Advanced Algebra

Lecture Notes

Functions

1.1

Definition of Function

A function f from set D to set E is a rule or correspondence that assigns to each element x of set D exactly
one element y of set E. The rule or correspondence is usually a formula to compute for y given x.
Remarks:
The set D is called the domain of the function.
The element y of E is called the image of x under f , or the value of f at x, and is written f (x).
If y = f (x), then we say that y is a function of x.
The subset R of E consisting of all images of elements of D is called the range of the function.
The members of the domain D and range R are referred to as the input and output values, respectively.
Usually D and E are both R (the set of real numbers).

1.2

Function Notation

A function is indicated by the notation f : D E. The effect of a function on an element of D is then

written f : x f (x). An arrow diagram as shown below is often used to visualize the function relationship.

1.3

Domain and Range

The domain and range of a function are normally subsets of the set of real numbers. If a function is defined
by an expression and the domain is not stated, the domain is assumed to be the set of real numbers for which
the expression is defined. This set is called the natural domain, of the function.

1.4

Graph of a Function

The graph of a function f is the graph of all points (x, y) such that x is in the domain of f , and y = f (x).

1.5

Vertical Line Test

Since for each value of x in the domain of f there is exactly one value of y such that y = f (x), a vertical
line x = c can cross the graph of a function at most once. Thus, if a vertical line crosses a graph more
than once, the graph is not the graph of a function.

Advanced Algebra

1.6

Lecture Notes

Average Rate of Change of a Function

Let f be a function. The average rate of change of f (x) with respect to x over the interval [a, b] is defined
as
Change in f (x)
f (b) f (a)
=
Change in x
ba
Over the interval from x to x + h this quantity becomes
Change in f (x)
f (x + h) f (x)
=
Change in x
h
which is referred to as the difference quotient.

1.7

Independent and Dependent Variables

In applications, if y = f (x), the language y is a function of x is used and is equivalent to saying y depends
on x. Hence, x is referred to as the independent variable, and y as the dependent variable.

Polynomial Functions

2.1

Definition of Polynomial Function

A polynomial function is any function specified by a rule that can be written as

f (x) = an xn + an1 xn1 + + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 ,
where an 6= 0. n is the degree of the polynomial function. The domain of a polynomial function, unless
otherwise specified, is R.

2.2

Special Polynomial Functions

DEGREE

EQUATION

NAME

GRAPH

n=0

f (x) = c

Constant Function

Horizontal Straight Line

n=1

f (x) = mx + b

Linear Function

Straight line with slope m

n=2

f (x) = ax2 + bx + c

Quadratic Function

Parabola

Remarks:
For the linear function defined by y = f (x) = mx + b, b = f (0) is usually called the initial value
whenever x is assumed to be nonnegative. While, k for which f (k) = 0 is the value of x for which
y = 0.
Any quadratic function can be written in the form f (x) = a(x h)2 + k by completing the square. If
a > 0, then k is the minimum value of y while if a < 0 then k is the maximum value of y. It can be
noted that h is the value of x for which the quadratic function achieves its maximum or minimum
value.
The range of these special functions are as follows:

Advanced Algebra

Lecture Notes

DEGREE

2.3

EQUATION

RANGE

n=0

f (x) = c

R = {c}

n=1

f (x) = mx + b

n=2

f (x) = ax2 + bx + c

R=R
(
[k, )
(, k]

if a > 0,
if a < 0,

Integer Power Functions

If f has degree n and all coefficients except an are zero, then f (x) = axn , where a = an 6= 0. Then if
n = 1, the graph of the function is a straight line through the origin. If n = 2, the graph of the function
is a parabola with vertex at the origin.

2.4

Zeros of Polynomials

If f (c) = 0, then c is called a zero of the polynomial f (x).

2.5

Division of Polynomials

If a polynomial g(x) is a factor of another polynomial f (x), then f (x) is said to be divisible by g(x). Thus
x3 1 is divisible both by x 1 and by x2 + x + 1. If a polynomial is not divisible by another, it is possible
to apply the technique of long division or synthetic division to find the quotient and the remainder.

2.6

Division Algorithm for Polynomials

If f (x) and g(x) are polynomials, with g(x) 6= 0, then there exist unique polynomials q(x) and r(x) such
that
f (x)
r(x)
f (x) = g(x)q(x) + r(x) and
= q(x) +
.
g(x)
g(x)
Either r(x) = 0 (f (x) is divisible by g(x)) or the degree of r(x) is less than the degree of g(x). Therefore,
if the degree of the divisor g(x) is 1, the degree of r(x) is 0, and the remainder is a constant polynomial r.

2.7

Synthetic Division

Division of a polynomial f (x) by a polynomial of form x c is accomplished efficiently by the synthetic

division scheme. Arrange coefficients of the dividend f (x) in descending order in the first row of a three-row
array. The third row is formed by bringing down the first coefficient of f (x), then successively multiplying
each coefficient in the third row by c, placing the result in the second row, adding this to the corresponding
coefficient in the first row, and placing the result in the next position in the third row.
an

an

an1

an2

a2

a1

a0

can

cb1

cbn3

cbn2

cbn1

b1

b2

bn2

bn1

The last coefficient in the third row is the constant remainder; the other coefficients are the coefficients of
the quotient, in descending order.

Advanced Algebra

2.8

Lecture Notes

Remainder Theorem

When the polynomial f (x) is divided by x c, the remainder is f (c).

2.9

Factor Theorem

A polynomial f (x) has a factor of x c if and only if f (c) = 0. Thus, x c is a factor of a polynomial if
and only if c is a zero of the polynomial.

2.10

Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Every polynomial of positive degree n with real coefficients has exactly n zeros which maybe real or
imaginary and some may be repeated.

2.11

Consequence of the Fundamental Theorem

Every polynomial p(x) of positive degree n has a factorization of the form

p(x) = an (x r1 )(x r2 ) (x rn )
where the ri are not necessarily distinct. If in the factorization x ri occurs m times, ri is called a zero
of multiplicity m. However, it is not necessarily possible to find the factorization using exact algebraic
methods.

2.12

Further Theorems about Zeros

If p(x) is a polynomial with real coefficients, and if z = a + bi is a complex zero of p(x), then the
complex conjugate z = a bi is also a zero of p(x). That is, complex zeros of polynomials with real
coefficients occur in complex conjugate pairs.
Any polynomial of degree n > 0 with real coefficients has a complete factorization using linear and
quadratic factors, multiplied by the leading coefficient of the polynomial. However, it is not necessarily possible to find the factorization using exact algebraic methods.
p
q
is a rational zero of p(x) in lowest terms, then p must be a factor of the constant term a0 and q must
be a factor of the leading coefficient an .

If p(x) = an xn + an1 xn1 + + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 is a polynomial with integral coefficients and r =

2.13

Theorems Used In Locating Zeros/Roots

Rolles Theorem: This is a consequence of the Intermediate Value Theorem. For a polynomial
p(x), if p(a) and p(b) have opposite signs, then p(x) has at least one zero between a and b.
Descartes Rule of Sign: If p(x) is a polynomial with terms arranged in descending order, then the
number of positive real zeros of p(x) is either equal to the number of sign changes between successive
terms of p(x) or is less than this number by an even number. The number of negative real zeros of
p(x) is found by applying this rule to p(x).
Lower/Upper Bound Rule: If the third line of a synthetic division of p(x) by x r is all positive
for some r > 0, then r is an upper bound for the zeros of p(x); that is, there are no zeros greater
than r. If the terms in the third line of a synthetic division of p(x) by x r alternate in sign for
some r < 0, then r is a lower bound for the zeros of p(x); that is, there are no zeros less than r. (0
may be regarded as positive or negative for the purpose of this theorem.)

Advanced Algebra

Lecture Notes

In summary, the following statements are equivalent:

c is a zero of p(x).
p(c) = 0.
x c is a factor of p(x).
For real number c, the graph of y = p(x) has an x-intercept at c.

Algebra of Functions and Inverse Functions

3.1

Algebraic Combinations of Functions

Algebraic combinations of functions can be obtained in several ways: Given two functions f and g, the
sum, difference, product, and quotient functions can be defined as follows:
NAME

3.2

DEFINITION

DOMAIN

Sum

(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x)

D = Df Dg

Difference

(f g)(x) = f (x) g(x)

D = Df Dg

Product

(f g)(x) = f (x)g(x)

D = Df Dg

Quotient

(f /g)(x) =

f (x)
g(x)

D = {x Df Dg | g(x) 6= 0}

Definition of Composite Function

The composite function f g of two functions f and g is defined by:

(f g)(x) = f (g(x))
.

3.3

One-to-One Functions

A function with domain D and range R is called a one-to-one function if exactly one element of set D
corresponds to each element of set R.
A function f with domain D and range R is one-to-one if either of the following equivalent conditions
is satisfied.
Whenever f (u) = f (v) in R, then u = v in D.
Whenever u 6= v in D, then f (u) 6= f (v) in R.

3.4

Horizontal Line Test

If a horizontal line crosses a graph more than once, the graph is not the graph of a one-to-one function.

Advanced Algebra

3.5

Lecture Notes

Definition of Inverse Function

Let f be a one-to-one function with domain D and range R. Since for each y in R there is exactly one x
in D such that y = f (x), define a function f 1 with domain R and range D such that f 1 (y) = x. Then
f 1 reverses the correspondence defined by f . The function f 1 is called the inverse function of f .

3.6

Function-Inverse Function Relationship

If f 1 is the inverse function of f , then, by the above definition,

f 1 (f (x)) = x for every x in D.
f (f 1 (y)) = y for every y in R.

3.7

To Find the Inverse Function for a Given Function f :

1. Verify that f is one-to-one.

2. Solve the equation y = f (x) for x in terms of y, if possible. This gives an equation of form x = f 1 (y).
3. Interchange x and y in the equation found in step 2. This gives an equation of the form y = f 1 (x).

3.8

Graph of an Inverse Function

The graphs of y = f (x) and y = f 1 (x) are symmetric with respect to the line y = x. This means that if
(x, y) is on the graph of f (x) then (y, x) is on the graph of f 1 (x).

4
4.1

Rational Functions
Definition of Rational Function

p(x)
where p(x) and
q(x)
q(x) are polynomials. The domain of a rational function is the set of all real numbers for which q(x) 6= 0.
p(x)
is in lowest terms.
The assumption is normally made that the rational expression
q(x)
A rational function is any function which can be specified by a rule written as f (x) =

4.2

Asymptotes

Let f (x) =

p(x)
. The line x = a is a vertical asymptote if q(a) = 0 while if
q(x)
f (x) =

p(x)
an xn + + a1 x + a0
=
q(x)
bm xm + + b1 x + b0

with an 6= 0 and bm 6= 0. Then

1. If n < m, then the x-axis is a horizontal asymptote for the graph of f .
an
2. If n = m, then the line y =
is a horizontal asymptote for the graph of f .
bm
3. If n > m, then there is no horizontal asymptote for the graph of f .
Note: If n = m + 1, then the graph of f has an oblique asymptote. It can be noted that f (x) can be
written as
p(x)
an xn + + a1 x + a0
R(x)
f (x) =
=
= ax + b +
q(x)
bm xm + + b1 x + b0
Q(x)
where the line y = ax + b is the oblique asymptote of f .

Advanced Algebra

Lecture Notes

Variation

The term variation is used to describe many forms of simple functional dependence. The general pattern
is that one variable, called the dependent variable, is said to vary as a result of changes in one or more
other variables, called the independent variables. Variation statements always include a nonzero constant
multiple, referred to as the constant of variation, or constant of proportionality, and often denoted k.

5.1

Direct Variation

To describe a relation of the form y = kx, the following language is used:

1. y varies directly as x
2. y is directly proportional to x
Example: Given that p varies directly as q, find an expression for p in terms of q if p = 300 when q = 12.

5.2

Indirect Variation

To describe a relation of the form y = k/x, the following language is used:

1. y varies inversely as x
2. y is inversely proportional to x
Example: Given that s varies inversely as t, find an expression for s in terms of t if s = 5 when t = 8.

5.3

Joint Variation

To describe a relation of the form z = kxy, the following language is used:

1. z varies jointly as x and y
2. z varies directly as the product of x and y
Example: Given that z varies jointly as x and y and z = 3 when x = 4 and y = 5, find an expression for z
in terms of x and y.

5.4

Combined Variation

These previous types of variation can also be combined.

Example: Given that z varies directly as the square of x and inversely as y and z = 5 when x = 3 and
y = 12, find an expression for z in terms of x and y.

Exponential Functions

An exponential function is any function for which the rule specifies the independent variable in an exponent.
A basic exponential function has the form
f (x) = ax ,

where a > 0, a 6= 1.

The domain of a basic exponential function is considered to be the set of all real numbers R, unless otherwise specified. Since ax > 0 for any value of x, then its range is the set of all positive integers (0, ).
Examples: (a) f (x) = 2x ;

(b) f (x) = ( 21 )x ;

(c) f (x) = 4x ;

(d) f (x) = 2x

Advanced Algebra

Lecture Notes

Remarks:
1. The laws of exponents apply.
i. ax ay = ax+y
ii.

ax
ay

= axy

iii. (ap )x = apx

iv. (ab)x = ax bx
v. ( ab )x =

ax
bx

2. The number e is called the natural exponential base where e 2.718281828459045 . . ..

3. The function f (x) = ex is called the natural exponential function.

6.1

Exponential Growth and Decay

Applications generally distinguish between exponential growth and decay. A basic exponential growth
function is an increasing exponential function of the form
A(t) = A0 ekt ;
an exponential decay function is a decreasing exponential function
A(t) = A0 ekt ;
where
A(t) = amount or quantity at time t
A0 = initial amount/quantity
k = growth or decay rate
.

Logarithmic Functions

A logarithmic function, f (x) = loga x, (a > 0, a 6= 1), is the inverse function to the exponential function
f (x) = ax . Thus,
If y = loga x, then x = ay .
That is, the logarithm of x to the base a is the exponent to which a must be raised to obtain x.
Conversely,
If x = ay , then y = loga x.
Remarks:
1. Properties of Logarithms
i. loga 1 = 0
ii. loga (M N ) = loga M + loga N
iii. loga ( M
N ) = loga M loga N
iv. loga a = 1
v. loga (M p ) = p loga M

Advanced Algebra

Lecture Notes

2. If the base a = e then we write loge x = ln x called the natural logarithm.

3. If the base a = 10 then we write log10 x = log x called the common logarithm.
4. Domain: (0, ) and Range: R

7.1

Change-of-Base Formula

Logarithmic expressions can be rewritten in terms of other bases by means of the change-of-base formula:
loga x =

logb x
.
logb a