INTA EEA San Juan

Ministry of
Agriculture, Livestock and fishing
Presidency of the Nation

Perspective of the
cultivation of
pistachio tree in the
province
de San Juan

Andrieu, Jimena
Lemole, Georgina
Novello, Raul
Ministry of
Agriculture, Livestock and fishing
Presidency of the Nation
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INTA EEA San Juan

Analysis of pistachio cultivation

The present analysis is carried out in order to obtain an overview of the situation of the pistachio,
both internationally and nationally, and the agronomic potential for its cultivation in the province of
San Juan.
The work is structured in two parts. The first consists of the world situation of production, markets
and prices, incorporating an analysis of the country's situation. The second details the agronomic
characteristics and agro-climatic needs to evaluate the potential of the crop in the province of San
Juan.
Introduction 3
1 First part. World situation of pistachio cultivation 4
1.1 World production and evolution of cultivated area 4
1.2 The pistachio in Argentina 7
1.3 International Trade 7
1.4 Situation of the Argentine pistachio trade 9
1.5 Cultivation Costs 10
2 Second part. Agronomic analysis of the pistachio crop for the province of 12
San Juan
2.1 Botany 12
2.2 Pistachio ecology 13
2.2.1 Climate 13
2.2.2 Floor 14
2.2.3 Multiplication 15
2.2.4 Pollination 17
2.2.5 Entry into production 18
2.3 Plantation 18
2.4 Nutrition 19
2.5 Irrigation 20
2.6 Pruning and conduction systems 20
2.7 Diseases 21
2.8 Pests 21
2.9 Harvest 21
2.10 Prosecution 22
2.11 Nutritional value 24
2.12 Problems posed by the productive sector of the province 25
2.13 Sector strengths 25
3 Interviews 25
4 Bibliography 26
5 Sites consulted 28
6 Exhibit 29
Ministry of
Agriculture, Livestock and fishing
Presidency of the Nation

Introduction
Pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) is a very old crop such that references to it can be found in the Bible.
The origin of the crop can be found in Asia where to this day plants grow without intervention from
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human activity due to the characteristics of the climate. This species, typical of regions such as
Iran and Afghanistan, appears in Europe at the beginning of the “Christian Era” and in the
American continent (United States) since the middle of the last century (Gamalier, 2004).

Finca Frutos del Sol SA Department 25 de Mayo, San Juan.

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INTA EEA San Juan

Ministry of
Agriculture, Livestock and fishing
Presidency of the Nation

In the United States, commercial production only began in the 70s of the 20th century. This can be
justified by two factors. The first of them is associated with the fact that only in 1957 was the
selection of a high-quality cultivar known by the name “Kerman” (from seeds from Iran) made. The
other possible driver of development is related to the completion - around the same time - of the
California aqueduct system; thereby allowing irrigation in the low areas of the San Joaquín Valley.
The formation, in 1976, of the “California Pistachio Association” can be added as a determining
factor in the consolidation of the United States Pistachio industry.3 .
In Argentina, cultivation appeared during the 1990s, concentrating mainly in the province of San
Juan, following the regulations of the Economic Development Law No. 22,021 (better known as
the Tax Deferrals Law).

1 First part. World situation of pistachio cultivation.

1.1 World production and evolution of cultivated area

Worldwide there are more than 555 thousand hectares cultivated with pistachio. Six countries
concentrate 97% of this area; However, the existing hectares in Iran are vastly greater than those
that can be found in any of the other five countries. Graph I allows us to observe the importance
that Iran and the United States have on a global scale in relation to the cultivation of pistachio
trees.

Graph I. Distribution of the global area harvested from

pistachio for the year 2010

Iran
52%

Own elaboration based on information published in FAOSTAT, USDA, "Iran Pistachios Association"
Ministry of
Agriculture, Livestock and fishing
Presidency of the Nation

World pistachio production has shown a significant increase in the last thirty years, registering an
increase of 760% for the period 2010/1980 2 .
If one observes the historical series of evolution of world production presented in Graph II, one finds
that it was during the 1980s that the crop registered an explosive growth of more than 200%
(1989/1980). During the nineties and the first decade of the 21st century, a positive trend was
evident in the evolution of world production, although with lower rates (70% for each period). The
causes must be attributed to both the increase in the cultivated area as well as advances in crop
3 Most of the American pistachio cultivation is done in California.
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management (mainly irrigation).

Source: Own elaboration based on data from the FAOSTAT site and the “Iran Pistachio Association”.

The main pistachio producing countries are the United States, Iran, Turkey, China and Syria, which
account for more than 90% of world production. In Graph III it can be seen that Iranian production,
despite the weight it has in the total, registered a decline in production level during the last ten
years. The production of this country has been surpassed in 2010 by products of American origin;
thus leaving second place in the ranking for Iran. Likewise, Graph III allows us to observe that, with
the exception of the Iranian case, growth trends are registered

Graph II: Evolution of world production - Main producing countries

Year
China USA Iran* sxesxx Syria - Turkey
Source: Own elaboration based on data from the FAOSTAT site and the “Iran Pistachio Association”.
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INTA EEA San Juan Ministry of
Agriculture, Livestock and fishing
Presidency of the Nation

positive (measured in tons produced) for the rest of the main producing countries.
A detailed analysis of the cultivated hectares and the age of the crops in the United States leads
to the conclusion that the dominance achieved by this country, far from being reversed, will be
further consolidated. This is enhanced by a significant number of cultivated hectares that have
not yet entered into full production and are expected to do so in the medium term (see Chart IV).

Graph IV. Area cultivated with pistachio (in hectares) by crop age in the US
100.000 305.000
90.000 300.000 His p. (ha) in
80.000 295.000 production
0 70.000 290.000
c
u 60.000
0) 285.000
280.000 His p. (ha)
50.000
0) 40.000 275.000 up to 7
years
30.000 270.000
20.000 265.000
His p. (ha) in
260.000 Iran
0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Own preparation according to USDA Year

data

The relationship between production (measured in tons) compared to the area (in hectares)
reveals the greater intensity with which pistachio cultivation is developed in the United States.
Graph V shows the differences in productivity between the main countries, with the distance
between Iran and the US being particularly significant.

Graph V. Yield per hectare measured in tons.

Average for the period 2000-2010

Own elaboration based on information published in FAOSTAT, *Iran Pistachios

Association, **USDA.

In the southern hemisphere of the American continent, plantations can be found in both Chile
and Argentina. Regarding the characteristics adopted by the crop in the neighboring country, it is
found that production has been carried out experimentally for 15 years on small farms, none
larger than 15 hectares, adding up to a total of 63 hectares for the country as a whole. . Beyond
these
Ministry of
Agriculture, Livestock and fishing
Presidency of the Nation

particularities, it is observed that 44% of the planted surface is concentrated in the O'Higgins
Region, followed in importance by the Maule Region with 27% and then by the Metropolitan
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INTA EEA San Juan
Region with almost 20% of the national surface (ODEPA, 2012).

1.2 The pistachio in Argentina

Pistachio production in Argentina is presented as a relatively new crop in the country's
agricultural history and it is estimated that there are around 800 cultivated hectares which are
distributed between the provinces of San Juan (75%) and La Rioja (25%). . Likewise, it is
estimated that the cultivated area in San Juan amounts to 600 hectares, of which only 15% is
less than two years old (Diario de Cuyo, 2005; Carmona, 2012).
The origin of cultivation in San Juan is mainly associated with productive projects that benefited
from the advantages of the Tax Deferral Law that was regulated in the mid-nineties. These
projects are located in the departments of 25 de Mayo, San Martín and Pocito (Cobelo, 2005).
Although small-scale plantations can be found in other areas of the province, it is estimated that
80% of the surface is concentrated in four large productive enterprises.
This concentrated character that predominates in the development of pistachio cultivation in the
province of San Juan is expected to deepen if the expansion process planned by two of the main
productive enterprises already in operation is taken into account (Diario de Cuyo, 2013). .
These data reveal the importance that Argentina has as a producer of pistachios throughout
Latin America and, in particular, the primary role that the province of San Juan acquires by
consolidating itself as the main productive region of our country.

1.3 International Trade

It is important to make an observation about the demand for pistachio. Mostly pistachios are sold
salted, roasted and in shell. The most frequent destinations are for consumption as a snack or
for the production of ice cream, bakery products and confectionery. At the same time, there are
several works that demonstrate the possibility of producing oils from pistachio (ODEPA, 2012).
The world pistachio market has had a very dynamic development during the period 2000-2010,
according to world import figures published by FAO (2012). In turn, based on the information
shown in Graph VI, the acceleration of this growth process throughout the first decade of the
21st century is evident.
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Ministry of
Agriculture, Livestock and fishing
Presidency of the Nation]

Graph VI allows us to dimension the size of the world pistachio market, which in 2010 (measured
by imported volume) reached 2,203 million USD and 350 thousand tons.

Graph VI. Evolution of global demand for Pistachio (in tons and thousands of USD)

1000 USD
Quantity of World Imports (in tn-FAO)
Value of World Imports (in 1000USD-FAO)

This situation finds its correlation with the evolution of the international price (measured in US
dollars per kilogram). It can be seen that the prices recorded since 2005 are above the average
of the previous decade (see Chart VII).

Graph VII. Evolution of the international price of pistachio (USD/Kg)

Source: own elaboration based on data from the FAOSTAT site

Iran, the United States, Hong Kong and Germany are the main exporting countries (Graph VIII).
The first two countries concentrate 60% of world exports but with the US taking precedence over
Iran. This last country, in recent years, has been losing ground - especially in European markets
- due to high levels of aflatoxin.4 registered and the highest demands regarding product quality
(Rogowsky, 2005). In this sense, it is worth highlighting the role played by both Hong Kong and
Germany with 15% of the export sector despite not being pistachio producing countries.

4 They are toxic substances synthesized by Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus . These fungi commonly affect crops of
almonds, peanuts, walnuts, pistachios, beans and feed grains.
 Ministry of 9
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Juan Presidency of the Nation

Graph VIII: Evolution of exports

(Share of each country in the total volume sold-Tn)

Year
Germany — China (HK SAR) -TO USA -AND IRAN
Source: own elaboration based on data from the FAOSTAT site

At the level of imports, there are four well-differentiated groups of purchasing countries: on the one
hand, there are those that constitute themselves exclusively as intermediaries (such as Germany);
those that, despite having significant domestic consumption, adopt an intermediary role in the
global pistachio trade (United Arab Emirates), those that are fundamentally final consumers of the
products but are repeatedly observed as small-scale exporters (such as Spain and Italy) and those
that generally do not export anything (Russian Federation, Japan and India).
For more than twenty years, Germany and Hong Kong have been competing for first place as
importing countries. At the same time, Italy and Spain have been traditional importers; although in
the last 5 years they have lost importance in the face of growing imports from China, the
Netherlands, the UAE, the Russian Federation and Belgium 4 .
The relationship between the value of imports and the tons imported published by FAO (2012)
allows us to identify differences between countries in terms of the average prices paid per ton. This
difference can be seen reflected in the price paid by the European Union, whose average for the
last five years is above 7,000 USD/Tn; compared to the 2,500 USD/Tn paid by countries like China
and the UAE.
The same series of data allows us to observe the transformation experienced by the United States;
where from being the main importer at the beginning of the eighties it became the main exporter by
the end of the first decade of the 21st century (Rogowsky, 2005).

1.4 Situation of the Argentine pistachio trade

4
According to data published by
FAOSTAT.
 Ministry of 1
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Juan Presidency of the Nation

In Argentina, the registration of the first pistachio exports took place starting in 2008 and the
increasing trend in the volumes sold is notable. The main destination of the Argentine product was
the Italian market, followed by the Japanese and Brazilian markets; although operations with Spain
and France were also registered. During the course of 2011, 68,800 kg of dried pistachios were
exported at an average price of 9,100 USD/Tn.

Argentine Exports of Pistachios

2008 2009 2010 2011
Thousands Tn Thousands Tn Thousands Tn Thousands Tn
Brazil USD
0 0 USD 0 0 USD 0 0 USD 65 4
Spain 75 11 99 14 0 0 0 0
France 0 0 71 10 0 0 0 0
Italy 17 5 291 42 234 28 496 58
Japan 0 0 0 0 162 13 63 7
TOTAL 92 16 460 66 396 41 624 69
5.7 USD/Kg. 6.9 USD/Kg. 9.6 USD/Kg. 9.1 USD/Kg.
Source: Own elaboration based on INFONECTA data.

At the national level, a single firm concentrates 81% of shipments abroad. The remaining 19% of
shipments are distributed between two companies that maintain between 9% and 10% of total
exports. Shipments are commonly made using ten-kilogram boxes with two vacuum-sealed plastic
bags of five kilograms each.
Regarding pistachio imports, there are records of volumes entered into the country of relative
importance. During the years 2009 and 2010, 13,000 kg and 20,000 kg were imported from the
United States. Respectively; which were entered into the country by a single firm (which in turn is
the main exporting company).
The domestic market also emerges as an important destination for this production. Already in
2005, Carmona maintains that:
“The pistachio goes out in boxes (…) to [the] supermarket chains in Buenos Aires, Córdoba
and Litoral, where a consumer pays 60 pesos for a kilo in the gondola. Argentina's
consumption is about 200,000 kilograms per year, still low compared to other countries, so
San Juan production easily covers that need."

1.5 Cultivation costs.

Regarding the costs of implementation at the local level, an investment analysis carried out for a
30-hectare farm with pressurized irrigation and mechanical harvesting shows a value that amounts
to 8,500 dollars per hectare (Novello and Andrieu, 2012). This cost includes the following tasks:
land preparation; plant and graft5 ;

5 Composed of the following items: foot: US$12 each; buds + graft: AR$10 each; Planting frame: 6m x 5m; number of plants: 334;
replacement of failures: 20% in the second year, with gaiters.
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Ministry of
Agriculture, Livestock and fishing
Presidency of the Nation

green training pruning; fertilizers; herbicides; phytosanitary and irrigation (maintenance and
electrical energy).
The analysis presented assumes the use of drip irrigation with a reservoir, which implies an
investment of 5,000 dollars per hectare. In turn, starting from the ninth year, agricultural operating
costs are $4,000 per hectare distributed as follows:

Graph IX. Components of the operating cost of pistachio cultivation

Irrigati
on

Source: Novello and Andrieu, 2012

The cost to process and package it is 1.5 USD per kilogram. For example, a plantation that is in full
production with an average yield of 4Kg per plant, the cost of a kilo of pistachio will be 2.5 USD/Kg.
The latter, depending on the international prices paid (around 8 USD/Kg, open pistachio) would
give a positive gross margin indicator. However, investment in this business requires a profitability
analysis where, in addition to primary production, the processing and storage costs of the finished
product are included.
This depends of course, as in all perennial crops, on the relationship between the increase in
internal costs with the trend followed by the international price; as well as the financial back of the
producer until the crop enters full production (being slower than the vine and olive tree). A central
characteristic of this crop is that although it is expected to begin bearing fruit in the fifth year, it only
comes into full production in the tenth year.
This analysis is carried out under the assumption that the cultivar variety is adapted to the region to
avoid productive losses due to inadequate quality of the plants. This is why it becomes essential to
carry out an agronomic analysis to have a first overview of the crop in the province of San Juan.
Ministry of
Agriculture, Livestock and fishing
Presidency of the Nation
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2 Second part. Agronomic analysis of pistachio cultivation

for the province of San Juan

2.1 Botany
Pistacia vera L., is a species of the Anacardiaceae family, within the genus, vera is the only
species that has edible fruits, the rest are usually used as rootstocks such as P. Atlantica, P.
intergerrima, P. terebinthus (Spina, 1983). It is a dioecious diclino tree, with anemophilous
pollination, with abundant branching and a wide crown, especially the males. For this reason, a
proportion of male trees must be placed next to female trees, to achieve their reproduction. It is a
slow developing tree, which explains its late entry into production, but it is also a very long-lived
species; evidenced in the fact that it is possible to find plants that are 150 to 300 years old (Ibid.,
1983).
There are marked differences between female and male trees, not only in their size, but also male
plants have larger leaves, made up of 3 leaflets. In the case of female specimens, the leaves are
smaller and generally have 5 leaflets (Crane and Maranto, 1988).
The flowers are found in panicles (100-300 flowers) and are born from lateral branches, before the
leaves sprout, the induction is in the previous year in buds that are found in the axil of the leaves
that are growing (Vargas García et al. al, 1999).
Flowering is staggered and depending on climatic characteristics it can last up to a month. The
percentage of setting varies between 2 and 10%.
It presents as a characteristic the phenomenon of protandry (Spina, 1983), explained as the
process by which male flowers mature before female flowers, resulting in a decrease in the
production of fruits with well-formed seeds. This information must be taken into account when
selecting pollinator specimens.
Its fruit is a monospermous drupe with a thin, dry shell, rich in oil (approximately 55%). The seed is
the edible part, and is composed of two voluminous cotyledons (Vargas García et al, 1999). Its
weight is approximately 1.4 grams. There is a significant number of seedless fruits, where the
pericarp has grown to its full size but without embryo growth. This can occur due to two
phenomena: i) parthenocarpy (there is no fertilization) or ii) abortion of the embryo (Grundwag,
1975). Three different periods can be described in the development of the walnut:

• Period I: begins with the development of the nut and ends when its maximum size is
recorded.
• Period II: hardening of the pericarp.
• Period III: seed growth period.
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Agriculture, Livestock and fishing
Presidency of the Nation

Pistachio dehiscence is a physical phenomenon that results from the outward pressure exerted by
the seed as it develops on the shell (Polito, 1999). Therefore, factors that affect seed size positively
or negatively will also alter the percentage of open nuts (Spann et al, 2009). The latter is a sought-
after character, given that it is marketed for consumption, mostly in the shell. Dehiscence depends
on both the genetic factor and the environment, and within the latter, mainly on the crop conditions
(Vargas García et al, 1999). Occasionally, this dehiscence can cause certain health problems, due
to its greater sensitivity to attack by pathogens, as the fruit is open.
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It must be kept in mind that the pistachio tree is a species that has alternate production, that is, it is
prone to alternating production in consecutive years; which is influenced by external and internal
aspects of the plant. External ones, such as weather and driving conditions, can be controlled to
lessen their effect. A series of works agree that the alternation of pistachio production is related to
the supply and demand of carbohydrates (Murneek, 1924). A high fruit load suppresses vegetative
growth (due to the effect of fate competition) and this affects the number of potential reproductive
buds. This variation results from surpluses and deficits in production and can affect many aspects
of crop management, including: prices, quality, labor demand (Chung et al, 1995), nutrient
consumption ( Picchioni et al, 1997) and pruning (Ferguson et al, 1995).

2.2 Pistachio ecology

2.2.1 Climate

The crop is resistant to drought, adapted to temperate and dry climates, and does not tolerate
excess humidity since it favors the appearance of cryptogamic diseases (Spina, 1983; Crane and
Maranto, 1988). It can vegetate with annual rainfall between 50 and 163 mm per year, as would be
the case in Israel where it is practiced in dry land. 45º North latitude can be considered the
northern limit of its cultivation in Europe and Asia.
Cold and heat requirements depend on various factors: genetic factors, latitude, rootstocks, light
and nutritional status (Rahemi and Pakkish, 2009).
Although the pistachio tree is a crop capable of withstanding low temperatures during vegetative
rest (up to -30 ºC), during the swollen bud stage it is sensitive to temperatures of -3 ºC. As for high
temperatures, it can withstand 38ºC (USA) and 45ºC (Iran). However, heat resistance decreases in
conditions of prolonged atmospheric dryness, as a consequence burns occur on young leaves and
stems, which can even paralyze the development of the fruits (Vargas García et al, 1999).

Ministry of
Agriculture, Livestock and fishing
Presidency of the Nation

Tables III, IV and V (see Annex) indicate the average dates of frost occurrences in three of the
main departments of the province of San Juan where the activity is carried out. As can be seen in
these tables, the average dates of late frosts do not coincide with the flowering of the most
cultivated variety (Kerman). In any case, sectors of the 25 de Mayo department, such as Punta del
Agua, have suffered significant productive losses due to extreme frosts that occurred in the month
of November.
The flowering date in fruit trees, including the pistachio, is influenced by the number of cold hours
received and the accumulation of heat. Insufficient accumulation of cold hours causes problems in
the crop such as decreased sprouting percentage, late flowering, premature death of stigmas, late
vegetative and reproductive development, delayed maturity, decreased amount of leaves and
pollen and, among others, decreased performance (Metheney, 1996).
The need for chilling hours to achieve even sprouting depends on the variety, and ranges between
400 chilling hours in early flowering varieties and 1000 chilling hours in late flowering varieties. It is
extremely important to take this characteristic into account when plantations are located in areas
with mild winters.
When heat accumulation in summer is insufficient, the nut cannot fill the seed, splitting
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(dehiscence) of the shell is inappropriate, and the fruit cannot be easily shelled. (Couvillon and
Erez, 1985).
Although this species is considered quite rustic with respect to climatic demands; Better
productions will be obtained if the growing conditions are good.

2.2.2 Floor

The cultivation of pistachio requires loose soils, preferring those with a sandy loam texture, deep
(50cm), well-drained, with a pH between 6 and 8. Although it supports calcareous soils, with high
salinity, poor, highly alkaline or slightly acidic, their permeability continues to be the main limitation
(Gijon et al, 2011).
It is quite resistant to drought and not very tolerant of very long periods of humidity, which is why it
is necessary that the soils do not tend to compact (Crane and Maranto, 1988).
The aforementioned literature shows that Pistacea species present different levels of tolerance to
salinity, from moderately sensitive to highly tolerant. This variation lies in genetic issues (intra- and
interspecific differences) and in environmental conditions, mainly soil quality and temperature
(Ferguson et al, 2005).
Taking into account the heterogeneity of the soils in the province of San Juan, those belonging to
the Belgrano Series and the Canal Puntilla Series would be the most
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Presidency of the Nation

advisable for this crop. The predominant characteristics of their profile (coarse texture and depth)
give them suitable properties for the pistachio tree.
Some soils of the El Chilote Series could be adapted as long as certain management technologies
are ensured that allow improving infiltration conditions, which are often excessive.

2.2.3 Multiplication

The multiplication of the pistachio tree is carried out by grafting commercial varieties on rootstocks
(free rootstocks) due to their vigor, resistance to diseases and soil pests and also for their
tolerance to unfavorable soil conditions (Vargas Gracía et al, 1999).
The propagation of pistachio can be considered more complicated than the rest of the fruit trees; it
requires not only a nursery infrastructure (obtaining rootstocks), but also a workforce trained in
grafting techniques.
In Spain, the graft is carried out in the nursery and the already grafted plant is transplanted into the
field (Vargas García et al, 1999).
Locally, the production of rootstocks is carried out in the nursery, then they are transplanted and
the grafting is carried out in situ - in the field - due to the lower cost of the rootstock. Furthermore,
the response to transplantation is usually better due to fewer failures. Another way that is often
used is through Jiffys (the seed is placed in a biodegradable container, with pressed peat). This
system has the advantage that the plant is placed directly with the container, simplifying the
transplant and generating rapid growth. As a drawback, it can cause spiralization of the roots and
the cost of each container is high.
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The most used patterns in the region are:

• Q. vera: most frequently used in the world. Sensitive to nematodes.

• Q. atlantica: spontaneous in the Canary Islands and widely spread in California, with high
vigor. It has medium sensitivity to cold and is tolerant to salinity and nematodes (Spina,
1983; Vargas García et al, 1999).

• UCB1 (hybrid): it is the most vigorous along with Pioneer, but very sensitive to cold and
lack of water (Guerrero et al, 2005).
• Q. integerrima: early budding therefore sensitive to frost damage. Together with some of
its hybrids, they are being used in California for their resistance to Verticillium (Vargas
García et al, 1999).

• PG II (Pioneer Gold): it is moderately susceptible to susceptible to verticillosis (Saavedra

Opazo, 2011).

• Q. terebinthus: adapts to poor, limestone and dry soils, moderate vigor, very good
resistance to cold (Guerrero et al, 2005; Spina, 1983).
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Presidency of the Nation

The most used grafts are “T” or gusset and chip. The time of implementation is determined by the
rootstock and the state of the buds to be grafted. The rootstock should have a non-excessive
movement of sap and the buds should be ripe but should not have sprouted. There are two
seasons, from late summer to early autumn, also called “sleeping eye” grafting, or from late winter
to early spring, called “awake bud” grafting.
The material to be grafted must be collected before the buds begin to swell and are kept in humid
environments with temperatures between 4 and 7 ºC. A few hours before the graft is performed, it
is advisable to place the buds at room temperature. This type of technique has a relatively low yield
percentage (50 – 60%), which causes heterogeneity in the crop and therefore, reduced yields. To
avoid low yield percentages, it is necessary to take into account certain aspects, among which the
following stand out: adequate vigor of the rootstocks, good health conditions, hydration and vigor of
the graft wood, and protecting the grafts from desiccation. This is the most used system in the
province of San Juan.
As commercial varieties, the following stand out (Spina, 1983; Vargas Gracía et al, 1999):

• Kerman: developed in California, from seeds brought from Iran. It has low vigor, a late
flowering period, with a short juvenile period, so greater precocity is achieved. It has high
requirements in cold hours, so the best results are obtained in areas with intense winters.
The fruit is of very good quality, large size, easy to open and excellent yield. In the
province of San Juan the flowering season is approximately from October 7 to 22 (data to
be taken into account in relation to frost and the choice of the pollinator). The main
disadvantage of this variety is that it is very fruitful. However, due to its characteristics, it is
the most chosen by consumers and producers (Spina, 1983; Vargas García et al, 1999,
Guerrero et al, 2005).

• Napoletana: has the advantage of a high seed yield, 40-50% of the fruit peeled, medium
flowering time, requires 500-700 hours of cold (Spina, 1983; Crane and Maranto, 1988).
• Kastel: short juvenile period, good fruit size, high vigor (Guerrero et al, 2005)

When choosing the variety, it is necessary to take into account: i) the climate, mainly late frosts and
cold hours and ii) production, that is, productivity and % of full fruits.
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Commercially, the parameters that are taken into account are: size and weight of the peeled fruit,
seed yield, tendency of the endocarp to open at the apex, more or less regular shape of the seed,
color of the seminal integument and the color of the cotyledons.
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Presidency of the Nation

In our country, the commercial variety used is Kerman, both for its quality and for its late flowering
(managing to reduce the probability of being affected by frost). Regarding the requirement for cold
hours (1000 cold hours), in San Juan there is no problem with said requirement.

2.2.4 Pollination

As mentioned above, the pistachio is a dioecious species, that is, it has female and male flowers
on different stems. Therefore, to achieve adequate pollination, it is necessary to place, in the
commercial forest, a percentage of male, unproductive plants, capable of supplying pollen to the
female flowers. The approximate percentage is 10%, that is, one male plant for every ten female
specimens. The crop design can vary in terms of the location of the pollinator plants. One of the
most used ways is to place a male every two rows for every four female plants (Vargas García et
al, 1999).
As it has staggered flowering, different males are usually used to cover the entire flowering range,
that is, early and late flowering varieties are sought. The variety most used as a male is Peters: a
universal pollinator because it releases pollen during the receptivity period of many female cultivars
(Guerrero et al, 2005). The flowering period of this variety in San Juan is from September 30 to
October 15. Another variety with similar characteristics to Peters is Gazvin, but it has not yet been
evaluated in commercial forests.
As alternative late flowering varieties we find “02-18” and “Egino”, developed at the El Chaparrillo
Agrarian Improvement Center, Junta de Comunidades de Castilla - La Mancha, Spain (Guerrero et
al, 2005). The flowering season in the province of San Juan is approximately from October 10 to
October 20.
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EEA San 7
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Ministry of
Agriculture, Livestock and fishing
Presidency of the Nation

Distribution scheme of female and male plants to ensure the

pollination

OOOO OOOO
OOOO OOOO
OOOO OOOO
OOOO OOOO
OXOX OXOX
OOOO OOOO
OOOO OOOO
OOOO OOOO
OOOO OOOO
OXOX OXOX

Or feminine male
2.2.5 Entry into production

The entry into production is from the fifth to the eighth year on average, until reaching productions
that vary between 2.5 and 6 Kg of peeled fruit (without shell) in the fifteenth year. This difference in
production values is due to the cultivation technologies used and, fundamentally, the choice of site. In
the province of San Juan, some areas have been affected by the occurrence of frost, hail and zonda
wind, as well as by the texture of the soils. Those sites with heavy textured soils have suffered a
significant decrease in yields.

2.3 Plantation

The planting frames: 5 x 5, 6 x 5 and 7 x 5 meters are the most used, ensuring a good number of
plants per hectare (300-400 plants/ha), good plant development and avoiding competition problems.
and lack of light, as well as allowing the harvesting machine to enter the interrows, if mechanical
harvesting is desired (Crane and Maranto, 1988).
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INTA EEA San Juan
8

Ministry of
Agriculture, Livestock and fishing
Presidency of the Nation

Finca Frutos del Sol SA Department 25 de Mayo, San Juan

2.4 Nutrition
Each element fulfills particular functions in plants, they are also important for resistance to diseases
and for the quality of the fruit, therefore the balance between the elements can affect both the
health and productivity of the pistachio tree (Uriu and Pearson, 1983; Afrousheh et al, 2010).
The pistachio does not require large amounts of nitrogen due to its slow growth. An adequate
fertilizer contribution would be considering the 1:1:1 ratio (an example would be NPK of 10-10-10),
except for a greater nitrogen contribution when the plant is in the period of greatest activity, that is,
during the period between flowering, fruit setting and fruit thickening (Crane and Maranto, 1988).
With respect to phosphorus, as in most crops, it is advisable to make a background application at
the time of planting with some phosphate fertilizer such as diammonium phosphate,
monoammonium phosphate or triple superphosphate, among others (always taking into account the
pH of the soil for the correct choice of fertilizer).

Ministry of
Agriculture, Livestock and fishing
Presidency of the Nation

In some sectors of the province, such as the 25 de Mayo department, Boron deficiency has been
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EEA San 9
Juan

observed, which results in deforming the leaves, making them hollow. The solution is based on the
application of Boron, which must be controlled because the limits between deficiency and excess are
very small.
It is recommended to carry out soil and foliar analyzes to determine the quantities present and
necessary to apply.

2.5 Irrigation
The pistachio tree is tolerant to drought, but like other trees, irrigation increases yields, particularly in
this crop it contributes to a higher quality of the nut and cushions the pattern of alternation in
production (Goldhamer, 1995).
Irrigation systems also allow water deficit techniques to be carried out in phenological stages of the
crop, which are less sensitive, or where there is no reduction in economic benefits.
Various works show that reductions in water applied through irrigation during the periods of beginning
of nut development (period I) and hardening of the shell (period II) do not reduce the total number of
fruits, they increase the percentage of dehiscence of the shell, and even favor early dehiscence
(Gijon et al, 2011).
Some sectors of the province of San Juan have heterogeneous soils within the same farm and a
common mistake is to design irrigation based on one of them. It is common to observe well-watered
sectors, and others with problems of lack of water or symptoms of suffocation. One of the well-known
advantages of localized irrigation is precisely being able to program it differentially, and avoid the
accumulation of water in the neck of the plants. The pistachio tree is a very sensitive species to
fungal attacks that affect the vascular system.

2.6 Pruning and conduction systems

The most widespread conduction system is the glass. Due to its apical dominance, it is necessary to
carry out intense training pruning to obtain the glass, and even more so if mechanized harvesting is
desired.
The first year after grafting, the main stem must be cut to stimulate the development of the main
branches of the vessel, on which the secondary and tertiary branches will be inserted. In this period
there is great vegetative growth and it is where the formation of the plant will be defined according to
the production model adopted. The primary branches will be selected according to their location and
vigor; these are the ones that will form the skeleton of the plant.
Ministry of
Agriculture, Livestock and fishing
Presidency of the Nation

In the fifth or sixth year, when the plant enters production, not many interventions are carried out, only
vigorous shoots are eliminated due to their strong apical dominance, and thinning pruning is carried
out to promote aeration and lighting (Vargas García et al. , 1999).
When the tree ages, rejuvenation pruning is necessary.
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2.7 Diseases
• Verticillosis, Wilt (Verticillium dahliea, K.), the pistachio tree is very sensitive to the attack of this
root fungus, which affects the vascular tissues of the plant causing wilting. To prevent it, you
must make sure to use healthy propagation material, avoid waterlogging at the neck of the plant
and use resistant rootstocks such as Pistacia integerrima. Another prevention factor is to avoid
planting in soils where tomatoes were previously grown; this crop is very susceptible to
Verticillium attack and the inoculum remains in the soil (Vargas García et al, 1999; Crane and
Maranto, 1988).

• Root collar disease (Phytophthora parasitica, D), as in the previous case, the attack on young or
nursery plants is more common. This fungus can infect the crop in autumn and the symptoms
only appear in the following season, which makes diagnosis and practices to minimize its effects
difficult. Prevention is the same as for Verticillium.

2.8 Pests
In San Juan serious problems due to pest attacks are not usually found, however it is important to
maintain control of ants and leafhoppers. These pests defoliate fruit trees, affecting the growth of the
tree and can even cause the death of the plant. Another common damage is that done to the bark of
young trees, passing under the cover tissue, allowing fungi to enter and harboring other insect pests
such as aphids.

2.9 Harvest
The collection and post-harvest tasks are similar to those carried out with other more widely
distributed nuts, and can be done manually or mechanically.
When harvesting is done manually, an alternative is to place tarps under the specimens, which are
shaken to release the fruits.

Ministry of
Agriculture, Livestock and fishing
Presidency of the Nation

Mechanical harvesting is carried out with vibrating type machinery. In San Juan, the most used
equipment consists of two self-propelled units, whose movement is parallel to the rows of plants, one
of them imposes a vibration on the tree so that the fruits are released and the other collects them.
The appropriate harvest time is determined according to the uniformity of the color of the fruits
(reddish fruit cover) and is generally carried out in mid or late February.
With this crop, special care must be taken during harvesting operations and subsequent processing,
as the fruit shell is normally open, the seed is more exposed to damage such as fermentation and
parasite contamination (Vargas García et al, 1999).
Another important aspect is to harvest at the right time, not delaying the harvest date and minimizing
the time to the processing plant to avoid quality losses.
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Finca Frutos del Sol SA Department 25 de Mayo, San Juan

2.10 Prosecution
The processing consists of a series of stages, among which are: hulling, selection, peeling, drying,
selection of peeled seeds and subsequent packaging.
The first operation is to separate the whole fruits from the endocarp (shell) and the whole seeds from
the defective seeds (broken and aborted).
Ministry of
Agriculture, Livestock and fishing
Presidency of the Nation

To peel, the seeds can be immersed in water at high temperatures (98 ºC) for a few minutes
(approximately 8 minutes) and then passed to a peeling machine that eliminates the mesocarp (also
called skin).
Drying can be done in the sun (some market sectors, such as Japan, require it to be done this way),
or through the action of a hot flow. There the humidity is reduced from 30 or 40% to approximately
6%.
The peeled seeds are then selected and finally packaged in 5 to 6 kg bags that are packed in boxes
for sale.

The product sales options according to the market are:

• Roasted and salted in shell

• Roasted and salted without shell
• Raw with shell
• Toasted in shell
• raw without shell
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INTA EEA San Juan
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Due to its qualities, such as shape, size, aroma and in particular its green color, pistachio is used as
an ingredient in cakes, pastries, ham, ice cream and in the confectionery industry (Angelini, 1987).
The waste is usually sold to ice cream parlors and confectioneries to form part of their preparations.
Another frequent use is the cosmetic industry due to its high oil content.

As the product is exported processed, it does not have too many demands regarding variety
certification; however, as mentioned above, the most sought-after variety for its quality is Kerman.

The physical properties of the fruit are important for the design of equipment for processing,
transportation, classification, separation and storage. All these physical properties (such as size,
shape, density, porosity of the fruit, among others) depend on the moisture content of the fruit at the
time of harvest. (Kashaninejad et al, 2006).
 2
EEA San 3
Juan Ministry of
Agriculture, Livestock and fishing
Presidency of the Nation

Finca Frutos del Sol SA Department 25 de Mayo, San Juan

2.11 Nutritional value

The pistachio nut has a high antioxidant power and is a rich source of phenolic compounds (Angelini,
1987).

The energy value is 2332 KJ/ 100 g (similar to almond) with high contents of carbohydrates and
minerals, mainly potassium (1025 mg/ 100 g) (USDA SR 18, 2005).

The fat content varies between 50-70% of the total weight of the pistachio according to the variety.
These fatty acids include 25% monounsaturated (of which 50 70% in the form of oleic acid or omega
9), polyunsaturated acids represent approximately 7%, of which the most important is linoleic acid or
omega 6 (García et al, 1992). It is also rich in proteins (18-23%), it also contains a significant
percentage of carbohydrates, minerals and vitamins.

In pistachios, the concentration of pigments and color parameters represent a very important factor to
identify the geographical origin of the product (Bellomo and Fallico, 2007).

Ministry of
Agriculture, Livestock and fishing
Presidency of the Nation
 2
INTA EEA San Juan
4

2.12 Problems posed by the productive sector of the province

• As it is a relatively new crop in the region, there is a lack of local data that demonstrates the
adaptability of the crop to the area, as well as the most appropriate technologies for its
management.

• Lack of nurseries for the acquisition of quality patterns.

• Complicated pollination, requires the presence of male plants alternating with female plants, slow
entry into production, neighboring species, the potential of the rootstocks has not been fully
exploited. Planting, transplanting and grafting operations require qualified labor.

• In addition to this, the crop has been absent in genetic improvement programs, due to the fact
that it is a dioecious species (lack of knowledge of male parental “potential”), slow entry into
production (lengthening of the selection cycle), lack of knowledge of existing plant material,
among others.

2.13 Crop strengths

• As a distinctive characteristic compared to other species, the pistachio tree has late flowering,
which makes it an alternative to other fruit trees, especially in areas with late frosts.

• Tolerates unfavorable soil conditions, such as drought and limestone.

• The harvest can be mechanized, solving a very common problem in our region such as the
scarce labor force for this operation.

3 Interviews
Eng. Juan Manuel Raigón
Eng. Carlos Manuel Baleros
Eng. Mario Corali
Lic. Sonia Silva
Finca Frutos del Sol SA www.agroconsulta.com
Ministry of
Agriculture, Livestock and fishing
Presidency of the Nation

4 Bibliography
AFROUSHEH, M., ARDALAN, M., HOMKMABADI, H. (2010). Nutrient deficiency disorders in
Pistacia vera seedling rootstock in relation to eco-physiological, biochemical characteristics and
uptake pattern of nutrient. Scientia Hortícolae, 124: 141-148
ANGELINI, P. (1987). The world market for pistachios. Ricerca Agriculture. II (75-80), 79 82.
BELLOMO, M. G., FALLICO, B. (2005). Anthocyanins, cholophylls and xanthophylls in pistacio nuts
(Pistacia vera) of different geographic origin. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 20: 352-359.
BRAVO MINA, Jaime A. (2010). Nut market. Office of Agrarian Studies and Policies (ODEPA) Chile.
CARMONA, Hugo (2005). “Pistachios from San Juan for the national market.” (
http://www.diariodecuyo.com.ar/home/new_noticia.php?noticia_id=85098 , consulted on 01/25/2012).
 2
INTA EEA San Juan
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CARMONA, Hugo (2012). “San Juan seeks to add pistachios to its agro-industrial economy.”
( http://www.diariodecuyo.com.ar/home/new_noticia.php?noticia_id=542831 , consulted on
10/15/2012).
CHUNG, CS, HARRIS, MK, STOREY, JB, 1995. Masting in Pecan. J. A.M. Soc. Hortic. Sci. 120:
386–393.
COBELO, Liliana (2005). “El Pistachio takes the field.” (
http://edant.clarin.com/suplementos/rural/2005/04/02/r-00611.htm , consulted on 03/10/2012).
COUVILLO, G. A., EREZ, A. (1985). Effect of level and duration of high temperatures on rest in the
peach. Journal of American Society Horticulture Science, 110: 579-581.
CRANE, J. c. (1975). The role of seed abortion and parthenocarpy in the production of blank
pistachio nuts as affected by rootstock. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science 100:
267±270.
CRANE, Julian C., MARANTO, Joseph (1988). Pistachio Production, Cooperative. Extension.
University of California. Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources.
DIARIO DE CUYO (2005). “San Juan sells 120 tons of pistachio.” (
http://www.diariodecuyo.com.ar/home/new_noticia.php?noticia_id=110126 , consulted on
03/10/2012).
DIARIO DE CUYO (2013). “Pistachio is exported to Russia for the second consecutive year.” (
http://www.diariodecuyo.com.ar/home/new_noticia.php?noticia_id=573072 , consulted on
05/22/2013).
FERGUSON, LE, MARANTO, J.,BEEDE, R.H. (1995). Mechanical topping mitigates alternate bearing
of 'Kerman' pistachios (Pistacia vera L.). HortScience 30:1369–1372.
Ministry of
Agriculture, Livestock and fishing
Presidency of the Nation

FERGUSON, L., SANDEN, B., GRATTAN, S., EPSTEIN, L.,KLUEGER, B. (2005). The orchard
Pistachui rootstocks in: Ferguson, L., Beede, RH, Freeman, MW, Hauland, DR, Holtz, BA, Kailsen,
CE, Coviello, J. (Eds.), pistachio Production Manual, 4 th Edition, Fruit and Nut research and
Information Center, University of California, USA, pp: 67-73.
GAMALIER LEMUS, S. (Ed.) (2004). “The cultivation of Pistachio”. FIA Project No. C.96-I-1-025.
INIA-La Platina, Foundation for Agrarian Innovation (FIA), Ministry of Agriculture, Chile.
GARCIA, JM, AGAR, IT, STREIF, J. (1992). Analysis of fat content and fatty acid composition in
individual seeds, in Pistachio varieties grown in Turkey. Giornale di Biochimica 5 (6 bis): 542-560
GIJON, MC, GIMENEZ, C., PEREZ LOPEZ, D., GUERRERO, J., COUCEIROA, JF, MORIANA, A.
(2011). Water relations of pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) as affected by phenological stages and water
regimes. Scientia Horticulturee 128:415–422
GOLDHAMER, DA, 1995. Irrigation management. In: Ferguson, L. (Ed.), Pistachio Production. Center
for Fruit and Nut Research and Information, Davis, CA, pp. 71–81.
GRUNDWAG, M. (1975). Seed set in some Pistacia species (Anacardiaceae) after inter- and
intraspecific pollination. Israel Journal of Botany 24: 205±211.
GUERRERO, J., MORIANA, A., LOPEZ, JF, MENDIOLA, MA, GIJON, MC (2005) The pistachio tree:
choice of variety and rootstock in Castilla La Mancha. Rev. Professional Fruit Growing, No. 150
May/June 2005.
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INTA EEA San Juan
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KASHANINEJAD, M., MORTAZAVI, A., SAFEKARDI, A., TABIL, LG (2006). Some physical
properties of Pistachio (Pistacia Vera L.) nut and its kernel. Journal of Food Engineering, 72: 30-38.
METHENEY, P. d. (1996). Determination of the winter chilling requirement of California pistachio. In:
Annual Report. California Pistachio Industry. pp. 70-71.
PASO (2012). “Area of fruit trees by region. According to the date of the fruit cadastre”
(http://www.odepa.gob.cl/servlet/articulos.ServletMostrarDetalle;jsessionid=4C28532
3E0D67FAA8266F93D2877351E?idcla=12&idn=1738, consulted on 03/15/2012).
MURNEEK, A.E. (1924). The effects of fruit on vegetative growth in plants. Proc. Am.Soc. Hortic. Sci.
21, 274–276.
PICCHIONI, GA, BROWN, PH, WEINBAUM, SA, MURAOKA, TT (1997). Macronutrient allocation to
leaves and fruits of mature, alternate-bearing pistachio trees: magnitude and seasonal patterns at the
whole-canopy level. J. A.M. Soc. Hortic.Sci. 122, 267–274.
POLITO, V. (1999). Seedlessness and Parthenocarpy in Pistacia vera L. (Anacardiaceae): Temporal
Changes in Patterns of Vascular Transport to Ovules. Annals of Botany 83: 363±368, 1999Article No.
anbo.1998.0830, available online at http:}} www.idealibrary.com
RAHEMI, M., PAKKISH, Z. (2009). Determination of Chilling and Heat Requirements of Pistachio
(Pistacia veraL.). Cultivars Agricultural Sciences in China, 8(7): 803-807
Ministry of
Agriculture, Livestock and fishing
Presidency of the Nation

RAMIREZ MARTÍN, Teresa (2010), “Evolution of Spanish foreign trade in nuts: export/import analysis
and administrative requirements”, Fruits and Vegetables Area, Government of Spain.
ROGOWSKY, Robert (Dir.) (2005). “Raw In-Shell Pistachios from Iran”.No. 731-TA-287
(Review).Publication 3824.US International Trade Commission. Washington, USA.
SAAVEDRA OPAZO, E. (2011) The pistachio tree. General background and advances in the
agronomic management of pistachio cultivation in Chile. Foundation for Agrarian Innovation (FIA).
Chili.
SERAGRO (s/a). “Pistachio in Chile”.( http://seragro.cl/?a=1205 , consulted on 03/10/2012).
SPANN, TM, BEEDE, RH, DEJONG, TM (2009). Contributions of short- and long-shoots to yield of
'Kerman' pistachio (Pistacia vera L.). Scientia Horticulturee 121: 495–500
SPINA, Paolo (1983): The Pistachio, Bologna, Edagricole.
URIU, K., PEARSON, J. (1983). Diagnosis and correction of nutritional problems including the crinkle
leaf disorder. California Pistachio Industry. Annual Report.
U.S. INTERNATIONAL TRADE COMMISSION (2005). Raw In-Shell Pistachios From Iran.
Washington DC. Publication 3824. Available at: www.usitc.gov .
USDA (2011). Pistachios: World Markets and Trade. United States Department of Agriculture Foreign
Agricultural Service Circular Series February
USDA (2012). Pistachios: World Markets and Trade. United States Department of Agriculture Foreign
Agricultural Service Circular Series February
USDA. SR 18 (2005). USDA Nutrient data base for standard reference release 18, 2005.
VARGAS GARCÍA, F., ROMERO, MA, CARAVACA, I. b. (1999): Basic aspects of Pistachio
cultivation: Situation, Problems and Perspectives. Professional Fruit Growing, Special Nuts II, 104:
98-105
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INTA EEA San Juan
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5 Sites consulted
www.seragro.cl
www.odepa.gob.cl
www.diariodecuyo.com.ar
www.aladi.org
www.pistachioassociation.com
www.usda.gov
http://faostat.fao.org/
http://www.iberonexus.com
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INTA EEA San Juan
Ministry of
8

Agriculture, Livestock and fishing

Presidency of the Nation

6 Exhibit

Table III: Meteorological Statistics 1985-2010. Department of Sarmiento-Media Agua

YEAR FIRST DEGREES DEGREES DAY

FROST DAY FROST-FREE LAST FROST NO.
DATE NO. PERIOD DATE
1985 Apr 29 -1,0 119 258 Aug 13 -0,5 225
1986 May 25 -2,5 145 217 Oct 19 0,0 292
1987 May 8 -1,0 128 230 19-Sep -2,0 262
1988 May 4 0,0 125 235 11-Sep -1,0 255
1989 Apr 28 -2,6 118 230 9-Sep -2,0 252
1990 May 18 0,0 138 236 23-Sep 0,0 266
1991 Apr 19 0,0 109 177 Oct 23 -1,0 296
1992 May 7 0,0 128 184 4-Nov 0,0 309
1993 May 14 -2,0 134 246 9-Sep -2,0 252
1994 May 13 0,0 133 245 9-Sep -2,5 252
1995 Apr 20 -0,5 110 211 20-Sep -3,5 263
1996 May 20 -1,5 141 246 16-Sep -0,5 260
1997 May 22 -4,0 142 283 Aug 11 -1,5 223
1998 May 16 -0,5 136 258 Aug 30 -0,5 242
1999 Apr 16 0,0 106 212 15-Sep 0,0 258
2000 May 19 0,0 139 245 16-Sep -2,0 260
2001 Apr 27 0,0 117 251 Aug 18 -1,5 230
2002 May 23 -0,5 143 248 6-Sep -0,5 249
2003 June 4 -0,5 155 265 11-Sep -0,5 254
2004 May 5 -0,5 126 241 6-Sep -1,0 250
2005 Apr 14 0,0 104 223 2-Sep 0,0 245
2006 May 19 0,0 139 255 5-Sep -0,5 248
2007 May 5 -1,5 125 225 24-Sep -1,5 267
2008 Apr 14 -3,5 105 220 6-Sep -1,0 250
2009 June 7 -1,5 158 249 30-Sep 0,0 273
2010 June 4 -1,0 155 291 Aug 16 -2,5 228

Source: INTA EEA San Juan

Average Date of First Frost = May 10

Average Date of Last Frost = September 13
Extreme Date of the First Frost = April 14, 2008
Extreme Date of the Last Frost = November 4, 1992
Frost Free Period = 238 days
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INTA
Ministry of
Agriculture, Livestock and fishing 9
EEA San Juan
Presidency of the Nation

Table IV: Meteorological Statistics 1985-2010. Pocito Department

FIRST FROST-
FROST DURATION FREE LAST DURATION
DATE (hs) PERIOD FROST (hs)
YEAR DEGREES DEGREES
1985 29/4 -0,7 1 259 12/8 -1,0 1
1986 30/5 -0,5 1 267 4/9 -0,3 1
1987 26/5 -0,4 1 247 21/8 0,0 1
1988 4/5 -0,8 1 244 10/9 0,0 1
1989 29/4 -1,5 5 240 31/8 -1,3 3
1990 19/5 -0,1 1 246 14/9 -0,2 5
1991 8/6 -2,3 4 278 2/9 0,0 1
1992 29/5 -1,5 4 290 12/8 -0,7 1
1993 26/5 -1,3 3 265 2/9 -1,6 4
1994 25/6 -3,9 4 288 9/9 -0,5 1
1995 8/6 -0,5 1 260 20/9 -2,5 3
1996 31/5 -2,4 5 264 9/9 -1,0 3
1997 24/5 -0,5 1 286 10/8 0,0 2
1998 24/6 -0,2 1 304 23/8 0,0 1
1999 9/6 -0,8 1 286 26/8 -1,0 1
2000 5/5 0,0 1 235 12/9 0,0 1
2001 1/5 0,0 3 257 16/8 0,0 1
2002 30/5 -0,4 1 265 6/9 0,0 1
2003 8/6 -0,1 1 282 29/8 0,0 1
2004 25/5 -0,2 1 276 22/8 -1,0 4
2005 21/5 -1,1 6 284 9/8 -0,4 2
2006 19/5 0,0 1 275 16/8 -1,0 3
2007 31/5 -2,0 3 277 26/8 -0,5 2
2008 30/5 -2,0 7 280 13/8 0,0 1
2009 11/6 0,0 1 312 3/8 -0,1 1
2010 25/5 -0,3 1 280 17/8 -0,3 1

Source: INTA EEA San Juan

Average Date of First Frost = May 26

Average Date of Last Frost = August 28
Extreme Date of the First Frost = April 29, 1985 and 1989
Extreme Date of the Last Frost = November 4, 1992
Frost Free Period = 267 days
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INTA EEA San Juan Ministry of
0

Agriculture, Livestock and fishing

Presidency of the Nation

Table V: Meteorological Statistics 1985-2008. San Martin Department

YEAR FIRST DEGREES FROST- LAST DEGREE

FROST DAY FREE FROST S DAY
DATE NO. PERIOD DATE NO.
1985 29/4 -0,5 119 257 14/8 0,0 226
1986 26/5 -5,0 146 250 17/9 -0,4 260
1987 9/5 0,0 129 239 11/9 0,0 254
1988 4/5 -2,0 125 243 3/9 0,0 247
1989 29/4 -2,9 119 239 1/9 -1,2 244
1990 19/5 -1,1 139 247 13/9 -0,3 256
1991 5/5 -1,0 125 195 23/10 -2,1 283
1992 20/5 0,0 141
1993 27/5 -4,0 147 266 2/9 -2,0 245
1994 25/6 -3,9 176 287 10/9 0,0 253
1995 21/4 0,0 111 210 22/9 0,0 265
1996 31/5 -3,4 152 245 28/9 0,0 272
1997 20/5 -0,4 140 199 1/11 -1,2 305
1998 17/4 -0,5 107 207 21/9 -0,9 264
1999 16/4 -0,2 106 231 27/8 0,0 239
2000 5/5 -2,9 126 230 17/9 -2,1 261
2001 23/4 0,0 113 216 18/9 -2,0 261
2002 20/5 0,0 140 241 20/9 -0,9 263
2003 24/5 -0,8 144 254 11/9 -3,8 254
2004 24/4 -3,0 115
2005 26/4 0,0 116 207 30/9 -0,9 273
2006 19/5 -0,7 139 245 15/9 0,0 258
2007 8/5 -0,8 128 225 24/9 -1,8 267
2008 28/5 -1,3 149 263 6/9 -0,8 250
Source: INTA EEA San Juan

Average Date of First Frost = May 12

Average Date of the Last Frost = September 14
Extreme Date of the First Frost = April 16, 1999
Extreme Date of the Last Frost = November 1, 1997
Frost Free Period = 240 days