population parameters.

I. According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics, the unemployment rate is 6.4%.
II. According to the 2011 census, on average there are 1.7 motor vehicles per dwelling.
III. According to a poll in the newspaper The Age, 54% of Australians will vote Liberal at the next election.
A. I B. II
C. I and II D. II and III
E. I and III
9. MC Susan Storm has 350 regular customers. She wants to survey them. She lists the clients in alphabetical
order and then assigns each one a customer number. She then uses a random number generator to select 15
customers to survey. This is an example of:
A. a systematic sample B. a self-selected sample
C. a biased sample D. a stratified random sample
State which of the following could be a distribution for P̂ for large samples.
E. a random sample
10. MC
A.
0.50
0.45
Relative frequency
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 p̂

B.
Relative frequency
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0
0 0.08 0.16 0.24 0.32 0.4 0.48 0.56 0.64 0.72 0.80 0.88 0.96 1 p̂
C.
Relative frequency
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0
0 0.08 0.16 0.24 0.32 0.4 0.48 0.56 0.64 0.72 0.80 0.88 0.96 1 p̂
D.
Relative frequency
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0
0 0.08 0.16 0.24 0.32 0.4 0.48 0.56 0.64 0.72 0.80 0.88 0.96 1 p̂
E. None of the above
MC If the population parameter is believed to be p = 0.37 and samples of size 120 are chosen, the standard
deviation of P̂ is:
11.
MC Five people are selected for a random sample. P̂ is the random variable that represents the proportion
A. 5.29 B. 0.37 C. 0.002 D. 0.044 E. 0.24
12.
If Pr(P̂ = 0) = , then Pr(P̂ ≥ 0.8), correct to 4 decimal places, is:

who have earned their driver’s licence.
1
1024
A. 0.3672 B. 0.0156 C. 0.3955 D. 0.6328 E. 0.9990
13. MC Kei finds a 95% confidence interval. Select the correct statement from the following.
A. There is a 95% chance that the population parameter lies in the interval.
B. 95% of the time, the population parameter is the centre of the interval.
C. In 95% of the samples, the population parameter lies in the interval.
D. 95% of the sample estimates lie within the interval.
E. None of the above
14. MC Of 150 people surveyed, 36% said that their favourite colour was blue. A 99% confidence interval for
the proportion of the population whose favourite colour is blue is:

A. (0.3, 0.42) B. (0.28, 0.44) C. (0.32, 0.40) D. (0.26, 0.46) E. (0.20, 0.52)
15. MC The Melbourne Vixens claim that between 60% and 70% of their supporters attend at least half of their
B. 65 %
netball games each year. If 200 people were surveyed, determine how confident can they be about that claim.
A. 1.48% C. 95% D. 52% E. 86%
16. MC The 95% confidence interval for the proportion of students who prefer to use a textbook company’s
resources is (0.65, 0.75). The sample size needed for this level of confidence is:
A. 323 B. 560 C. 81 D. 226 E. 292

17. Every year, thousands of tourists drive the Great Ocean
Road. In a recent survey of 50 people, 87% listed seeing the
Twelve Apostles as the highlight of their drive. Calculate the
proportion of drivers who would rate the Twelve Apostles
as the highlight of their drive. Give your answer with a 90%
confidence level, correct to 2 decimal places,
18. There is a very large room containing several thousand
selected from the bag. If P̂ is the random variable of the

balls. Of these, 30% are yellow. A sample of 12 balls are
|
Pr P̂ ≥ | P̂ ≥
distribution of sample) proportions of yellow balls, calculate
12 |
5 1
(
4
19. The lower limit of a 95% confidence interval is 13%. If 100 people were surveyed, calculate the sample
proportion, correct to 2 decimal places.
20. Breanna, Kayley and Teagan spent the day collecting survey results from the same population. They each
surveyed 100 people. Breanna found that 23% of people said Yes, Kayley found that 20% of people said Yes,
and Teagan found that 19% of people said Yes. They want to obtain an estimate for the population parameter
at a 95% confidence interval. Breanna says they should each work out a confidence interval and then average
them out to give the population parameter. Kayley says that they should combine their data into one sample
and determine the population parameter using that parameter. Teagan says that it doesn’t matter, because
they will get the same results either way.
Identify which method is better and explain why.
13.5 Exam questions

Fred owns a company that produces thousands of pegs each day. He randomly selects 41 pegs that are produced
on one day and finds eight faulty pegs.
b. Pegs are packed each day in boxes. Each box holds 12 pegs. Let P̂ be the random variable that represents
a. What is the proportion of faulty pegs in this sample? (1 mark)
the proportion of faulty pegs in a box.

1
The actual proportion of faulty pegs produced by the company each day is .
Find Pr P < ̂
6
1
( )
n
. Express your answer in the form a (b) , where a and b are positive rational numbers
6
and n is a positive integer. (2 marks)
3
For a certain species of bird, the proportion of birds with a crest is known to be .
Let P̂ be the random variable representing the proportion of birds with a crest in samples of size n for this
5
specific bird.
The smallest sample size for which the standard deviation of P̂ is less than 0.08 is
A. 7 B. 27 C. 37 D. 38 E. 43


A school has a class set of 22 new laptops kept in a recharging trolley. Provided each laptop is correctly plugged
into the trolley after use, its battery recharges.
On a particular day, a class of 22 students uses the laptops. All laptop batteries are fully charged at the start of
the lesson. Each student uses and returns exactly one laptop. The probability that a student does not correctly
plug their laptop into the trolley at the end of the lesson is 10%. The correctness of any student’s plugging-in is
independent of any other student’s correctness.
a. Determine the probability that at least one of the laptops is not correctly plugged into the trolley at the end
of the lesson. Give your answer correct to four decimal places. (2 marks)
b. A teacher observes that at least one of the returned laptops is not correctly plugged into the trolley.
Given this, find the probability that fewer than five laptops are not correctly plugged in. Give your answer
correct to four decimal places. (2 marks)
c. The time for which a laptop will work without recharging (the battery life) is normally distributed, with
a mean of three hours and 10 minutes and standard deviation of six minutes. Suppose that the laptops
remain out of the recharging trolley for three hours.
For any one laptop, find the probability that it will stop working by the end of these three hours. Give your
answer correct to four decimal places. (2 marks)
d. A supplier of laptops decides to take a sample of 100 new laptops from a number of different schools. For
and standard deviation of six minutes, P̂ is the random variable of the distribution of sample proportions
samples of size 100 from the population of laptops with a mean battery life of three hours and 10 minutes
Find the probability that Pr(P̂ ≥ 0.06 | P̂ ≥ 0.05). Give your answer correct to three decimal places. Do not
of laptops with a battery life of less than three hours.
use a normal approximation. (3 marks)

e. It is known that when laptops have been used regularly in a school for six months, their battery life is still
normally distributed but the mean battery life drops to three hours. It is also known that only 12% of such
laptops work for more than three hours and 10 minutes.
Find the standard deviation for the normal distribution that applies to the battery life of laptops that have
been used regularly in a school for six months, correct to four decimal places. (2 marks)
f. The laptop supplier collects a sample of 100 laptops that have been used for six months from a number of
different schools and tests their battery life. The laptop supplier wishes to estimate the proportion of such
laptops with a battery life of less than three hours.
Suppose the supplier tests the battery life of the laptops one at a time.
Find the probability that the first laptop found to have a battery life of less than three hours is the third
one. (1 mark)
g. The laptop supplier finds that, in a particular sample of 100 laptops, six of them have a battery life of less
than three hours.
Determine the 95% confidence interval for the supplier’s estimate of the proportion of interest. Give values
correct to two decimal places. (1 mark)
h. The supplier also provides laptops to businesses. The probability density function for battery life, x
(in minutes), of a laptop after six months of use in a business is
x −210
⎧ (210 − x)e
f(x) = 0 ≤ x ≤ 210
⎨
20
⎩ 0
400
elsewhere
Find the mean battery life, in minutes, of a laptop with six months of business use, correct to two decimal
places. (1 mark)

The Lorenz birdwing is the largest butterfly in Town A.
The probability density function that describes its life span, X, in weeks, is given by
(5x3 − x4 ) 0≤x≤5
f(x) = { 625
4
0 elsewhere
a. Find the mean life span of the Lorenz birdwing butterfly. (2 marks)
b. In a sample of 80 Lorenz birdwing butterflies, how many butterflies are expected to live longer than two
weeks, correct to the nearest integer? (2 marks)
c. What is the probability that a Lorenz birdwing butterfly lives for at least four weeks, given that it lives for
at least two weeks, correct to four decimal places? (2 marks)
d. The wingspans of Lorenz birdwing butterflies in Town A are normally distributed with a mean of 14.1 cm
and a standard deviation of 2.1 cm.
Find the probability that a randomly selected Lorenz birdwing butterfly in Town A has a wingspan
between 16 cm and 18 cm, correct to four decimal places. (1 mark)
e. A Lorenz birdwing butterfly is considered to be very small if its wingspan is in the smallest 5% of all the
Lorenz birdwing butterflies in Town A.
Find the greatest possible wingspan, in centimetres, for a very small Lorenz birdwing butterfly in Town
A, correct to one decimal place. (1 mark)
f. Each year, a detailed study is conducted on a random sample of 36 Lorenz birdwing butterflies in Town
A. A Lorenz birdwing butterfly is considered to be very large if its wingspan is greater than 17.5 cm.
The probability that the wingspan of any Lorenz birdwing butterfly in Town A is greater than 17.5 cm is
0.0527, correct to four decimal places.
i. Find the probability that three or more of the butterflies, in a random sample of 36 Lorenz birdwing
butterflies from Town A, are very large, correct to four decimal places. (1 mark)
ii. The probability that n or more butterflies, in a random sample of 36 Lorenz birdwing butterflies from
Town A, are very large is less than 1%.
iii. For random samples of 36 Lorenz birdwing butterflies in Town A, P̂ is the random variable that
Find the smallest value of n, where n is an integer. (2 marks)
Find the expected value and the standard deviation of P,̂ correct to four decimal places.
represents the proportion of butterflies that are very large.
(2 marks)
iv. What is the probability that a sample proportion of butterflies that are very large lies within one
standard deviation of 0.0527, correct to four decimal places? Do not use a normal
approximation. (2 marks)
g. The Lorenz birdwing butterfly also lives in Town B.
In a particular sample of Lorenz birdwing butterflies from Town B, an approximate 95% confidence
interval for the proportion of butterflies that are very large was calculated to be (0.0234, 0.0866), correct
to four decimal places.
Determine the sample size used in the calculation of this confidence interval. (2 marks)
Doctors are studying the resting heart rate of adults in two neighbouring towns: Mathsland and Statsville.
Resting heart rate is measured in beats per minute (bpm).
The resting heart rate of adults in Mathsland is known to be normally distributed with a mean of 68 bpm and a
standard deviation of 8 bpm.

a. Find the probability that a randomly selected Mathsland adult has a resting heart rate between 60 bpm and
90 bpm. Give your answer correct to three decimal places. (1 mark)
b. The doctors consider a person to have a slow heart rate if the person’s resting heart rate is less than
60 bpm. The probability that a randomly chosen Mathsland adult has a slow heart rate is 0.1587.
It is known that 29% of Mathsland adults play sport regularly.
It is also known that 9% of Mathsland adults play sport regularly and have a slow heart rate.
Let S be the event that a randomly selected Mathsland adult plays sport regularly and let H be the event
that a randomly selected Mathsland adult has a slow heart rate.
i. Find Pr H|S , correct to three decimal places. (1 mark)
( )
ii. Are the events H and S independent? Justify your answer. (1 mark)
c. i. Find the probability that a random sample of 16 Mathsland adults will contain exactly one person with
ii. For random samples of 16 Mathsland adults, P̂ is the random variable that represents the proportion of
a slow heart rate. Give your answer correct to three decimal places.
Find the probability that P̂ is greater than 10%, correct to three decimal places.
people who have a slow heart rate.
iii. For random samples of n Mathsland adults, P̂ n is the random variable that represents the proportion of
(2 marks)
Find the least value of n for which Pr P̂ n >

people who have a slow heart rate.
> 0.99.
1
( )
(2 marks)
n
d. The doctors took a large random sample of adults from the population of Statsville and calculated an
approximate 95% confidence interval for the proportion of Statsville adults who have a slow heart rate.
The confidence interval they obtained was (0.102, 0.145).
i. Determine the sample proportion used in the calculation of this confidence interval. (1 mark)
ii. Explain why this confidence interval suggests that the proportion of adults with a slow heart rate in
Statsville could be different from the proportion in Mathsland. (1 mark)
e. Every year at Mathsland Secondary College, students hike to the top of a hill that rises behind the school.
The time taken by a randomly selected student to reach the top of the hill has the probability density
function M with the rule
⎧ −
t≥0
⎪ 50 50 e 50
( )2 ( t )3
3 t
M(t) =
⎨
⎪ t<0
⎩
0
where t is given in minutes.

Find the expected time, in minutes for a randomly selected student from Mathsland Secondary College to
reach the top of the hill. Give your answer correct to one decimal place. (2 marks)
f. Students who take less than 15 minutes to get to the top of the hill are categorised as ‘elite’.
Find the probability that a randomly selected student from Mathsland Secondary College is categorised as
elite. Give your answer correct to four decimal places. (1 mark)
1
g. The Year 12 students at Mathsland Secondary College make up of the total number of students at the
7
school. Of the Year 12 students at Mathsland Secondary College, 5% are categorised as elite.
Find the probability that a randomly selected non-Year-12 student at Mathsland Secondary College is
categorised as elite. Give your answer correct to four decimal places. (2 marks)



Answers 13.2 Exam questions

1. E
Topic 13 Statistical inference 2. B
3. B
13.2 Population parameters and
sample statistics
13.3 The distribution of the sample proportion
13.2 Exercise
n = 15, population size is unknown.
13.3 Exercise
N = 100, n = 5 p̂ =
1. 2
1.
N = 120, n = 30
2. 5
p̂ =
n = 9, population size is unknown.
3. 3
2.
4. 10
p̂ =
b. n = 40
5. a. The population size is unknown. 9
3.
10
p̂ =
6. a. The population is people who will receive the vaccine in 147
b. n = 247
the future. The size is unknown. 4.
This is not a large sample; n = 100 + would be a large

537
5.
n = 200
7. a. Population parameter sample.
b. Sample statistic 6.
8. a. Population parameter 7. See the graph at the bottom of the page.*
a. p =
b. Sample statistic 4
8.
9. Sample statistic 7
b. 0, , , , 1
10. Population parameter 1 1 3
11. Sample statistics 4 2 4
p̂
c.
12. Population parameter 1 1 3
0 1
Pr(P̂ = p)̂
13. Use the random number generator on your calculator to 4 2 4
produce numbers from 1 to 100. Keep generating numbers 0.021 0.168 0.397 0.331 0.083
until you have 10 different numbers.
14. First, assign every person in your class a number, e.g. 1 to 0.414
d.
0.510
9. a. 0, , , , , 1
25 if there are 25 students in your class. Decide how many e.
students will be in your sample, e.g. 5. Then use the random 1 2 3 4
number generator on your calculator to produce numbers 5 5 5 5
p̂
from 1 to 25. Keep generating numbers until you have 5 b.
1 2 3 4
different numbers. The students that were assigned these 0 1
Pr(P̂ = p)̂
numbers are the 5 students in your random sample. 5 5 5 5
15. 34 juniors and 41 seniors 0.008 0.064 0.211 0.344 0.281 0.092
a. A systematic sample with k = 10

16. 21 boarders, 69 day students c. 0.717
17. 10. 0.7534
b. Yes, assuming that the order of patients is random 11. 0.8545
a. E P̂ = 0.5 b. SD P̂ = 0.07
18. The sample is not random; therefore, the results are not 12. C
likely to be random.
a. E P̂ = 0.8 b. SD P̂ = 0.04
( ) ( )
13.
19. It is probably not random. Tony is likely to ask people who
E P̂ = 0.15, SD P̂ = 0.029
( ) ( )
he knows or people who approach him. 14.
( ) ( )
20. Full-time staff under 50: 46 15.
p = 0.12, n = 130
Part-time staff under 50: 2 16. A
Full-time staff over 50: 25
p = 0.81, n = 240
17.
Part-time staff over 50: 7
18.
*7.
Relative frequency
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0 p̂
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 1
p = 0.87
M = 1.96
20. p = 0.35 or p = 0.65
√
19. 0.09
c.
120
√
M would increase by a factor of
d. 2.
13.3 Exam questions
6. a. 0.7 b. 0.08
1. C 2. A 3. 1875
13.4 Confidence intervals
7. A 8. B 9. E 10. B 11. D
13.4 Exercise 12. D 13. C 14. D 15. E 16. A
1. (0.63, 0.93)
2. (0.72, 0.92) Technology active: extended response
3. (0.78, 0.94) 17. (0.79, 0.95)
4. (0.22, 0.38) 18. 0.3698
5. D 19. 0.21
6. (0.876, 0.964) 20. Breanna’s method:
7. (0.318, 0.418) Breanna: (0.1475, 0.3125); Kayley: (0.1216, 0.2784);
Teagan: (0.1131, 0.2669)
8. 0.0487
Kayley’s method: X = 62, n = 300
Average: (0.1274, 0.2859)
n = 173
9. 0.4998
10. Confidence interval: (0.1608, 0.2525)
n = 323
11. C Kayley’s method is better. Because they actually sampled
n = 498
12. 300 people, this should be the sample size. Because a larger
sample size is more likely to have similar proportions to the
p̂ = 2.5%, n = 150
13.
population, the confidence interval can be smaller.
n = 235
14.
15. 13.5 Exam questions
16. 544 people 8
(
17
) ( )11
5
17. 90% sure 1. a. b.
41 6 6
18. 66%
2. D
13.4 Exam questions 3. a. 0.9015 b. 0.9311
c. 0.0478 d. 0.658
1. A 2. A 3. E 1
e. 8.5107 f.
8
13.5 Review
g. (0.01, 0.11) h. 170.01
13.5 Exercise 1
4. a. 3 weeks
Technology free: short answer 3
1. Sample responses can be found in the worked solutions in the b. 73
a. Population = 1100, sample size = 100

online resources. c. 0.2878
2. d. 0.1512
b. 0.7 e. 10.6
6 f. i. 0.2947 ii. 7
c.
11 iii. 0.0372 iv. 0.7380
3. a. 10 000 200
g.
b. The population size (how many times in total the coin will 5. a. 0.838
be tossed) is unknown b. i. 0.310 ii. Not independent
0.51 × 0.49
c. 0.51 c. i. 0.190 ii. 0.747 iii. 39
d. 0.51 ± 1.96
p(Mathsland) = 0.1587 is not contained within the
√
d. i.0.1235
10 000 ii.
10 confidence interval for Statsville, which suggests that
4. a. 52 000 b. 2080 c.
13 the proportions between the two towns differ.
1 e. 44.6 min
5. a.
10 f. 0.0266
b. 0.1 ± 1.96
0.09 g. 0.0227
√
120

2023 Jacaranda Units 3 4

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

2023 Jacaranda Units 3 4

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

2023 Jacaranda Units 3 4

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

“c01FunctionsAndGraphs_PrintPDF” — 2022/6/30 — 15:13 — page 1 — #1

1 Functions and graphs

Fully worked solutions for this topic are available online.

Find all this and MORE in jacPLUS

• graphs of the following functions: power functions, y = xn , n ∈ Q; exponential functions, y = ax , a ∈ R+ ,

1.2 Linear functions

mapping; this is dependent on the function rule.

notation for the straight line y = 2x is f ∶ R → R, f (x) = 2x.

WORKED EXAMPLE 1 Recognising functions

Part of the graph of the parabola y = x2 is shown in the diagram. y

d. Calculate the value of y when x = − 2.

TOPIC 1 Functions and graphs 3

1.2.2 The linear polynomial function

perpendicular lines is equal to −1. That is:

m1 = m2 for parallel lines

WORKED EXAMPLE 2 Sketching a linear graph

Consider the line L where L = {(x, y) ∶ 2x + 3y = 12}.

b. Rearrange the equation in the form y = mx + c b. 2x + 3y = 12

WORKED EXAMPLE 3 Determining linear equations

Determine the equation, in the form ax + by + c = 0, for the line:

a. 1. Convert the equation into the form y = mx + c a. y − 3x + 5 = 0

TOPIC 1 Functions and graphs 5

2. State the gradient–point form of a straight y − y1 = m (x − x1 )

b. 1. Convert the equation into the form y = mx + c b. 2y + 4x = −10

3. State the gradient–point form of a straight y − y1 = m (x − x1 )

WORKED EXAMPLE 4 Gradients and linear equations

3. Calculate 𝜃, correct to 1 decimal place. 𝜃 = tan−1

2. State the gradient–point form of a straight y − y1 = m (x − x1 )

1.2.3 Midpoint and distance between two points

Midpoint between two points A

Distance between two points

y2 − y1 and horizontal length x2 − x1 . Applying Pythagoras’ theorem, the

formula for the distance between two points is as follows. y2 – y1

TOPIC 1 Functions and graphs 7

Given the points (−3, 5) and (4, − 6), calculate:

d= (4 + 3)2 + (−6 − 5)2

Students, these questions are even better in jacPLUS

Find all this and MORE in jacPLUS

1. WE1 Part of the graph of the parabola y = x2 is shown in the diagram.

d. Calculate the value of y when x = −2

2. For each of the following, state:

3. WE2 Consider the line L where L = {(x, y) ∶ 3x − 4y = 12} .

a. f ∶ R → R, f (x) = 9 − 4x b. g ∶ (−3, 5] → R, g(x) =

a. with a gradient of −3 and passing through the point (2, 6)

b. passing through the points (−2, −4) and (1, 5).

TOPIC 1 Functions and graphs 9

Determine the equation, in the form ax + by + c = 0, for the line:

8. a. WE5 Given the points (2, 0) and (6, −4) calculate:

b. Given the points (−3, −2) and (4, 3), calculate:

i. the midpoint, M, between the two points

9. Determine the value of a when:

d. the distance between (a, 4) and (−2, −2) is 45.

1.2 Exam questions

Question 1 (1 mark) TECH-ACTIVE

d+1 3 1−d 7 d−4

Question 2 (1 mark) TECH-ACTIVE

The linear function f ∶ D → R, f (x) = 4 − x has range [−2, 6).

The domain D of the function is

1.3 Solving systems of equations

1.3.1 Solving simultaneous equations with two variables