Biodev 2030 Guyana Deliverable 2 Report Structure

BIODEV2030
GUYANA
[210701273_1]
REPORT
STRUCTURE
12/10/2021
CEMCO Inc.
Table of content
Table of content 2
A. Introduction 1
B. Main ecosystems in Guyana 10
B.1 Coastal ecosystem 11
B.2 The white sand plateau, known as Wallaba forests in Guyana 13
B.3 Forests (montane forest non-included) 15
B.4 Highlands, mountains, plateaus 18
B.5 Savannas 21
B.6 Freshwater Ecosystem 24
B.7 Marine ecosystem 27
C. Impacting sectors in Guyana 29
C.1 Mining sector 31
C.2 Forestry sector 34
C.3 Agriculture (rice and sugar industry) 39
C.4 Oil and Gas 44
C.5 Fisheries and aquaculture 47
C.6 Tourism 50
C.7 Infrastructures linked to renewable energies 53
C.8 Banking sector 57
D. Drivers of biodiversity loss 58
D.1 Coastal plain (including mangroves) 59
D.2 The white sand plateau 59
D.3 Forest ecosystem (excluding montane forests) 60
D.4 Highlands, mountains, plateaus 61
D.5 Savannas 61
D.6 Water system (including freshwaters) 62
D. 7 Marine ecosystem 62
E. References 63
ANNEX 1: Vegetation Map of Guyana 66
ANNEX 2: Mangrove Legislative Framework in Guyana 67
ANNEX 3: Mining Districts of Guyana 70
ANNEX 4: National Land Cover/Land Use Map 71
2
Table of illustration
Figure 1 Guyana in relation to South America, Amazonia, and the Guiana Shield Bio-geographic
Province. Source : WWF Living Guianas Report, 2012 [left] ; The Guiana Shield Region with the
region of western outliers indicated. Source : Gibbs & Barron, 19935 2
Figure 2 Natural region of Guyana. Source : Guyana Lands and surveys commission (GLSC),
consulted on the 16th of september. [left] ; Physiographic region of Guyana. Source : Guyana
National Land Use Plan, 20136 [right] 3
Figure 3 Number of species recorded per animal group in Guyana. Source: S.Hamer, 2021 4
Figure 4 Specied Richness (IUCN) in Guyana. Source: GEF, UNCBD, UNEP, & UNDP, 2018 4
Figure 5 Maps of abundances. Source : ter Steege, et al., 2000 5
Figure 6 Map of Guyana showing 10 administrative regions, formally titled indigenous areas, and
names of indigenous nations. Source: Anthony Cummings and Janette Bulkan, 2013 6
Figure 7 Population of Guyana. Source : World Population Review, 2021 6
Figure 8 Threats to the species at risk having the highest mitigation potential. Source: IUCN, 2021
7
Figure 9 Natural regions of Guyana. Source : Guyana Land and Survey Commission, 2006 10
Figure 10 Forest cover loss; carbon sequestration; key usage area for water security. Source: GEF,
UNCBD, UNEP, & UNDP, 2018
Figure 11 Threatened species richness (IUCN) with effective PA Network in Guyana. Source :
Source: GEF, UNCBD, UNEP, & UNDP, 2018 14
Figure 12 Protected area coverage (terrestrial). Source: GEF, UNCBD, UNEP, & UNDP, 2018 17
Figure 13 Number of species found in various biologically important areas in Guyana. Source:
S.Hamer, 2021 17
Figure 14 Species range rarity along (left) in comparison with elevation (right). Source: GEF,
UNCBD, UNEP, & UNDP, UNICEF, 2018
Figure 15 Results of the Protected Connected (ProtConn) index for Guyana.
Figure 16 Map of the major biogeographic domains of South America, showing the Brazilian
Cerrado and its boundaries. Source: Vieira et al., 2019. 22
Figure 17 Status protection of the southern savannahs. Source: SWM project 23
Figure 18 Main rivers of Guyana. Source: GLSC, 2021 25
Figure 19 Contribution of GDP for key sectors. Source : WWF Guianas, Valuation of Guyana
Fisheries Report, 2017 29
Figure 20 Sectoral contribution to GDP in 2019, based on Bank of Guyana data. Source : Inter-
American Development Bank, 2020 29
Figure 21 Extractive export as a share of total exports. Source : IMF Article IV 2019, Bank of
Guyana, and IMF-WEO, 2020. 30
Figure 22 Mineral exploration map (left). Source : GGMC in Toward the Greening of the Gold
Mining Sector of Guyana Transition, IDB, 2017; Guyana geography (right). 31
Figure 23 Deforestation due to gold mining. Source : ONFI, WWF, 2020 32
Figure 24 Forest Allocation Map Source: GFC, 2017 36
Figure 25 National land-use plan, 2017 37
3
Figure 26 Rice production in Guyana. Source : Guyana Rice Development Board annual report
2015. 40
Figure 27 Assessment for Potential of Biodiversity Protection, Forestry, Mineral Resources and
Agricultural Lands Source: (GLSC, 2013) 41
Figure 28 15 of ExxonMobil’s discoveries. Source : Kaieteur News Online, 2020. 45
Figure 29 Guyana marine capture production from 2007 to 2016 (Source : GoG, 2019 ; FAO, 2018)
47
Figure 30 Fishing footprint in relation to sediment type. CEFAS, 2018. 49
Figure 31 Guyana’s natural resources and infrastructures. Source: Wenner et al., 2015 51
Figure 32 Types of tourism and their frequency rates 52
Figure 33 Solar Resource Map of Guyana: Photovoltaic Power Potential Source: World Bank
Group & ESMAP 54
Figure 34 Guyana Hydroelectric Resources Source: Guyana Energy Agency, 2021 55
Figure 35 Wind speed potential across Guyana Source: Guyana Energy Agency, 2016 56
A. Introduction
A.1 Definition of biodiversity and its 3 levels
Biodiversity literally refers to the diversity of the living world (from the Greek bio (βίος) meaning "life").
Article 2 of the Convention on Biological Diversity defines it more precisely as "the variability among living
organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the
ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and
of ecosystems”.
Biodiversity is assessed at three levels, considering the diversity of life forms at the ecosystem level
(ecosystem diversity), species level (specific diversity) and genes level (genetic diversity). The diversity
of interactions within and between these three levels of organization of living organisms, and the
functional diversity, i.e., the diversity of functional characteristics of organisms, independently of the
species to which they belong, are additional element of diversity to consider when one assesses
biodiversity.
The usual measure of the level of biodiversity is based on lists of ecosystems, species and/or genes etc.
(reference state), weighted by the number of species and genes (reference state) according to their rarity.
The depletion of ecosystems, species and individuals, and the disruption of the interactions and
functions that ensure their integrity are the two main criteria for measuring the state of biodiversity.
● At the ecosystem scale, the IUCN Global Ecosystem Typology 2.0, provides a functional
description of biomes and ecosystems. It is the most comprehensive basis to date for this scale.
It serves as the basis for a recently initiated categorization of the risks of ecosystem collapse: The
Red List of Ecosystems1
● At the species scale, the IUCN Red List2 is the most comprehensive global inventory. It provides
information on the threat status of species (the risk of extinction), endemic or restricted species,
and the abundances of certain species. Specific richness is the most common unit of
measurement of biodiversity, and particular importance is given to "bio-indicator" species, which
are particularly sensitive to changes in certain biotic or abiotic characteristics of their habitat.
These data also make it possible to assess the integrity of species' ranges. The current
collapse in the numbers and abundance of many species, a prelude to their eventual extinction,
is focusing attention on the abundance of certain species that play an important functional role
in ecosystems. Monitoring them is one way to learn about the overall state of the ecosystem and
to identify changes in their environment at an early stage.
● Despite its importance, intraspecific genetic diversity, although it can be documented for some
well-studied threatened species, is not likely to be used as a basis for impact assessment at the
sectoral and national level in the short term. However, various initiatives are underway to use
high-throughput analysis techniques (bar-coding, Clare et al., 20063) for some species, and
ecosystem compartments, including soils.
Thus, and particularly for the stakes of this study, we can consider the relative importance of an ecosystem
for global biodiversity according to:
● The endemism it hosts
● The species richness it hosts
● Its connectivity (functional role)
● Its role to mitigate climate change
● Other ecological goods and services rendered
1
https://iucnrle.org/. Guyana’s RedList of ecosystems isn’t available yet.
2
https://www.iucnredlist.org/
3
DNA barcoding of Neotropical bats: species identification and discovery within Guyana - CLARE - 2007 - Molecular Ecology Notes - Wiley
Online Library
A.2 General description of Guyana biodiversity
Ecosystems: Guyana is situated in the neotropical biogeographical territory of northeastern South

America and is part of the Guiana Shield region which forms part of the Amazon Biome.
The Amazon Biome, spanning 6.7 million km2, is the single largest remaining tropical rainforest in the
world and is home to at least 10% of the world’s known biodiversity (WWF-Guianas Wetlands of Guyana
study, 2012), and the Guiana Shield, with an estimated age of 1.7-billion-year-old, is one of the oldest
Precambrian geological formations on earth.
Formed in the Precambrian period, precisely in the Paleoproterozoic era (between 2.5 and 1.6 billion
years ago), during which the first multicellular organisms appeared, this vast territory of approximately 1.8
million km2 offers today exceptional geographical characteristics (very high plateaus with particularly
steep contours and dense tropical rainforests over most of its surface) including a variety of landscapes
including sandstone tepuis, granite inselbergs, white sands, seasonally flooded tropical savannas,
lowlands with numerous rivers, isolated mountain ranges, and coastal swamps, each supporting a
characteristic vegetation4, and rich biodiversity of animals and plants. It is also one of the continent's
largest freshwater reservoirs. Finally, under the red earth of the oxisol and the black earth of the terra
preta, there is a great concentration of precious minerals: gold, ilmenite, beryllium, bauxite, manganese,
magnetite, kaolin, quartz, lithium, tantalum, molybdenum, garnet, uranium, diamond, niobium, chromium,
nickel, tin, tungsten, copper, iron, barite, platinum, dolomite, as well as petroleum and natural gas... The
Guiana Shield is of great ecological, biological and economic interest to the world.
This high and old diversity and endemicity of this biota accounts for its high value for the global
biodiversity.
Figure 1 Guyana in relation to South America, Amazonia, and the Guiana Shield Bio-geographic Province. Source :
WWF Living Guianas Report, 2012 [left] ; The Guiana Shield Region with the region of western outliers indicated.
Source : Gibbs & Barron, 19935
Guyana’s area is 215,000 square kilometers (km2) with forests covering a total of 87% of the country.
Nationally, the country land is considered as structured with four main natural landforms namely the
coastal plain, the hilly sand and clay region, the forested highlands, and interior savannahs (Guyana’s
National Land Use Plan, 2013; Guyana Lands and Surveys Commission, 2017; Guyana Forestry
Commission, 2018)5. Internationally, the FAO has mapped five separate physiographic regions namely
the coastal plain; interior alluvial plains and low-lying lands the white sand plateau and older pediplains;
crystalline shield uplands; highlands, mountains and plateau.
4
Huber et al., 1995. In Checklist of the Terrestrial Vertebrates of the Guiana Shield, Hollowell, T., and R. P. Reynolds, eds. Bulletin of the
Biological Society of Washington, no. 13.
5 The International Tropical Timber Organization has partitioned Guyana’s forests as 36% rainforest, 35% percent montane forest, 15%
swamp and marshes, 7% dry evergreen forests, 6% seasonalforest, and 1% mangrove forest (GoG, 2015b; Guyana Lands and Surveys
Commission, 2013; ter Steege, 2000).
Figure 2 Natural region of Guyana. Source : Guyana Lands and surveys commission (GLSC), consulted on the 16th of september. [left] ;
Physiographic region of Guyana. Source : Guyana National Land Use Plan, 2013 6 [right]
Based on the IUCN Global Ecosystem Typology 2.0., twenty-seven ecosystems6 have been referenced
in Guyana’s landscape, and the last Guyana’s national biodiversity strategy and action plan 2012-2020
(CBD) identified the following five major ecosystems: forest, freshwater, wetland, savannah, coastal and
marine. According to the stakes of the study, we decided to distinguish the following ecosystems, as each
ecosystem hosts different pressures:
(1) Coastal plain (including mangroves)

(2) The white sand plateau
(3) Tropical lowland rainforests (including alluvial forests)
(4) Highlands, mountains, plateau
(5) Savannas
(6) Water system (including freshwaters)
(7) Marine ecosystem
Species: There are over 3,500 species of animals that have been documented in Guyana. The
breakdown is 467 fishes, 130 amphibians, 179 reptiles, 814 birds, 225 mammals and 1,690 invertebrates
(FAO, 2015a; GoG, 2015b, 2019c). Approximately 33 species of bacteria, 13 species of nematodes and
an estimated 30 viruses have been documented as of 2015. In terms of archaea and protist species, there
were no records found that documented any archaea and protist species (GoG, 2015b, 2019c). To date,
more than 1,200 species of fungal species have been documented in Guyana. Most of the documented
6
T1.1 Tropical-subtropical lowland rainforests; T1.3 Tropical-subtropical montane rainforests; T4.1 Trophic savannas; T4.2 Pyric tussock
savannas; T7.1 Annual croplands; T7.3 Plantations; T7.4 Urban and industrial ecosystems; SF1.2 Groundwater ecosystems; TF1.1 Tropical
flooded forests and peat forests; TF1.3 Permanent marshes; TF1.4 Seasonal floodplain marshes; F1.1 Permanent upland streams; F1.2
Permanent lowland rivers; F2.1 Large permanent freshwater lakes; F3.1 Large reservoirs; F3.3 Rice paddies; F3.4 Freshwater aquafarms;
F3.5 Canals, ditches and drains; FM1.2 Permanently open riverine estuaries and bays; M1.5 Photo-limited marine animal forests; M1.8
Subtidal mud plains; M3.5 Deepwater biogenic beds; MT1.2 Muddy shores; MT1.3 Sandy shores; MFT1.1 Coastal river deltas; MFT1.2
Intertidal forests and shrublands; MFT1.3 Coastal saltmarshes and reedbeds
3
species fall into phylum Basidiomycota (mushrooms) (Hance, 2008; HENKEL et al., 2002; Henkel et al.,
2004; Smith et al., 2015).
Figure 3 Number of species recorded per animal group in Guyana. Source: S.Hamer, 2021
On the IUCN red list references 4559 species (high species richness) among which 20 are critically
endangered (CR), 58 are endangered (EN) and 106 are vulnerable (VU). Among the 20 CR species there
are 14 are fish with 13 chondrichthyans and the Nassau Grouper (Epinephelus striatus), 2 birds
(Cercomacra carbonaria, Synallaxis kollari), 4 are plants (Magnoliopsida). Some species are protected
by the national law7.
Figure 4 Specied Richness (IUCN) in Guyana. Source: GEF, UNCBD, UNEP, & UNDP, 2018
Endemism: As part of the wider phytogeographic entity of Guiana Shield, endemism in Guyana is either
caused by accident (restricted range species) or if habitat contain endemic characteristics, confined to
Guyana. Regarding local endemic plants, habitats such as white sands, serpentine rock, swamps, flood
plains, rock outcrops and cloud forest 8 are where endemics plants are usually found. The Pakaraima
Mountains in Guyana has the highest level of plant endemism in the country, followed by the upper
Mazaruni-Kako-Roraima area where high concentrations of endemic species are known to occur and is
7
18x24 swm protected speices poster (wildlife.gov.gy)
8
Gentry, A. H. 1992. Tropical Forest Biodiversity: distributional patterns and their conservational significance. Oikos 63: 19-28
ranked the second most important area for endemism in Guyana 9. Most of the endemic vertebrate fauna
of Guyana are restricted to highland areas, especially at elevations greater than 1500m.
Figure 5 Maps of abundances. Source : ter Steege, et al., 2000

A: Map of abundance of individuals of species endemic to the three Guianas (excluding the species endemic to
Guyana, which are in Figure 12.6), expressed as their percentage abundance in the forest community. Data is
interpolated at 0.25-degree grid level with spatial inter- distance weighting up to 50 km
B: Map of abundance of individuals of true Guyanan endemics, expressed as their percentage abundance in the
forest community. Data is interpolated at 0.25-degree grid level with spatial inter- distance weighting up to 50 km.
The two main centers of species diversity of endemics (Chapter 6) are indicated by black ellipses (Upper Mazaruni
R. - Kako and Potaro basin – Upper Demerara)
A.3 General description of Guyana’s human profile and activities
Guyana’s population is racially and ethnically diverse. The Indo-Guyanese, or East Indians, are the
largest ethnic group (44% of the population), the second largest group is the Afro-Guyanese (30% of the
population), and 17% of the population is of mixed heritage. Indigenous Amerindians represent 9% of
the population and the largest indigenous groups of Guyana are the Arawaks, Wai Wai, Caribs,
Akawaio and Arecuna.
9
Steege, H. ter, 2000. Plant Diversity in Guyana, with recommendations for a National Protected Area Strategy. The Tropenbos Foundation.
Tropenbos Series 18.
5
Figure 6 Map of Guyana showing 10 administrative regions, formally titled indigenous areas, and names of indigenous nations. Source:
Anthony Cummings and Janette Bulkan, 2013
Guyana’s population density is very low (3,49% in 2020), with 786,559 inhabitants (WorldBank, 2021)
living on 215 000 km2 of lands. The country is among the 10 least populated countries in terms of land
area (Indexmundi, 2021). Consequently, demographic growth isn’t a great threat on biodiversity at the
country scale. However, at regional scale, 90% of Guyana’s population is living on the coastal strip, which
accounts for only 10% of the total land area. This relatively high human concentration leading to a high
concentration of impacts. According to the Guyana Labor Force Survey en 2018, roughly 12% of the
population is unemployed, and half of the employed labour force is holding informal jobs (48,6- 52,7%).
Most Guyanese working population is employed (formal jobs) in agriculture (18,9%), wholesale and retail
trade (16-17%), public administration and defense (9,3%) and manufacturing sector (8,4%) 10.
Figure 7 Population of Guyana. Source : World Population Review, 2021
A.4 Consequence of economic development on biodiversity
10
https://statisticsguyana.gov.gy/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/GLFS_2017_Quarter4_Final-PDF-1.4MB.pdf
Guyana heavily dependent on exports of gold, bauxite, and agricultural products (World Bank, 2021) and
recently became the world’s newest petrostate 11, meaning that a large part of the economic activity is
driven from external demand. Several factors contributed to Guyana’s dependency on external
investment, starting from its colonial history to the global production mode being based on a growth
paradigm (development models). The abundant ecological profile of the country led to the risk of being
trapped in the Dutch disease, as biodiversity largely contribute to Guyana’s economy with 95% of
foreign exchange earnings being the result of using natural resources and biodiversity (in year
2013, EPA, 2014).
The extraction of resources causes direct removal of biodiversity (minerals, fishes, trees, oil, plants) and
indirect disruption of biodiversity being the result of land use changes, leading to the fragmentation of
biological corridors, habitat, introduction of invasive species or diverse pollutions.
In Guyana a study has been made by the IUCN, according to the IBAT analysis. This assessment
estimates the contribution that an investment can make over a geographic area to reduce the risk of
species extinction by reducing existing risks (mitigation potential). This measure lists the threats to
species at risk (VU, EN, CR), which has the best mitigation potential, and are the following in Guyana:
● Fishing & harvesting aquatic resources, on a large extent, category (5.4.)

● Logging and wood harvesting (5.3.)
● Housing and urban areas (1.1)
● Agro-industry farming (2.1.3.)
● Mining and quarrying (3.2)
● Agro-industry grazing, ranching or farming (2.3.3.)
● Hunting & collecting terrestrial animals (5.1.1.)
Figure 8 Threats to the species at risk having the highest mitigation potential. Source: IUCN, 2021
11
https://theglobalamericans.org/2021/04/saber-rattling-and-high-stakes-in-guyanas-geopolitical-neighborhood/
7
In the last Guyana’s national biodiversity strategy and action plan (2012-2020) some threats to Guyana’s
environment have been listed as follows (the words in italic have been added by the authors):
● Direct threats, resulting from developmental activities

- overfishing and overhunting on commercial scales, which is linked to the fisheries sector
- savannah and forest fires, in particular, in the Rupununi Savannahs and surrounding forested
areas of the Kanuku Mountains, which is linked to the agricultural sector
- indiscriminate land-use practices (mining, logging practices, agriculture)
- hinterland road construction, which is linked to mining, logging activities, and tourism, as well
as infrastructures needs (energy, transport).
- uncontrolled harvesting and poaching of wildlife, which isn’t an economic sector
- uncontrolled harvesting of non-timber forest products, which isn’t an economic sector
- uncontrolled and inappropriate use of agro-chemicals and other human induced pollution such
as indiscriminate disposal of solid wastes both hazardous and non-hazardous, which can be
linked to agriculture, but also any other sectors implying human work.
● Indirect threats
- climate change events and related natural disasters such as floods and droughts with ever
increasing severity
- institutional fragmentation and conflicting legislation
- limited knowledge on species diversity, range, and behavior
- insufficient monitoring and enforcement
- limited relevant judicial awareness and experience.
Regarding specific ecosystems, the threats identified were:
● In forests and savannahs:

- large scale selective logging (“high grading”) of certain species
- fuel wood collection in natural forests
- unregulated chainsaw operations
- conversion to agriculture and other uses
- unregulated and unmanaged exploitation of forest resources in titled Amerindian communities
- mining (legal and illegal)
- over-harvesting of resources
● Inland aquatic
- loss of aquatic biodiversity resulting from land and river mining
- degradation of water quality due to mining and agricultural practices
- introduction of potentially damaging invasive species
- over-harvesting of fisheries resources with gill nets and sport fishing.
● Marine/ Coastal
- excessive targeting of certain marine species of fish
- introduction of seine for fish harvesting
- degradation of water quality due to contamination from solid and other waste
- illegal harvesting of mangrove vegetation
- poaching of protected species – endangered sea turtles.
As well as the key emerging threats and pressures
● A threat to the fishing industry. A decline in fish catch of 6.5% in 2013 was attributed to
overfishing
● Human use of the mangrove belt which has been severely depleted from heavy, to which the
rise in sea level and increased wave force adds additional pressures. The oil and gas industry
becoming a threat to the mangrove environments via the establishment of massive onshore
bases.
● Gold mining which continues to increase and represent significative threats to the environment
and biodiversity from chemical use, removal of trees and soil.
● Tourism has become a major worldwide economic activity, with tourist increasingly interested in
visiting unspoiled and less-developed areas with low tourist density. Therefore, if the level of
visitors is greater than the environment’s ability to cope with the level of use, Guyana might incur
negative impact on its biodiversity.
Finally, other contingent vulnerabilities were mentioned:

● Climate change events and related natural disasters are unpredictable weather patterns, that
can affect the availability of water and food resources for some wildlife species, key fruiting trees,
and more direct impacts may result from flash floods in some hilly regions
● Introduction of Alien Invasive Species, a total of 49 invasive species are known to occur in
Guyana. Of these, 18 species are Alien (introduced), 28 are Native and 3 species with their bio-
status not specified. Twenty-three (23), invasive species are found in agricultural areas, 21 in
natural forests, 14 in coastlands, 18 in wetlands and 3 in marine habitats (Global Invasive Species
Database, 2014)
● Increased accessibility to and economic activities in hinterland areas. The rapid opening up of
areas to commercial activity may lead to clash of cultures and practices that may make local
people more vulnerable to diseases, etc.
● Vulnerability of Guyana’s coastal zone to flooding, erosion and salinization. Due to physio
geography, Guyana’s coastal zone being 1m below mean high tide levels of the Atlantic Ocean in
some areas and expected increase of the sea level.
To update and prioritize those threat assessments, this diagnosis called Report structure offers a
review of existing reports and literature on scientific knowledge/data (reports, literature, remote sensing
etc.) on biodiversity pressures/threats and drivers of decline caused by the economic sectors in Guyana.
The present document will serve the second part of the study, which purpose is to prioritize those threats
according to a list of criteria, both quantitative and qualitative.
The report structure is divided in three parts as follows:
● The main ecosystems of Guyana: describing for 7 ecosystems, the habitats and species (1),
Guyana’s characteristically traits, at national or regional level (2), ecosystem services rendered
(3), studies on the said ecosystem (4), protection status of the said ecosystem (5), criteria of
importance for the ecosystem (6).
● The main economic sectors of Guyana: describing for 7 economic sectors, their contribution to
national economy (1), their area of impact (2), the description of current impacts (3), the
description of prospected impact (4)
● Drivers of biodiversity loss on each ecosystem: which is a preliminary identification of the
relative importance of threats to biodiversity on each ecosystem, to be completed with
stakeholders’ workshops and with the prioritization analysis process.
9
B. Main ecosystems in Guyana
As previously mentioned, this study distinguishes the following ecosystems, which correspond to naturel
region of Guyana, to which were added water system, marine ecosystem, and tropical lowland rainforests
(including alluvial forests):
● Coastal plain (including mangroves)

● White sand plateau
● Tropical lowland rainforests (including alluvial forests)
● Highlands, mountains, plateaus
● Savannas
● Water system (including freshwaters)
● Marine ecosystem
Figure 9 Natural regions of Guyana. Source : Guyana Land and Survey Commission, 2006
All along this section, for a better visualization, it is recommended to refer at the first annex which is the
vegetation map of Guyana.
B.1 Coastal ecosystem
Habitats and species description

The coastal zone accounts for 4.3% of Guyana’s total landmass and varies in width from 8 to 65 km
and a length of 440 km. Mangroves and swamps forest cover an estimated 22632.4 hectares of the coast
(Jaikishun et al., 201712) and are bordered inland by shallow saline and brackish lagoons and swamps,
seasonally flooded palm marsh and forest of the old coastal plain (the Coropina formation) (Guyana’s
national biodiversity strategy and action plan, 2012-2020). Mangroves represents 0.12% of Guyana’s
forests, with 3 species occuring, which are Avicennia germinans, Rhizophora mangle and Laguncularia
racemosa (Hussein, 1995). Swamp and marsh forests, dominant species are Symphonia globulifera,
Tabebuia insignis/fluviatilis, Pterocarpus officinalis and Euterpe oleracea, and Manicaria saccifera is
commonly found as a narrow belt along rivers. More inland forest composition is slightly different as the
duration of flooding is less pronounced, and common species are Symphonia globulifera, Virola
surinamensis, Iryanthera spp., Pterocarpus officinalis, Mora excelsa, Pachira aquatica, Manicaria
saccifera and Euterpe oleracea.
Mangrove is a great habitat for wildlife and hosts birds as the scarlet ibis (Eudocimus ruber), species
of invertebrate herbivores, reptiles, small mammals as the manatee (Pteronura brasiliensis), the
mangrove doe (Odocoileus cariacou) and the raccoon (Procyon cancrivorus), juvenile fish, hard
substrates for algal attachment and sessile and mobile invertebrates such as oysters, mussels, sponges
and gastropods. Mangrove is also a nesting ground for the endangered Leatherback, (Demochelys
coriacea), Hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), Olive Ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) and the Green turtle
(Chelonia mydas).
The Coastal Ecosystem Characteristic Traits
The coastal ecosystem of Guyana has particularities.
● Mangroves on mud with inverted distribution: even if Guyana is located at the end of the
influence of the silt from the Amazon, it hosts mobile mangrove moving with the movement of mud
banks (due to the longshore drift cycle). This phenomenon stops at the mouth of the Orinoco
River. After the accretion of mud banks, mangroves develop towards the sea and then retreat.
This endemic phenomenon is even visible on the vegetation as mangroves on mud with inverted
distribution. In Guyana Red mangroves (Rhizophora spp.) appear in the most stable situations (at
the back), followed by black mangroves (Aviciennia germinans) and white mangrove
(Laguncularia racemosa) which colonies the mud banks with a rapid growth strategy, sign of a
very productive environment, both on the terrestrial and marine part.
● Specialized roots such as pneumatophores and stilt roots: which allows the ecosystem
services to be provided.
● Ecotone: which by nature is a buffer zone which contributes to a large extent to the resilience of
ecosystems (land and sea)
● Upland shrub/grass savannah: on the eastern part of the coast, there is patches of upland
shrub/grass savannas, which is very characteristic of Guyana. This vegetation is dry and easily
flammable (more details in the savannas ecosystem section).
Ecosystem services, interest for global biodiversity
● Filter: Carbon and nutrients from buried detritus and/or decomposed by fungi and/or bacteria are
mobilized at higher trophic levels, and the nitrogen use/resorption cycle is very efficient. Even
pollutants in runoff from agriculture are absorbed (phytoremediation)
● Blue carbon sink: Mangroves host dense fast-growing trees whose development is accompanied
by a significant production of litter, some of which remains buried on site by sedimentation or
crabs. This dead wood, which decomposes very slowly due to the damp, oxygen-poor soil, forms
impressive carbon reserves. Some studies show that mangrove in Guyana sequester
approximately 17 metric tons of carbon annually (GEA, 2019 13).
● Nursery for juveniles
12
https://smujo.id/bw/article/download/1777/1698/2041#:~:text=The%20total%20forest%20coverage%20of,to%200.257%20gigatonnes%20of
%20CO2
13
https://gea.gov.gy/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/A3-Sustainable-Management-of-Natural-Resources.pdf
11
● Protective barrier against natural hazards, including flooding, storm surges, elevated tides, and
erosion.
● High structural importance for beta diversity and gamma diversity, i.e., for the survival and
recruitment of multiple species in poorly aerated, saline, mobile and tidally flooded substrates.
Studies on mangroves
● Jaikishun, Ansari, DaSilva, Hosen, Carbon storage potential of mangrove forest in Guyana, 2017
● Guyana’s national biodiversity strategy and action plan, 2012-2020
● GEA, Sustainable Management of Natural Ressources Report, 2019
Protection status and vulnerability

Except from the shell beach, located on the northern part of the coast and protected since 2011, the
coastline isn’t protected. Covering an area of 125,000 ha, the shell beach represents 11% of the protected
area system and 0.58% of the country’s land mass. It is a combination of coastal forest and sandy
coastline providing an annual nesting ground for four endangered marine turtles: the Leatherback,
(Demochelys coriacea), the Hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), the Olive Ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea)
and the Green turtle (Chelonia mydas). The area also encompasses a unique ecosystem of mangrove
forests, inland swamp forests and savannahs. It is home to an array of species including manatees
(Trichechus manatus), tapirs (Tapirus terrestris), deer (Mazama americana), jaguars (Panthera onca),
howler monkeys (Alouatta seniculus), and other large animals. The bird diversity is one of the richest
in Guyana with over 200 species of coastal and migratory birds recorded and includes a variety of parrots
and macaws, numerous wading birds including many scarlet ibis (Eudocimus ruber) and Caribbean
flamingos (Phoenicopterus ruber), the magnificent harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja), Hoatzin (Opisthocomus
hoazin), Limpkin (Aramus guarauna), Mangrove rail (Rallus longirostris), Lesser yellowlegs (Tringa
flavipes), Red knot (Calidris canutus) Roseate spoonbill (Platalea ajaja), Rufous crab hawk (Buteogallus
aequinoctialis), Toco toucan (Ramphastos toco), Blood-colored woodpecker (Dryobates sanguineus),
among a host of others.
However, a mangrove restoration and management department exist within the government-funded
National Agriculture Research & Extension Institute (NAREI)14, and the mangrove ecosystem is protected
by law (legislative framework available in annex 2). The Government passed legislation, under the Forest
Act, to make all mangroves in Guyana a protected species15, and the Sea Defence Act explains that sea
defence includes any natural feature which serves as a protection of the seacoast against the erosive
action of the sea. However, despite this, the coastal ecosystem, and particularly the one located on the
southern half, is highly vulnerable. It has the highest forest cover loss in Guyana (along with the
savannas ecosystem), it is key usage area for water security (scarcity is a threat are all pressures are
concentrated on this part of the coast), and there is in the same a high potential of carbon
sequestration, mainly due to mangrove forests.
Figure 10 Forest cover loss; carbon sequestration; key usage area for water security. Source : GEF, UNCBD, UNEP, & UNDP, 2018
14
History of its creation: https://news.mongabay.com/2017/07/going-under-mangrove-restoration-in-low-lying-guyana-a-vital-need-say-
experts/
15
It is now illegal to destroy mangroves without prior permission from the Commissioner of the Guyana Forestry Commission
The coastal ecosystem is therefore considered as a vulnerable ecosystem that is poorly protected.
Criteria of importance for the ecosystem
Endemism Exceptional type of mangrove

(mudbank)
Richness High and diverse. Shell
beach: the bird diversity is one
of the richest
Connectivity High importance for the
ecosystem resilience
Climate change High importance for mitigation
as an inter-tidal vegetation,
and high sequestration of
carbon
B.2 The white sand plateau, known as Wallaba forests in Guyana

Habitat and species description
The sand plateau constitutes 13.7% of the total land mass of Guyana, which makes it the second biggest
ecosystem (after forest ecosystems, both montane and lowlands). White sand forest is characterized by
their soils, developed from old deltaic and continental deposits, which explain their high content of
iron and aluminum oxides, leading to saturation in those elements that may be a problem for plant growth
(Kekem et al., 199716), and this can be seen on the stand structure and leaves exhibit features (high
density, low to medium height, sclerophylly and yellowish to reddish colour) that respond to oligotrophic
soils and/or high drought sensibility (De Oñate-Calvín et al., 2013). Despite their poor nutrient content,
those specific soils are known for various minerals such as bauxite and white clays (kaolin) and for their
relative dryness, which make those ecosystems fragile due to their composition and to climate change.
The sand plateau is dominated by shrub forests (Wallaba forests, Eperua falcata), dakama forests and
muri scrub/white sand savannah, with lowland grass, mash forest and mixed forests. Trees are smaller
than in the deep rainforest, and dry easily.
In terms of species, it is home to regional endemic species of reptiles, amphibians and birds as the red
woodpecker (Veniliornis sanguineus), species of black manakin (Xenopipo atronitens Cabanis), golden-
plumed black manakin (Pipra erythrocephala).
The white sand plateau’s characteristic traits
● Inheritance from the late Tertiary-Pleistocene: White-sand forests are a complex of vegetation
types growing on quartz-rich sandy soils across Amazonia as a result of extensive sediments
being deposited in that period starting roughly 126 000 years ago. Those ecosystems represent
natural laboratories of evolution over their long history throughout Amazonia and the Guiana
Shield, and supports high levels of floral endemism (GoG, 2019).
● Low alpha diversity with high endemism (species): In Amazonia, those forests are scattered
in island-like patches, and often dominated by a few species (and consequently have a low alpha-
diversity), which are endemic, thus should be prioritized for conservation (Duivenvoorden 199617;
Alonso et al., 201318).
● Traditional use to build homes: These wooded areas are disdained for cultivation or timber
exploitation (oligotrophic soils), but nevertheless their small diameter stems, between 5 and 15
16
https://www.tropenbos.org/resources/publications/soils+of+the+rain+forest+in+central+guyana
17
https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1046/j.1365-2745.1999.00333.x
18
Alonso et al., Habitat Specialization by Birds in Western Amazonian White-sand Forests, 2013
13
centimeters, are highly durable and traditionally extracted by the local population to build their
homes (De Oñate-Calvín et al., 201319).
● Medicinal value: In French Guyana, similar forest is protected (Mana forest), especially for the
presence of Humiria balsamifera, used for medicinal purposes 20.
Studies on white sand plateau
This ecosystem is poorly studied in Guyana. Neighboring countries as Peru or French Guyana start to
focus on it, the most relevant paper being the ones of De Oñate-Calvín et al., 2013 and Alonso et al.,
2013, showing that despite their fragility, these white sand forests advantages in terms of their
management potential compared to other types of tropical rainforest considering the high frequency (26%)
of valuable species, the remarkable dominance of a small group of species, most of which (67%) are of
commercial interest.
There isn’t any protection status for white-sand plateaus despite its high soil particularities and great
vulnerability to climate change. Moreover, in terms of species, a collaboration between GEF, UNCBD,
UNEP, & UNDP (2018) shows that Guyana’s white sand plateau, along with forest ecosystems, host a
high percentage of threatened species.
Figure 11 Threatened species richness (IUCN) with effective PA Network in Guyana. Source : Source: GEF, UNCBD, UNEP, & UNDP, 2018
The white sand plateau is therefore considered as vulnerable ecosystem that is poorly protected, endemic
and sensible to climate change.
Endemism Oligotrophic soils and

vegetation accordingly
Richness High in minerals but low alpha
diversity
Connectivity Inheritage of the Tertiary-
Pleistocen to preserve
Climate change Fragility to climate change
19
Amazonian White-Sand Forest: A Black Future? https://revues.cirad.fr/index.php/BFT/article/view/20540/0
20
https://www.guyane-amazonie.fr/sites-naturels-proteges/PNACTG973V5001IW/detail/mana/foret-de-sables-blancs-de-mana
B.3 Forests (montane forest non-included)

Tropical forests cover 87% of the territory, among which 60% are considered as primary forests, yet
most of its ancient soils are infertile (FAO,2015). In Guyana, the tropical lowland rainforest gathers most
of the forest cover, and include interior alluvial plains and low-lying lands, mixed forests and dry evergreen
forests (>55% of Guyana’s forests).
Table 1 Area covered by different forest type. Source: ITTO, 2005
Lowland rainforests have high primary productivity, particularly due to their closed and dense canopy,
which maintains a warm and humid microclimate with low to moderate diurnal and seasonal temperature
variations. Those conditions support a high functional and taxonomic diversity, visible through the
high leaf area index, thanks to the indigenous energy source which allows the high plant diversity
(foothills, epiphytes, lianas, ferns) all of which are suitable habitats for the development of living
organisms. The canopy is evergreen and multi-layered, particularly due to the vertical stratification of
the food webs. Nutrient capital is either sequestered in the vegetation or recycled through a layer of litter,
which retains nutrients. Birds and mammals then play a crucial role in dispersal and pollination.
As regard species, the forested areas are rich with plant endemism. To date, forests are inhabited by
1,260 species of amphibians, birds, mammals, and reptiles, and over 8000 plant species (Nb: those data
include montane forests). According to the IUCN Red List reference, among the 184 species at risk
(CR, EN, VU), 71 lives in the forest (38.5%). Among the 5 CR species living in the forest, there is 3
plants and 2 birds (Cercomacra carbonaria and Synallaxis kollari). Finally, a collaboration between
GEF, UNCBD, UNEP, & UNDP (2018) shows that Guyana’s forest hosts a high percentage of threatened
species especially in forest ecosystems and in the white sand plateau (Figure 11)
Tropical Lowland Forests’ Characteristic Traits
● Forest along the Essequibo alluvial plain: The Essequibo River is connected to the Amazon
Basin and holds therefore a great number of sediments. It is the largest river in Guyana, and the
largest river between the Amazon and the Orinoco River with a drainage basin of 151,000 square
kilometers and its 20-kilometre-wide estuary.
● Niche refugia for many globally endangered faunal species such as the Giant River Otter
(Pteronura brasiliensis) and Tapir (Tapirus terrestris), both of which are also officially gazetted as
locally threatened species.
● The Guyana Lowland Floristic Province: Owing to its vegetation, a significant southern forested
area is known as the transverse dry belt and is characterized by semi-open forests, patches of
savannah, and dense mesophilic forests on higher elevations as well as beside rivers and streams
(Northern South America: Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, northern Brazil, and eastern
Venezuela ecoregion).
● Endemic timber species such as Greenheart (Chlorocardium rodiei), Purpleheart (Peltogyne
venosa), Wamara (Swartzia leiocalycina) and Clump Wallaba (Dicymbe altosonii), the critically
15
endangered Sarebereballi (Vouacapoua americana), the endangered Silverballi (Aniba
rosaedora).
● Carbon storage: as forests of Guyana stores about 5 gigatons CO2 equivalent in its above ground
biomass (GEA, 201921)
● Timber and non-timber forest products, especially for indigenous communities
● Protection of watersheds, carbon sequestration
● Non-use value, in the hinterland of Guyana, indigenous communities living there benefit from
social and cultural services derived from these areas.
● The aesthetics of the environment provide a good attraction for ecotourism and other forms of
nature-based tourism
Studies on tropical low land forests
There are very few studies focusing on Guyana’s forest only. The best specific data are the one of
FAO and national reports. Hout’s work is the most famous one to be done in Guyana. There is other
papers studying the regional scale.
● FAO, Global Forest Resources Assessment: Guyana. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations, 2020
● FAO, State of the World's Forests 2020
● Van der Hout, Resource Assessment and Forest Management Plan for the CITES-Listed Species
Cedrela odorata In Guyana, 2016.
● Van der Hout, Testing the applicability of reduced impact logging in greenheart forest in Guyana,
2000
● Kalamandeen et al., Pervasive rise of small-scale deforestation in Amazonia, 2018
Most of Guyana's forest cover has been designated as production forest, with 84.6% being publicly
owned by the State and the remaining 15.4% either declared as indigenous lands or privately-owned
lands. 8.7% of the territory is protected with 5 protected areas among which 3 are part of the lowland
rainforest ecosystem, being the following, from the smallest to the biggest, corresponding also to the
northernmost to the southernmost (Protected Area Trust, consulted in 2021):
● Kaieteur National Park (Ib category), created in 1929 in the Potaro-Siparuni Region: Covering
62 700 hectares, this area hosts endemic species like the Golden Frog (Anomaloglossus beebei)
and a recently discovered blue tarantula and the Kaieteur Falls with its single drop of 226 metres
(741 ft), which is over four times higher than Niagara Falls. It is home to the Patamona people.
1,100 species have been documented by Iwokrama.
● Iwokrama Forest (VI category): Covering 371,000 hectares of rainforest (1.6% of Guyana's
landmass and 2% of Guyana forests), the Iwokrama International Centre (IIC) was established in
1996 under a joint mandate from the Government of Guyana and the Commonwealth Secretariat
to manage the Iwokrama forest (Iwokrama Act, 1996). The center documented a total of 1,556
plant species in the protected area, and hosts the red howler monkey, the red-and-green macaw,
the Guianan cock-of-the-rock, the black caiman, and the black spider monkey
● Konashen Amerindian Protected Area (VI category), created in 2017 in the Upper Takatu-
Upper Essequibo Region: Covering about 3% of the country's land area (625,000 hectares), it is
home to the Wai Wai people and the only indigenous-owned territory in the protected area system.
In terms of species, it hosts the Harpy Eagle (Harpia harpyja – NT). Iwokrama has documented
an estimated 2,700 plant species in the park, which is the highest concentration of species
compared to other the others national parks.
21
https://gea.gov.gy/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/A3-Sustainable-Management-of-Natural-Resources.pdf
Figure 12 Protected area coverage (terrestrial). Source : GEF, UNCBD, UNEP, & UNDP, 2018
Figure 13 Number of species found in various biologically important areas in Guyana. Source: S.Hamer, 2021
17
Moreover, a specialized fund, the Guyana REDD+ Investment Fund (GRIF) was created in 2010
following a 2009 Memorandum of Understanding between the Governments of Guyana and Norway as
a means to channel international financing for avoided deforestation. The IADB acts as the GRIF
trustee, and as of 2014, it had received USD 150 million in payments from Norway 22. This reward system
is another element that confirm that the forest ecosystem is relatively well preserved in Guyana.
Forest ecosystem isn’t considered as vulnerable in Guyana, as long as anthropic intrusion remains
punctual, forests integrity being essential for global biodiversity.
Endemism Very high

Richness Very high with great functional
and taxonomic diversity due to
the productivity of the
ecosystem
Connectivity High with few anthropic
intrusion
Climate change Very high carbon storage
potential due to evergreen
forests
B.4 Highlands, mountains, plateaus

Mountain forest ecosystem represent 35% of the country’s forests (International Tropical Timber
Organization) and include lowland and lower montane forests on brown and white sands, dry sub montane
forests, montane forests, and upper montane forests.
Mountain forests grows under a permanent humidity mesoclimate with frequent mists, due to the
orographic uplift and shady conditions and to the closed tree canopy. Productivity is limited by cool
temperatures, higher exposure to UV-B and wind and by the fact that soils are sometimes shallow.
Propagules are dispersed by wind, birds and territorial mammals and in terms of flora, epiphytic ferns,
bryophytes, lichens, orchids, bromeliads drape the branches and exploit the atmospheric humidity.
In submontane forests of the Pakaraima region, (500-1500m), dominant species are Dicymbe, Licania,
Eschweilera, Mora, Alexa, and this ecosystem host the highest level of plant endemism in the country,
followed by the upper Mazaruni-Kako-Roraima (GoG, 2019). In upper montane forests (1500-2000m),
on the high table mountains (Mounts Roraima, Ayanganna and Wokomung), dominant species are
Bonnetia tepuiensis, Schefflera, Podocarpus, Magnolia and Weinmannia, as well as Melastomataceae,
Rubiaceae, Ilex and Podocarpus steyermarkii. In submontane forest of the Acarai Mounts from, 600-
800 m, the forest is quite similar to the forest in the Kanuku Mts. with Centrolobium, Cordia, Peltogyne,
Vitex, Inga, Protium, Tetragastris, Parkia, Pseudopiptadenia, Spondias and Genipa. Forests on the
mountain tops are dominated by Myrtaceae and Clusia on Sierra do Acarai.
Two geological forms are typical to the Guiana Shield landscape:
● Tepuis (tabular landforms), which are in the center-west of Guyana are the “house of gods”
(Pemón Amerindian word for tepuis). In Guyana, the Akawaio ethnic group uses the term "tipu".
Their altitude reaches 3,000 meters for the Sierra de la Neblina in Venezuela. These summits are
relics of a peneplain called Auyan, which has been isolated by erosion (Briceño & Schubert,
1990). Average rainfall is abundant and generally exceeds 2,500 mm per year (Maguire 1970).
These assembled formations contain a discontinuous surface area of about 5,000 km² (Huber,
22
http://www.guyanareddfund.org
1995) but constitute one of the best studied ecosystems in the region. The dominant vegetation
is Mimosoideae and Burseraceae and the endemism exceeds a thousand species (for Guyana
and Venezuela).
● Inselbergs (also found in Africa): From an ecological point of view, it is problematic to consider
inselbergs in the mountains because they are referring to a type of bedrock. These isolated domes
or rock peaks derive their names from their island characteristic emerging from the forest, literally
"island mountain " in German23. Generally, the inselbergs are granitic, most of them are dated
around 2,100 Ma. They are a dry habitat where temperatures can exceed 50°C during the dry
season. Bare rock supports cyanobacteria, the first stage of colonization with alteration of rock
and organic matter input (Sarthou 1992). The vegetation presents often xerophytic characters
often with shrubby islets. The most represented families are Poaceae, Orchidaceae,
Bromeliaceae, Eriocaulaceae, Lentibulariaceae and Xyridaceae.
As regard species, taxonomic diversity is moderate but local endemism is very high especially at
high altitudes, where the greatest concentration of rare and endemic species can be found, the most
relevant example being the recently discovered Roraima mouse (Podoxymys roraimae).
Figure 14 Species range rarity along (left) in comparison with

elevation (right). Source: GEF, UNCBD, UNEP, & UNDP,
UNICEF, 2018
Highlands, Mountains and Plateaus Characteristic Traits

● Tepuis and endemic rare species are remarkable tabular sandstone mountains which rise
steeply above the savannahs and tropical forests. Their prolonged isolation and an abrupt
topography have led to a unique habitat with many endemic plant and animal species, the latest
example being the discovery of the Roraima mouse (Podoxymys roraimae) at the top of Wei-
Assipu tepuis (2216m high) in 2009. The mouse belongs to one of the rarest mammal species,
but also to the most restricted geographical distribution: until then, only six specimens had been
collected in 1927 and 1989, all from the summit of the same tepui, Mount Roraima (Kok et al.,
201524).
23 This name was given by a German geographer Walter Bornhardt who worked in East Africa (Bornhardt, 1900).
24 Evolutionary affinities of the ‘Lost World’ mouse suggest a late Pliocene connection between the Guiana and Brazilian shields
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/jbi.12461
19
● Inselbergs: due to their extreme soil conditions are home to a very high proportion of protected
or rare protected or rare species. This ecosystem hosts a xerophytic flora in the middle of a dense
rainforest. Bromeliads, orchids and Clusiaceae constitute the three families that generated the
most endemic species in these environments. They are usually isolated “insular” structures under
edaphic, floristic, and microclimatic aspects and are suitable models for studying questions of
island ecology.
● Vulnerability to climate change: Altitudinal gradients in temperature, precipitation and exposure
are pivotal in ecosystem structure and function, which makes it vulnerable to climate change.
● Refuge zone during dry phases
● Ecological discontinuous corridors
Studies on mountains ecosystems
● Kok et al., Evolutionary affinities of the ‘Lost World’ mouse suggest a late Pliocene connection
between the Guiana and Brazilian shields, 2015
● Barthlott et al., Phytogeography and vegetation of tropical inselbergs, 1993
● Huber, The Chimanta Massif, Guyana Shield, Venezuela. A Tepuyan Ecological Essay, 1992
● Huber, Diversity and vegetation in the Guyana Region: An overview, 2005
● Campbell & Hammond, Floristic inventory of tropical countries, 1989
The Kanuku Mountains protected area, was created in 2011 in the Upper Takatu-Upper Essequibo
Region, covers 611 000 hectares and is home to the Macushi and Wapishana people, who have
traditionally depended on the ecosystem for food, water, shelter and medicines, and are integrated in the
area governance. Yupukari, Wapishana, and Macushi indigenous groups take the lead in conservation,
which is managed through the Kanuku Mountains Regional Council, established to help oversee
conservation in the 21 communities throughout the Kanukus25. On those mountains, 1 577 species have
been documented by Iwokrama. The area hosts the highest recorded bat diversity in the world with
89 species. Guyana and Guiana Shield species also mix with endangered Amazonian “giants”, including
the Giant River Otter (Pteronura brasiliensis, EN), Harpy Eagle (Harpia harpyja, NT), Giant Anteater
(Myrmecophaga tridactyla, VU), Black Caiman (Melanosuchus niger) and Giant River Turtle (Podocnemis
expansa). It also hosts the dwarf caiman (Paleosuchus trigonatus) which is among the smallest species
of crocodilians, the Podocnemis unifilis (VU).
In mountains ecosystem, the connectivity is still high (figure 15) and the major the source of vulnerability
is mainly coming from climate change’s perspectives.
25
https://news.mongabay.com/2019/01/a-community-in-guyana-relies-on-indigenous-knowledge-in-conservation/
Figure 15 Results of the Protected Connected (ProtConn) index for Guyana.
Montane ecosystem isn’t considered as vulnerable in Guyana because it is hardly accessible and
relatively well protected. Though, it hosts the highest concentration of endemism in the country.

Endemism Very high especially at high
altitudes
Richness Moderate
Connectivity Very high
Climate change Vulnerability to climate
change
B.5 Savannas

Interior savannahs represent 8% of Guyana’s territory and are scattered throughout the territory. The
main vegetation is shrublands (at low levels) and grasslands (at altitudinal levels), the elevation is mostly
100-120m (lowlands), with abruptly elevating altitudes of 610m to 990m (highlands).
● The lowlands savannas are located on the white sand plateau. There are dry savannas known
as muri scrub.
● The Pakaraima Mountains of north-west Guyana occurs on some plateaus between 600-1,200
m in the upper Mazaruni. It is the only upland savannah known in the Guiana Shield.
● Northern shrub savannahs form an interrupted chain stretching from Guyana into Suriname and
are heavily degraded by human activities.
● The Rupununi savannahs, in the southern part of Guyana, are shrub savannah with woody
elements (Curatella americana and Byrsomima crassifolia) mixed with open areas dominated by
grass (Trachypogon sp.) with the presence of meadows (non-grass species) associated growing
on highly acidic substrates such as sandy soils on white sands (broadleaf meadows) in flooded
conditions. Those savannas form large alluvial plains crossed by rivers and riparian forests
and are exposed to annual dry season fires. The six major rivers (Essequibo, Rewa, Siparuni,
21
Takutu, Burro-Burro and Rupununi Rivers) passing through the Rupununi and this hydrological
regime has influenced Guyana’s species richness and diversity and its landscapes over geologic
time. It is also part of the Gran Savannah Venezuela, which is one of the two great ecosystems
of savannas in Latin America (along with the Brazilian Cerado).
Fires and herbivory are crucial as those factors maintain the structure of the savannah. They are the
main agent that limits tree dominance and maintains tree-grass coexistence in those pyric savannas. This
phenomenon explains the resilience of the environment and can be seen through plant traits that
tolerate seasonal drought (deciduous leaf phenology, subterranean storage organs and deep roots). Soils
are moderately to poorly fertile and local endemism is fairly low, but the vegetation dynamics are very
complex, which makes it exceptional.
Figure 16 Map of the major biogeographic domains of South America, showing the Brazilian Cerrado and its boundaries. Source: Vieira et al.,
2019.
The six Cerrado floristic provinces (Ratter et al. 2003) shown are: Central and South-eastern (C & SE), Central-Western (CW),
Disjunct Amazonian Savannas (DA), Far Western Mesotrophic Sites (FWM), North-eastern (NE), and Southern (S). Map based on
Olson et al. (2001).
The Savannas’ Characteristic Traits

● Subtle equilibrium with disruptive gradient (frequency/intensity of fire): as described below
fire is both necessary and threatening to maintain the ecosystem.
● The Rupununi savannah: is a flooded savanna hosting gallery forests, wetlands, bush islands
and rocky outcrops (WWF, 2016). The region provides water connectivity between the ancient
Guyana Shield and the Amazon basin and host more than 450 fish species. the value of
conserving connectivity of this habitat is proved very high (De souza, 2020).
● Coastal savannahs: Also called the intermediate savannah, are easily accessible, which is
relatively rare.
● Refuge zone and migration of species: The flow of savannahs floodwaters (seasonal system)
generates a migration of micro and macrofaunal associated with this dynamic ecosystem. It
facilitates the inter-breeding of Amazonian species with species from the Guiana Shiel (GoG,
2019), thereby enhancing genetic pools and biodiversity.
● Provide clean water: especially wetland, flooded savannas, which absorb, filter and store
enormous amounts of water during the rainy season. The Rupununi River which has its source in
the Kanuku Mountains and other tributaries of the Essequibo River, greatly influence the
hydrology of the savannahs.
● Provide material for everyday use and medicine: firewood, timber for fences posts, houses,
canoes, raw materials to make baskets, sifters, furniture, jugs and other household items
(Heteropsis spp, Manilkara bidentata), medicines as crabwood tree (Carapa guianensis)
Studies on savanna ecosystems
● Biodiversity of the Southern Rupununi Savannah, WWF, 2016
● De Souza et al., Connectivity of neotropical river basins in the Central Guiana Shield Based on
Fish Distributions. Frontiers in Forests and Global Change, Volume 3, 2020
There is no current direct approved protection status on Savannah lands, however, a large part of the
southern savannahs is in indigenous territory, which is a guarantee of protection. Several initiatives
coming from conservation NGO (especially the WWF-Guianas), aims to register flooded savannas as
Ramsar sites, but no action is yet taken at higher levels of decisions. Nowadays, even if well-known for
its resilience, the ecosystem is one of the most vulnerable in Guyana. The last CBD National
Biodiversity Report on Guyana showed that natural event highly affects savanna, and that the highest
rate of degradation among Guyanese ecoregions was in the savannah ecosystem. This ecosystem
is considered as fragile, ecological important and probably best suited for both biological conservation
and high value-low impact economic activities such as ecotourism.
Figure 17 Status protection of the southern savannahs. Source: SWM project
23
Savannahs are considered as vulnerable due to the rising anthropic pressure, coming from various
activities, and leading the degradation of the ecosystem.
Endemism High with a wide variety of

savannahs
Richness Moderate
Connectivity Very high, with a complex
system that is to better
understand and to preserve
Climate change Few studies but potentially
B.6 Freshwater Ecosystem

The Guiana Shield region contains approximately 10 to 15% of the world's freshwater volume and
waters have been clue in the country’s structuration. The region's name ‘Guianas’ originated from an
Amerindian term for 'land of many waters', reflecting the vast water system made up of wetlands, streams
and rivers.
Guyana comprises three freshwater eco-regions (Orinoco Delta and coastal drainages, Essequibo,
Guianas). Of particular importance is the Essequibo ecoregion, which serves as an important biological
corridor that is connected to the Amazon Basin. This link allows for a continuous expanse of water during
the wet seasons between the tributaries of Rio Branco, Brazil, and the Rupununi River (GoG, 2015). The
internal network of waterways (rivers, creeks) occupies about 18,120 km2 or 8.4 percent of the country’s
land area (GoG, 2019) and include three main rivers drain from the south of Guyana into the Atlantic
Ocean which is to the north of the country (FAO, 2015; US Engineer Corp, 1998):
● The Essequibo River, the largest (1,014Km) which draining a total estimated area of 140,637
Km2.
● The Berbice River, the second largest (595km) which drains an area of 5,102 km2.
● The Demerara River, the smallest (346 km) and drains an area of 4,040 km2
Figure 18 Main rivers of Guyana. Source: GLSC, 2021
A WWF-Guianas study (2012) identified and characterized 23 wetlands sites which are the followings
The water system contains many ecological niches, resulting in a high local zonation of vegetation and
a high diversity of habitats at the plot level. These wetlands are rich in autotrophic species
(phytoplankton, algal mats and epiphytes, floating and amphibious grasses and graminoids, semi-
25
terrestrial woody plants) which are functionally diverse and productive. They support complex food webs
including zooplankton, aquatic invertebrates, fish, amphibians, reptiles, aquatic mammals, aquatic birds
and terrestrial animals with diverse feeding strategies. Water systems are quite remarkable for their
connectivity, their functional and structural value and their scientific importance due to the number of
microorganisms that are essential to the maintenance of rivers ecosystems itself and the entire forest it
waters.
In terms of species, endemicity is high hosting at least 476 freshwater fish species of which about 83
species are considered endemic (17.5%). Water systems hosts high abundance and diversity of
invertebrates (some with dormant traits that allow them to persist during drought phases), waterbirds,
reptiles and mammals, whose reproduction and recruitment, particularly of fish, coincide with the
availability of food induced by flooding regimes, which are in turn determined by river flow regimes
(seasonal precipitation and catchment melting). Those rivers also host high micro-endemicity. In
Guyana’s waters, there are also endangered species, 7 species of marine mammals (6 cetaceans and 1
manatee species), 4 turtle species and 2 sawfish species. The freshwater ecosystem also accommodates
amphibians. An estimate 27% of all amphibian species are endemic (37 of the 137 documented species
of frogs and toads) (Cole et al., 2012) 26. Approximately 28 amphibian species are listed as endangered
in Guyana (Living National Treasures, 2018; Cole et al., 2012).
Freshwater Ecosystem Characteristics (not specific to Guyana)

- High connectivity with complex food webs that research is trying to assess (Ruiz Ramos et al.,
202027)
- Special habitat with endemic species and micro-endemicity
- Importance of Essequibo waters as a biological corridor that connect to the Amazon Basin.
The Essequibo River forms a continuous expanse of water during the wet seasons between the
tributaries of the Rio Branco in Brazil and the Rupununi River in Guyana28
- Refuge zone during dry seasons, feeding grounds and migratory routes
- These wetlands provide regulatory, provisioning, and cultural services, helping to recharge
groundwater supplies, and serve as a source of irrigation water for the entire terrestrial
ecosystems.
Studies on freshwater ecosystem

There aren’t specific studies on freshwaters in Guyana, but studies highlight the impact of invasive
species in freshwaters.
● Toft et al., The effects of introduced water hyacinth on habitat structure invertebrate assemblages
and fish diets, 2003
● Villamagna et al., Ecological and scoio-economic impacts of invasive water hyacinth (Eichhornia
crassipes): a review, 2010
There isn’t specific protection status on freshwaters in Guyana, but WWF launched in August 2021
the “Sweet Water Campaign Website” to explain the urgent need for freshwater protection, focusing on
the South Rupununi. The final stages of the awareness campaign aim to engage government and other
key stakeholders in high-level discussions with the aim of securing a commitment to developing new
policies and regulations towards the protection and maintenance of sensitive areas where water flows.
Guyana is also to become a signatory to the RAMSAR Convention for protection of wetland (GoG,
2019).
26
Cole, C. J., Townsend, C. R., Reynolds, R. P., MacCulloch, R. D., & Lathrop, A. (2012). Amphibians and reptiles of Guyana, South America:
illustrated keys, annotated species accounts, and a biogeographic synopsis. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, 125(4), 317–
578. https://doi.org/10.2988/0006-324X-125.4.317
27
https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9358961
28
Watkins, G., Saul, W., Holm, E., Watson, C., Arjoon, D. and J. Bicknell, 2004. The Fish Fauna of the Iwokrama Forest. Proceedings of the
Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Vol. 154, pp. 39-53
The relative abundance of freshwaters doesn’t make this system vulnerable in Guyana. However, as the
source of any life, it can be considered as vulnerable, and as a priority to conserve.
Endemism Very high

Richness Very high
Climate change Will be crucial for the
resilience of ecosystems
B.7 Marine ecosystem

The marine environment is divided into coast (marine shelf biome) and deep sea (pelagic marine biome).
The continental slope of the Guiana Shelf is increasingly highlighted in studies, particularly following
the studies carried out by oil companies on the Guiana Shelf over the last ten years. This littoral fringe
with mudded waters is loaded with sediments, coming from the alluvium of the Amazon, which enrich
marine habitat with nutrient and attract many species (sea turtles in Shell Beach for instance).
Beyond this fringe, clearer waters host pelagic animals, that comes to feed in this loaded fringe. There is
a very special area called the North Brazil Large Marine Ecosystem, and it is an oceanic habitat that
extends from the Caribbean Sea south to the Parnaiba River in Brazil. Seagrass and coral reefs that
normally occurs in the tropical Atlantic coastal region does not occur in Guyana due to the presence of a
high density of clay particles that is continuously spit of by the Amazon River which originates from the
South American Highlands. The clay particles cause the turbidity of the nearshore waters of Guyana to
be dry high which is not conducive to the growth of seagrass and corals. However, deep-water corals
do occur offshore Guyana (ERM et al., 2020)29. Deepwater corals are actually a collection of animals
that build one common skeleton and can be found as shallow as 46m to more than 3000m in depth
(NOAA, 202130).
The pelagic marine biome is subdivided in different layers (epipelagic, mesopelagic, bathypelagic and
abyssal waters) which are highly connected and play a crucial role in maintaining the global climate.
Indigenous productivity in the epipelagic layer of the ocean accounts for about half of all global carbon
fixation. This activity in turn supports a complex food web and a high biomass of diatoms, copepods
(resident and vertical migrants), fish, cephalopods, marine mammals and seabirds, including any
predators visible taking advantage of the high light environment. The lower zone, the mesopelagic waters,
is called 'twilight' because it receives enough light to discern the diurnal cycles but too little to ensure
photosynthesis. In the two lowest layers, the bathypelagic and then the abyssal waters, there is no light,
and the energy sources are allochthonous, coming mainly from the deposition of particulate organic matter
(organic fluxes and detrital falls) from the epipelagic horizon - the flux of which decreases through the
mesopelagic and then the bathypelagic zone until it reaches the abyssal plains. Thus only 0.5-2% of
primary production in the epipelagic zone reaches the abyssal seabed, but population persistence in the
deep sea is largely dependent on connectivity between different communities (Sammarco et al., 2004,
Atchison et al., 2008). Any change in the natural dynamics of epipelagic waters has implications for
the abyssal floor and the ability of species to perform functions (respiration, bioturbation) that
modulate many of the ecosystem services provided by the abyssal plains, including nutrient regeneration
and carbon sequestration.
29
ERM, GSEC, & EMC. (2020). Environmental Impact Assessment Liza Phase 1 Development Project Esso Exploration and Production
Guyana, Limited: Vol. III (Issue July). www.erm.com
30
NOAA. (2021). Deep-Sea Coral Habitat . NOAA Fisheries. https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/national/habitat-conservation/deep-sea-coral-
habitat
27
In terms of species, the great stakes on the continental slope are marine turtles with nesting beaches of
marine turtles and two emblematic mammals (the sotalie and the lamentin). This sediment-laden strip is
also rich in shrimp and teems with species in terms of biodiversity and biomass. In the deep ocean, a high
density of cetaceans is known to occur including the Guiana Dolphin (Sotalia guianensis), the West Indian
manatee (Trichechus manatus), the Sei Whale (Balaenoptera borealis), the Blue Whale (Balaenoptera
musculus), the Sperm Whale (Physeter macrocephalus) and the Fin Whale (Balaenoptera physalus).
Marine Ecosystem Characteristic traits (which are the one of Guiana Shield and the entire oceans)
●Muddy circulation and swells of the Atlantic: The 1,500 km coast of the Guiana Shield is
characterized by those two important large-scale elements, sediments from large rivers constitute
a major structuring factor for the estuarine, coastal, and shelf marine ecosystems.
● Coral adaptation to turbid waters: sediment-induced stresses in corals in those specific waters
created some mechanisms of adaptation or acclimatize to variable sedimentation and turbidity
(Anthony et al., 2002)
● A major shift around the 30 m isobath between a coastal and offshore ecosystem (Willems,
2018).
● High sensitivity to climate change
● High connection of the pelagic ocean
● Resource: supply of fishes and marine nutrients
● Climate regulation in name of the biggest carbon stock on earth.
Studies on marine ecosystem
The marine ecosystem in Guyana was not extensively studied in the past. However, since the
commencement of oil and gas development, there has been a few studies done with the most
detailed study being conducted by Esso Exploration and Production Guyana Limited (EEPGL) as
part of their environmental impact assessment (ERM et al., 2020). The dataset was put together over
a three-year period (2017-2019). There are studies that have been conducted as recently as 2021 by
NGOs such as World Wildlife Fund (WWF) which completed a bassline assessment as part of the EU
funded Marine Spatial Planning project titled, “Promoting Integrated Ocean and Participatory governance
in Guyana and Suriname: The Eastern Gate to the Caribbean”. Two economic studies were also recently
done which focused on the ground fish and sea bob fisheries (Drugan, 201931; Isaac & Ferrari, 201632;
Willems, 201833).
There is no specific protection status for marine ecosystem in Guyana. Only the Shell beach is
protected but now threaten by the development of the oil & gas sector. However, even if few studies have
been made, marine ecosystem is considered as highly productive and is of high importance to
Guyana’s development (Guyana’s national biodiversity strategy and action plan 2012-2020).
The marine ecosystem is increasingly becoming vulnerable due to the fast expansion of the offshore oil
exploitation.
Endemism Very high

Richness Very high
Climate change mitigation Very high as the biggest
carbon sink worldwide
31
Drugan, J. (2019). Environmental Sustainability Assessment: Guyana artisanal groundfish fisheries Executive summary.
https://clmeplus.org/app/uploads/2020/06/Guyana-Environmental-Sustainability-Assessment_Artisanal-Groundfish-Fisheries.pdf
32
Isaac, V. J., & Ferrari, S. F. (2016). Assessment and management of the North Brazil Shelf Large Marine Ecosystem.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2016.11.004
33
Willems, T. (2018). Impact of Guyana seabob trawl fishery on marine habitats and ecosystems: A preliminary assessment.
https://fisheryprogress.org/sites/default/files/indicators-documents/Habitat%20and%20Ecosystem%20Report-Willems.pdf
C. Impacting sectors in Guyana
Guyana is a commodity-based economy with a GDP per capita of nearly US$ 7,000 (World Bank, 2020)
and a constant growth, that was 5,4% in 2019 and rose at 43,5% in 2020 after the launching of oil&gas
extraction.
Historically and until 2019, agriculture (rice, sugar) and extractives (gold, bauxite, diamonds, timber)
has been the twin engines of economic growth as the earnings from exports has had multiplier effect on
the rest of the economy (investment, domestic expenditures). However, that while the rice industry
continues to create growth, the sugar industry is declining (figure 19) and therefore Guyana recently
engaged in a process of diversification of its agricultural sector (Perspectives on diversification prospects
for the agri-food industry in Guyana, FAO, 2020).
Figure 19 Contribution of GDP for key sectors. Source : WWF Guianas, Valuation of Guyana Fisheries Report, 2017
Figure 20 Sectoral contribution to GDP in 2019, based on Bank of Guyana data. Source : Inter-American Development Bank, 2020
29
The paradigm shift in 2019, because of the discovery of high-grade hydrocarbons in 2015, which
created new perspectives for the country, Guyana being now known as the world’s newest petrostate 34.
This new economic scenario forecast that oil exports are expected to reach almost 56% of exports, based
on values of oil exports increasing from US$ 1.3 billion in 2020 to US$ 1.6 billion in 2021, despite both
the coronavirus pandemic and an environment of low oil prices in the first half of 2020 (Interamerican
development bank, Traversing a slippery slope, Guyana’s Oil Opportunity, 2020)
Figure 21 Extractive export as a share of total exports. Source : IMF Article IV 2019, Bank of Guyana, and IMF-WEO, 2020.
Though, since 2019 the following economic trends are rising:

● Oil & gas is an emerging source of economic wealth
● There are political intentions to diversify the agricultural sector and the first industrial scale
farm (Santa Fe) rose roughly 10 years ago.
● In terms of energy, since 2012, Guyana developed a low carbon development strategy which
includes many incentives to move toward the development of renewable energy.
● Extractives (mining sector) still constituted 16% of the GDP and more than 66% of the
commodity export basket (Interamerican development bank, 2020).
● Tourism was rising up before the COVID pandemic, and Guyana received special prizes for its
successful ecotourism activities.
● Fisheries and aquaculture are poorly studied but has a high development potential. It is
considered as a structuring factor for the Guyanese society.
In that context of change, the 8 following sectors will be studied to understand better their place in the
Guyanese economy, and their impact on biodiversity, both current and expected (future), direct and
indirect:
● Mining sector
● Forestry sector
● Agricultural sector
● Fisheries and aquaculture
● Tourism sector
● Renewable energy sector
● Oil and Gas sector
● Banking sector
34
https://theglobalamericans.org/2021/04/saber-rattling-and-high-stakes-in-guyanas-geopolitical-neighborhood/
C.1 Mining sector
Contribution to national economy
Mining has been a key driver of economic growth since more than 100 years, being the primary source
of foreign exchange until 2019 (Thomas, 2009). On the 2012-2019 time period the sector contributed to
12% of the GDP, this wealth being derived the following extractions:
● 8.9% from the gold industry

● 1.2% from the bauxite industry
● 1.5% from all other mineral mining activities
Even if mining activities started with bauxite industry, which operate for more than 100 years, the gold
production is nowadays the dominant one, accounting for 66% of the mining output, 55% of the
country’s export value and foreign exchange (US$411 214 600), with 70% of the production being the
result of artisanal small-scale mining (ASM) (Liang & Moonsammy, 2021). As of 2021, gold industry
turned second, representing 20.7% of the country’s export value and foreign earnings (US$205,609,300)
(Guyana Bureau of Statistics, 2021). Apart from gold, there is bauxite and diamonds (major activities) but
also a variety of other mineral deposits including silica sand, kyanite, feldspar, copper, tungsten, iron,
nickel (International Trade Administration, 2020).
In addition to its direct economic input, the mining industry has stimulated side economic activities, as
people developed local enterprises to provide services such as lodging, catering, recreation,
entertainment, transportation (ex: Bartica and Linden in district 3 and 4), which makes it an historical
structing sector for development purposes in Guyana.
Area of impact
Six mining districts are demarcated in Guyana, and a major part of mining activity (especially gold) is
carried out in the northern (center-west) part of the country, along the Cuyuni-Mazaruni region, in between
the 2 respective rivers and on the frontier of the Potaro and Upper-Demerara-Berbice region, along the
Essequibo River (figure 22). Those regions are in forests ecosystems, along rivers (for gold industry). As
regard bauxite, glass sand, brick tile and ceramic clay extractions they are located on the white-sand
plateau (northern-east side of the country).
Figure 22 Mineral exploration map (left). Source : GGMC in Toward the Greening of the Gold Mining Sector of Guyana Transition, IDB,
2017; Guyana geography (right).
31
The three major ecosystems impacted by the mining sector are:
● Forests ecosystems
● Rivers and soils
● White-sand plateau
Indeed, mining is known as being the key driver of deforestation, responsible for 87% of deforestation
in 2014 (GFC, 2015).
Figure 23 Deforestation due to gold mining. Source : ONFI, WWF, 2020
Description of impacts
Mining’s impact on biodiversity is due to two main direct drivers (threats) which are land and soil clearing
and chemical pollution.
● Land and soil clearing, corresponding to the pre-extraction step, are visible through
deforestation map, and soil analysis.
Gold mining is the leading cause of deforestation in the country, mainly coming from the ASM sector,
clearing small pockets of forested areas over a wider spatial range, but also coming from large bauxite
and gold mining operations clearing large sections of a concentrated area like in Linden and Kwakwani
area (Bholanath et Cort, 2015).
- Direct drivers of forest loss are forest clearing process for the creation of mining pits, tailing
ponds, for the building of mining facilities, and for the use of wood for fuel. Those processes
create ecological disturbances which affects the flow of ecosystem services associated
with the habitat (hydrology regulation, erosion protection, sequestration services, fauna
corridors).
- Additional drivers are due to anthropogenic disturbances. To access resources, humans’
fragments forests habitats. The opening of forests (roads, infrastructures) for extractive purpose
beak ecological corridors (fragmentation) which not only increase carbon emissions, but also
cause habitat loss which generate biodiversity loss (Hansen et al., 202035, Rutt et al., 202036).
It also pave the way to secondary activities such as hunting, bioprospecting, illegal
mining, wood collection, settlements, which add additional pollution of waters, noise
pollution, and other disturbances due to human intrusion.
- In that context land-use pressure tend to rise and to building up, as the access for resource
extraction attract an increasing number of people (Lennox et al., 2016), and land-use pressure
become an indirect driver of biodiversity loss. Anthropogenic disturbance thus tends to
double biodiversity loss from deforestation in tropical forests (Lennox et al., 2016 37).
Soil habitats are also impacted causing varying degrees of soil fragmentation. Singh et al. (2013)
estimate that a single dredge can remove up to 130 tons of soil a day. Using the GGMC estimates on the
number of operational dredges, and estimated 520000T of topsoil is removed daily from mining activities.
Even if this estimate needs to be taken with reserves, as more data is needed looking at soil removal
activity, it reflects an intense disruption of the substrate ecosystems which results in heavy
sedimentation in the river courses of the country, causing major ecological damages by increasing the
turbidity of the water and reducing the water flow.
● Chemical pollution, corresponding to the extraction step, are visible through water (and its
fauna) analysis and soil analysis.
- Chemical pollution is the result of the discharge of heavy metals used to prospects minerals,
and the most well-documented issue in Guyana concern the mercury pollution from gold
mining (Hilson and Laing, 2017a; Lowe, 2006; Pasha, Wenner and Clark, 2017; Roopnarine,
2002; Singh et al., 2013).
Mercury is used in the amalgamation process of gold mining and as of 2015, Guyana imports between
7,5 to 22,5 tons of mercury annually (Legg et al., 2015) for the gold mining sector. The country also has
an undocumented volume of mercury that is smuggled into the country mainly from the illegal mining
operators in the country.
It has detrimental effect on the ecosystem which can be seen through analysis of the concentration of
heavy metals in fish specimens. In 2001, the GGMC surveyed carnivorous freshwater fish and found that
57% of the sample exceeded the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines. In 2000, Singh et al.
reported the concentration of methyl mercury found in fish specimens across Guyana ranging between
0.24 – 1.81 𝑢g/g with 39% of the specimens exceeding WHO guidelines.
The mercury contamination in the air, water and soils is persistent in the environment and
accumulates over time. The accumulation eventually enters the entire biological system either through
direct contamination or through bioaccumulation in the food system (from aquatic micro-organism to
humans). The mercury pollution in Guyana has entered the food system (Singh et al., 2000) and
contaminates people using the rivers to catch fish or as a source of potable water. Mercury levels
contamination were assessed for indigenous people. Colchester et al. (2002) reported findings of 2 – 22
𝑢g/g of mercury in hair samples of communities along the Barima River in Guyana. Singh et al. (2013)
showed estimates from various indigenous communities across Guyana ranging up to 70.8 𝑢g/g in hair
specimens, some of which included nursing and pregnant women. The values reported were up to 5
times more than the WHO safety level.
35 Hansen et al., The fate of tropical forest fragments, 2020

36 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320719315770
37 This study took a large data set of plants, birds and dung beetles (1,538, 460 and 156 species, respectively) sampled in 36 catchments in the
Brazilian state of Pará. Catchments retaining more than 69–80% forest cover lost more conservation value from disturbance than from forest
loss.
33
As from now, no assessment has been found as regard the contamination of megafauna in Guyana such
as the Jaguar, Caimans or River Otters, but there is a high probability that wildlife is also impacted.
- As regards bauxite mining, it discharges aluminum, arsenic, cadmium, copper, chromium, lead,
silicon and titanium at varying levels of concentration (chemical discharge also entering the
ecology and food system). Not only do these pollutants enter the ambient environment during
the bauxite operations, but residual pollutants persist even after the mined-out phase.
Williams et al. (2019) evaluated mined-out pits that were now lakes in Linden and found arsenic, cadmium,
copper, chromium and lead in the soils of all the pits sampled though the ranges were within the WHO
safety guidelines. The study also found aluminum, silicon, iron and titanium with average concentrations
between 2 to 70%.
Bauxite mining operation also discharge particulate matter into the ambient air environment. The
particulate matter discharge if left unchecked affects the surface areas of plants, threatens the insect
populations and can afflict respiratory issues for the fauna around the areas as well. From now,
noncompliance with the mining regulation and accidents have been the major source of chemical
pollution. It is an indirect driver of biodiversity loss.
● As regard the indirect drivers of that section, it concerns the mined-out management as it
created thousands of hectares of mined-out lands in the country.
Those areas are characterized by large deep ponds or lakes, steep and unstable landforms, extensive
erosion, large, concentrated deforestation areas, and uncontrolled access leading to unlawful
dumping and extraction of materials mainly for construction. To reverse deforestation in Guyana, a
plan was formulated to restore the mined-out areas, and a decision was taken to introduce non-
native species, Acacia (Acacia mangium), instead of natural processes such as ecological succession
to occur eventually. Species has since spread into other areas where it was not planted and
encroaching on the native forest species because of its fast growth rate, the characteristic that
initially made it a good reforestation species (EPA, 2011b). The introduction of invasive alien species
is therefore an indirect effect of mining industry.
Key drivers of biodiversity loss for the mining sector is the following
● Land and soil clearing (direct)

- Forest loss
- Anthropogenic disturbances due to the opening of forests
- Topsoil removal, creating disruption of substrate ecosystems and sedimentation issues
● Chemical pollution (direct)
- Pollution of waters and soil
- Bioaccumulation of heavy metals (mercury), from river course, to wildlife, to human’s food
system, particulate matters
● Lack of mined-out plans leading to the introduction of alien invasive species (indirect)
● Noncompliance with mining regulations (indirect)
● Land-use pressure (indirect)
C.2 Forestry sector

Logging has been conducted in Guyana for over 200 years (Vieira 1980), but mechanization of logging
appeared in the 1920s with the introduction of motorized sleigh-winches, then superseded by wheeled
agricultural tractors, and in 1967, the use of chainsaws for felling and articulated rubber tiered skidders
for extraction were introduced (Vieira 1980).
Nowadays 86.2% of Guyana's forest area is under the management and control of the Government of
Guyana, of which 67% (12,2 million of hectares) are designated as State Forests and placed under
the management of the Guyana Forestry Commission (GFC). The remaining 12.9% are designated as
State Land under the remit of the Lands and Surveys Commission38 (ATIBT, 2020). Out of the 12.2 million
hectares of State Forest, 38% (4,7 million of hectares) have been issued as timber concessions, of which
13% (1,7 million hectares) are large, long-term concessions, 17% (2 million of hectares) are small, short-
term concessions and 8% (1 million hectares) are exploratory permit with no active timber harvesting
operations yet (GFC, 2018)
The forestry sector has a decreasing contribution to Guyana’s GDP since 2010, which was 1,81% in
2018, with an export value estimated at US$ 37.9 million, down 3.09% from the previous year (Guyana
Forestry Commission, 2019).
Table 2 Contribution of the forestry sector to national GDP. Source: Forestry Sector Information Report, 2018, GFC.
Area of impact
The impact of forestry is located in the center of the country, in lowland forest ecosystems (Figure 24)
and has potential to grow on the white-sand plateau (Figure 25). However, even if it directly depends on
forests, the forestry sector is the 3rd sectoral driver of deforestation in the country, after mining and
agriculture (Table 3).
38
The remainder are mainly privately owned, titled Amerindian Lands (13.8% ) and protected areas (6.0% ).
35
Table 3 MRVS results, 2019. Source: MRVS Report Assessment 2019, GFC, 2020.
Figure 24 Forest Allocation Map Source: GFC, 2017

Figure 25 National land-use plan, 2017
Description of impact
Before the 2000’s, conventional logging (CL) practices were especially detrimental to the most sought
after high-value species such as Chlorocardium rodiei (Greenheart), Peltogyne venosa (Purpleheart),
Hymenea courbaril (Locust) and Diplotropis purpurea (Tatabu). Trees were being harvested at a rate
of 8.7 trees/ha which is an average of 27.8m3/ha and was considered to be highly unsustainable
considering that 97% of the tree that was cut were Chlorocardium rodiei. This unsustainable logging
practices was all the more contributing to biodiversity loss as Chlorocardium rodiei is endemic to
Guyana.
In the mid-1990's, the ‘reduced impact logging’ (RIL) surfaced (Pinard et al. 1995) and some plannification
started to merge in the years 2000 in Guyana (van der Hout, 2000). The size of the felling gaps was
reduced, and more species were targeted (26) which reduced the pressure on Chlorocardium Rodiei,
although the specie still account for over 50% of the number of trees felled (Van der Hout, 2000).
A study also proved that Iwokrama’s logging regime, which is RIL awarded by FSC certification in
201639, is not disturbing the area’s larger taxa, showing that responses (occupancy and detection rate) of
39
on its 371,000-hectare forest reserve https://news.mongabay.com/2016/12/fsc-certification-gives-boost-to-rainforest-community/
37
large mammals and birds to RIL is even slightly positive (Roopsind et al., 2017 40). In fact, in the Amazonian
context, a diverse mix of mammals is a good bio-indicator as they play a pivotal role in the carbon
cycle of tropical forests by feeding microbes that lock the carbon from food scraps in the soil (Sobral et
al., 201741). CL is therefore an indirect driver of biodiversity loss.
Nevertheless, even if the intensity has changed, the threats (drivers) stayed the same (both systems):
● Cumulated canopy cover loss is a direct driver, easily seen through remote sensing analysis
Forestry practices has a direct impact on the forest stand, extracting wood for commercial use, producing
logs for exportation, which hold harmful ecological consequences in Guyana’s context as only a limited
number of marketable tree species are extracted (indirect multiplier effect).
For both RIL and CL, the average cumulative canopy loss is roughly 4.6% to 4.8% of the total logged area
respectively, while the natural undisturbed cumulative canopy loss averaged just over 3% (Pereira et al.,
2002). Apart from being a direct habitat loss, canopy gaps also encourage the invasion of non-native
species (indirect impact) which can damage and/or change the native ecology and have negative effect
on regeneration and seed dispersal (Baret et al., 2008; Devagiri et al., 2016; Hubbell et al., 1999; Jackson
& Adam, 2020; Karsten et al., 2013; Pedersen & Howard, 2004; Qiang et al., 2019; Saiful & Latiff, 2019;
Salvador-Van Eysenrode et al., 1998; Senécal et al., 2018; Hawes et al., 2020 42). In areas where there is
significant deforestation, the albedo would also increase and the canopy loss could cause warmer and
drier conditions to occur in the understory when compared with undisturbed forests, which cause
increased risks of fires (although there are not significant). Logging operation also has negative effects
on residual trees (not targeted by the logging operation), with disruption of its growth form that may affect
its survival if internal organs of the tree below the bask are exposed. Infections by various type of diseases
(fungal, bacterial, viral) can then easily occur, create decay. Severe damages as split trunks, gouges,
tops breaking off completely, etc. would most likely kill the tree (Figueira, 2008; Jalonen et al., 2014; Lee
et al., 2002; Ng et al., 2009; Ratnam et al., 2014).
● Genetic erosion is a long stand impact
On the long stand, damage can be done at the genetic level. Since the desired phenotypes (straight boles,
large diameter, little to no rot/decay, etc.) are removed for commercial use, that leaves the undesirable
phenotypes (crooked boles, prone to decay/rot, etc.) which would make the stand undesirable for the
main commercial purposes. On a genotypic level, genetic erosion will occur, and a significant amount of
diverse gen types are removed from the stand which decreases the genetic diversity of the stand. A
decrease in genetic diversity can make the stand more susceptible to attacks from pests and
diseases, natural hazards, the effects of climate change, etc. (Leal et al., 2014; Sebbenn et al., 2008).
● Ground clearance and disturbance are direct driver seen through observations and soil
analysis.
The skidding process creates a significant understory clearance. The use of heavy machinery destructs
the understory vegetation and compact soils, which reduces the capacities of infiltration and
consequently create excess of runoffs (Akbarimehr & Naghdi, 2012b; Arevalo et al., 2016; DeArmond et
al., 2021; Donagh et al., 2010). Soil erosion is a big issue as the majority of eroded material from logging
roads and skid trail temporarily end up in flood plains which can cause alteration to the habitat. In cases
where the eroded material reaches waterways, the aquatic environment is altered (Akbarimehr & Naghdi,
2012a; Ampoorter et al., 2007; Arevalo et al., 2016; DeArmond et al., 2021; Donagh et al., 2010; Sidle et
al., 2004). It also put significant pressure on species but also on soil and microorganisms which act to
purify air and water whilst regulating climate and recycling nutrients (Popradit et al., 2015).
40
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/btp.12446
41
Sobral, M., Silvius, M.K., Overman, H., Oliviera, B.F.L., Raab, K.T., Fragoso, V.M.J. (2017) Mammal diversity influences the carbon cycle
through trophic interactions in the Amazon. Nature Ecology & Evolution 1: 1670–1676. doi:10.1038/s41559-017-0334-0
42
https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1365-2745.13358
As described above for the mining sector, the opening of forests also paves the way to anthropogenic
disturbances and illegal logging, which add pressure on the ecosystems.
Keys drivers of biodiversity loss for the forestry sector are the following
● Loss of forest stand (direct)

- Putting high pressure on species, soil and microorganisms
- Creating disturbance in processes to purify air and water, regulating climate, recycling nutrients
- Genetic erosion
● Cumulated canopy cover loss (direct)
- Habitat loss resulting in disturbance of fauna and potential invasion of non-native species
(indirect)
- Rising of albedo effect, warmer and drier conditions
● Ground clearance and disturbance (direct)
- Destruction of the understory vegetation, and increase of its vulnerability
- Soil compaction and soil erosion
- Alteration of aquatic environment
● Anthropogenic intrusions (direct)
● Conventional logging practices (indirect)
C.3 Agriculture (rice and sugar industry)
Agriculture accounts for 19% of the national GDP (2019), employ 30-33% of the country’s labor force
and is still dominated by small farmers (>60%). Rice and sugar have been the two bedrock of Guyana’s
industrial agricultural sector since the colonial era. Since the sugar market is decreasingly incentive
at the global scale, the current political trend is to diversify the agriculture sector and revitalize the
sugar industry (transformation) to not be fallen by Dutch Disease. More than 140 species of plants, from
more than 100 plant families and 2 species of fungi, Oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus) and Common
mushroom (Agaricus bisporus), are cultivated in the agricultural sector.
Rice is both consumed at national level and exported internationally. In 2017, according to the Guyana
Rice Development Board, nearly 536,000 tons of rice were exported (compared with 500,000 tons in
2016). It is still considered as a stable market as global rice prices have a trend to rise (GBTI, 2019). On
the contrary, the sugar industry is decreasing since global trading environment changed at Guyana’s
disadvantage. As a result, the government of Guyana has decided to cease operations on many of the
country’s sugar estates for a move diverse agricultural model that encompasses both the traditionally
grown crops with non-traditionally grown crops (Guyana Ministry of Agriculture, 2013; Moonilall, et al.
2020).
Knowing that Guyana gathers all the conditions for this shifting to be successful (large arable land,
favorable climatic conditions, traditional agricultural knowledge), this transition should work if political will
sustain the following initiatives:
- Fresh fruits and vegetables cultivation, for the purpose of local consumption, with a high
demand for citrus fruits, mangoes, papayas, coconuts, pineapples, roots and tubers, plantains,
cucumbers and pumpkins.
- Peanut production, especially in the Rupununi region, that export peanut at the regional level
(Caribbean market)43
- Herbs and spices cultivation, including hot peppers, shallots, cilantro
43
https://web.archive.org/web/20090903201058/http://www.usaid.gov/stories/guyana/cs_gu_peanuts.html
39
- Apiculture industry, which started in 2018 with a great production of more than 11000 gallons
of nectar annually (in 2019)
- Organic cocoa, pineapple, heart of palm
- Few industries transforming raw agricultural products (sugar and tropical fruits) into
prepared foods (jams, jellies, molasses, fruit puree blends, coconut milk).
In 2020, the FAO published a report entitled « Perspectives on diversification prospects for the agrifood
industry in Guyana » showing that Guyana is already almost prepare to produce more « sophisticated »
products (manufactured products) as fish flour for animal feed, cocoa beans, palm oil and sunflower
seeds. The agri-food system is also increasingly linked to aquaculture (see section on fisheries and
aquaculture) and to the tourism industry.
However, aside from this small-holder farmer diversification trend, the opening of Santa Fe farm in 2010
has also shown that one possible future for the country could be to follow the brazilian agricultural
model, based on intensive exploitation of commodities, highly impactful for biodiversity. In the next few
years, the government might have to choose a developing model.
Area of impact
Agricultural lands are located mainly on the coast (figure 29) with 90% of the agriculture takes place on
the low coastal plain. Polder culture are visible close to Georgetown, and agricultural front threat both the
coastal ecosystem, the white sand plateau and the surrounding forests. Some forst patches can be
found (figure 30) and in the heart of the country close to the Essequibo River.
Figure 26 Rice production in Guyana. Source : Guyana Rice Development Board annual report 2015.
Figure 27 Assessment for Potential of Biodiversity Protection, Forestry, Mineral Resources and Agricultural Lands Source: (GLSC, 2013)
The agriculture sector has had a significant negative effect on Guyana’s ecosystem and ecological
processes, that have grown along with the sector over the years, and which is relatively well documented.
● Deforestation and forest degradation, in Guyana’s context, is a direct driver of biodiversity loss
- Agriculture is considered as the 2nd largest driver of deforestation of habitat loss, due to
agricultural practices, both on the coast with the creation of canal polders in the West Coast of
Demerara, and in the countryside with land-clearing practices, due to the burning and the
removing of forest cover, as visible in Linden-Soedyke areas.
Those disturbances, negatively impacts wildlife species with the most common being Capuchin Monkey
and the Red Rum Agouti, threatening the integrity of trophic chains (domino effects), but also human
living conditions, as the removal of the forest cover results in extreme temperature variations between
day and night, which can cause heat stress on both the human and animal inhabitance. The removal of
forest cover for agriculture also causes an increased release of carbon dioxide (potent greenhouse gas)
into the atmosphere.
Mangroves are also particularly affected in Guyana’s context. A correlation (R2 = 0.9821) has been
made between agriculture and mangrove deforestation/degradation by Conservation International in 2018
(West Coast of Berbice), and it particularly concern the rice industry. In addition to clearing away the
41
mangrove, effluent produced by the industry is discharged in the mangrove stand which upset various
ecological processes (Conservation International, 2018; NAREI et al., 2010), the most obvious one
being the overloading of the metabolic pathways involved in the transformation and detoxification of
pollutants. Mangrove removal eventually increase the risk of erosion, sedimentation, saline intrusion and
heavy flooding during rainy season.
● Surface and ground water pollution are also direct drivers of biodiversity loss
In the crystalline plateau, unregulated, unmonitored, and unsustainable agricultural activities can put
ground water resources on the coastal plain at risk of being contaminated. Since the gleysolic soil on the
coastal plain is mostly impermeable, the water that infiltrates into the soil on the crystalline plateau then
moves through the soil towards the coast via throughflow and gravity. When the water reaches the coast,
it then accumulates and forms aquifers which are then tapped for various purposes.
A lot of the agricultural activity that is carried out in the crystalline plateau is chemically intensive
because of the most nutrient-deficient nature of the albic aerosols which dominate the crystalline plateau.
Use of urea can have negative effect on the soil as well as any chemical residues. Chemical residues can
also get into the soil water and can be transported into the ground water which can cause a decline
in ground water quality. Chemical residues from agricultural activities in Guyana also cause surface
water contamination when transported to waterbodies via excess runoff (rice and sugar industry). In the
rice industry, agrochemical is highly used to reduce pest population, in particular the paddy bug.
● Soil degradation, destruction and contamination are the final effects of those drivers
Apart from surface water pollution, soil biota is also negatively affected by the overuse of agrochemicals.
Although these have not been extensive studies into the effects of excessive use of agrochemicals on
soil microbiota, studies from a similar area show that agrochemicals significantly reduce the soil
microbiota population in as little as 7 to 30 days after application. There is microbiota such as N-Fixing
Microbes and Mycorrhizal Fungi which are both important components for nutrient conversion in the soil
that are negatively affected and cause crop production to be significantly reduced. The reduction of the
aforementioned soil microbes not only affect crop production (soil fertility), but it can also negatively
affect the normal growth and development of the natural vegetation which can increase the risk of
desertification with implications for animals that depend on the vegetation for survival (Igbedioh, 1991;
Kalia & Gosal, 2011; Mandal et al., 2020; Pimentel, 1989; Sidhu et al., 2019). Tillage erosion is also
another phenomenon that is potentially common in Guyana but is not monitored and measured. However,
other types of erosion, water and wind, are monitored under various projects. Studies from other parts of
the tropics show that tillage erosion is far more common than water and winder erosion. There is a high
probability that tillage erosion is one of the ecological effects of agriculture in Guyana. Another common
types of erosion that can be observed throughout Guyana in various agricultural areas are water erosion
(K. R. Olson, 2010; Wilken et al., 2020; Wysocka-Czubaszek & Czubaszek, 2014).
● Contribution to climate change is an indirect driver of biodiversity loss

For Guyana, agriculture contributes as much as 33% of the total greenhouse gas emissions.
Agriculture has also been found to be a major source of methane and nitrous oxide which are both
greenhouse gases with higher global warming potentials than carbon dioxide. Rice cultivation alone
accounts for 82% of Guyana’s total methane emissions and 94% of Guyana’s total nitrous oxide
emissions. Another major source of methane emission is livestock production predominantly due to
enteric fermentation and the prescribed burning of savannahs which are done as part of land preparation
for cultivation in some instances. The use of synthetic fertilizers are also a source of emissions and energy
use is also a major source of emissions (GoG, 2012). Climate change heavily influences three variables,
temperature, precipitation and the occurrence frequency of natural disasters. The occurrence frequency
of natural disasters such as floods and drought are increased and these can result in the loss of habitats
and the lives of various species (plants and animals) at a very fast rate which can cause dramatic
population declines or extinction events (Behera et al., 2018; Mantyka-Pringle et al., 2015; Pires et al.,
2018; Warren et al., 201344).
44
Behera, M. D., Pasha, S. v, Tripathi, P., & Pandey, P. C. (2018). IPBES-IPCC CO-Sponsored Workshop Biodiversity and climate change.
Current Science, 115(4), 608–609. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4782538.IPBES
● Erosion of genetic diversity is an indirect long-term driver of biodiversity loss
Most of farmers have all abandoned the local cultivars, pursuing external high yielding cultivars and this
reaction is because of shifts and increases in economic demands, sociopolitical factors such as receiving
subsidies to do such, and technological change which points to this being an indirect driver. This practice
has caused 75% of plant genetic diversity in agricultural sector of developing countries to be eroded
(Friis-Hansen, 1999; Hammer & Teklu, 2008). An example is the 2019 introduction of the GRDB16 rice
variety which is higher yielding in high salinity conditions and increasing soil salinity is quickly becoming
a problem on the low coastal plain of Guyana.
● Introduction of invasive species (in the case of the agricultural sector) is a direct driver of
biodiversity loss
Invasive species have been introduced in Guyana as ornamental or decorative plants in the urban and
built environment (EPA, 2011b)45 but also in seeking to improve the productivity, decisions were taken to
import and incorporate various exotic species, which became invasive, as the followings:
- Echinochloa pyramidalis (Antelope grass): one of the most invasive species on Guyana’s coast
growing in very thick mats and obstructing waterways which adds to the flood problem. As early
as 1982 antelope grass was also recognized as one of the main threats to the sugar industry
and caused significant alterations in the aquatic environment while overwhelming and
outcompeting other species (Bushundial, 1991; Cumberbatch et al., 1996; Overholt &
Franck, 2017; R de Araújo et al., 2021).
- Small Indian Mongoose (Herpestes javanicus): This species was originally introduced to
Guyana in the 1900s to reduce the snake population in the sugar industry. The species
is a predator that affects both livestock (poultry) and wildlife, and an opportunistic feeder that
can feed on many other species, dead or alive. Those habits can significantly disturb the food
web (Barun et al., 2010, 2011; Fineran, 2016; Scanes, 2018; Simberloff, 2001).
- Africanized Honeybees (Apis mellifera scutellate): Those species have not been introduced
intentionally to Guyana, they migrated to Guyana from Brazil in the 1970’s after escaping from
a farm. After crossing into Guyana, they started to aggressively breed with the Italian
Honeybees which were prevalent in Guyana at the time but has since bred out the Italian
Honeybee strain from Guyana and remains the only strains used in Guyana’s honey industry.
The species became the main pollinator, responsible for over 70% of the sector’s crop
production. Studies have shown that they can outcompete and cause the disappearance of
native species, especially specialized competitors. Removal or the disappearance of the
Africanized Honey Bee can cause a complete ecological collapse in both the natural and
built environments (Goulson, 2003; Jemmott, 2017; Roubik, 2002; Roubik & Villanueva-
GutiÉrrez, 2009; Roubik & Wolda, 2001).
The list of key drivers of biodiversity loss for agriculture are the following
● Deforestation and forest degradation (direct driver)

● Surface and ground-water pollution (direct driver)
- Decline in ground water quality
- Impact on aquatic fauna
Mantyka-Pringle, C. S., Visconti, P., di Marco, M., Martin, T. G., Rondinini, C., & Rhodes, J. R. (2015). Climate change modifies risk of global
biodiversity loss due to land-cover change. Biological Conservation, 187, 103–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.BIOCON.2015.04.016
Pires, A. P. F., Srivastava, D. S., Marino, N. A. C., MacDonald, A. A. M., Figueiredo-Barros, M. P., & Farjalla, V. F. (2018). Interactive
effects of climate change and biodiversity loss on ecosystem functioning. Ecology, 99(5), 1203–1213. https://doi.org/10.1002/ECY.2202
Warren, R., VanDerWal, J., Price, J., Welbergen, J. A., Atkinson, I., Ramirez-Villegas, J., Osborn, T. J., Jarvis, A., Shoo, L. P., Williams, S. E.,
& Lowe, J. (2013). Quantifying the benefit of early climate change mitigation in avoiding biodiversity loss. Nature Climate Change 2013 3:7,
3(7), 678–682. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate1887
45
Antidesma ghaesembilla (Black Currant), Caesalpinia pulcherrima (Barbados pride), Calotropis procera (Apple of
Sodom/Madar), Casuarina equisetifolia (Australian-Pine), Hedychium gardnerianum (Kahili Ginger), Melaleuca quinquenervia
(Niaouli or Broad-Leaved Paper Bark), Terminalia catappa (Alconorque/Wild Almond), Thunbergia grandiflora (Bengal Clock
Vine), Tithonia diversifolia (Japanese Sunflower).
43
● Soil degradation, destruction and contamination (direct driver, results of the submentionned
drivers)
- Use of agrochemicals (especially in the rice industry)
- Reduction of soil microbes à reduction of soil fertility and increase of the risk of desertification
- Tillage erosion, and other sources of erosion
● Contribution to climate change (indirect driver)
- Methane emissions (rice industry)
- Burning of savannas
- Use of synthetic fertilizers
● Erosion of genetic diversity (indirect long-term driver)
● Introduction of invasive species (especially in the sugar industry) (direct driver)
C.4 Oil and Gas
In Guyana, the oil and gas industry started to be an issue in 2015, when a consortium of three major oil
companies (Exxon Mobil, Hess holds and China's Cnooc Ltd) made an offshore oil discovery in the
Stabroek block, located about 120 miles (200km) off the country’s coast and growth scenarios and
projections have been completely turned upside down.
In 2017, Exxon Mobil announced that the company expected to produce $2 to 2,5 billion oil-equivalent
barrels from Guyanese waters, which could add up to more than $100 billion46 . The exploitation started
in 2019, in 2020, the production was confirmed as being more than $8 billion oil-equivalent barrels47 with
15 discoveries. At a 2025 horizon the company now plan to extract 800,000 barrels per day48, fully
dedicated to exportation. Gas deposits have also been founded (the country currently imports its gas).
In that context, oil production is expected to be the main driver of economic growth in the following
years. In October 2019, the IMF estimated that GDP would grow by 85.6 percent in 2020, which was
reviewed to 52,8% in April 2020 in a post-pandemic context, and one-third of the World Bank's budget for
Guyana is allocated to develop the institutions to manage this oil extractive activity49. In January 2021, a
Venezuelian decree (N°4.415), also claimed exclusive Venezuelan sovereignty over the waters and
seabed off of Guyana’s coast, west of the Essequibo River, as part of a strategic area for its national
development. This space in Guyana’s Atlantic “facade,” include those petroleum resources, and now
forms part of the unilaterally pronounced Venezuela’s “Territory for the Development of the Atlantic
Façade”. This geopolitical conflict reflects the underground geopolitical conflict between USA and China,
as in April 2021, Taiwan opened a commercial office in Guyana, supported by the USA, and China
reinforced its alliance with Venezuela 50. This rise of international tensions in Guyana are the sign of
the great influence and power the oil sector has and will have in the future. The case is now under
the ruling of the ICJ51
46
https://news.mongabay.com/2017/11/guyana-seeks-offshore-oil-wealth-in-a-green-economy/
https://www.forbes.com/sites/clairepoole/2017/01/12/big-oil-discovery-could-boost-growth-at-exxon-mobil-hess/?sh=58f32b5e136b
47
https://www.kaieteurnewsonline.com/2020/01/28/stabroek-block-estimates-moved-to-8-billion-oil-equivalent-barrels/
48
https://www.argusmedia.com/en/news/2214501-exxonmobil-ups-guyana-2025-oil-target-to-800000-bd;
https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/aug/17/exxon-oil-drilling-guyana-disaster-risk
49
https://projects.worldbank.org/en/projects-operations/project-detail/P166730?lang=en
50
https://apnews.com/article/global-trade-south-america-china-guyana-asia-pacific-05b5d78db7a08fc5baba983b39d5463f ;
https://thediplomat.com/2021/02/the-strange-saga-of-taiwans-short-lived-office-in-guyana/
51
https://conversationtree.gy/venezuela-escalates-threat-to-guyana/
Area of impact
The area of impact in located in the Atlantic Ocean, about 120 miles (200km) off the country’s coast, and
on the coast, where infrastructures will be developed to ensure storage and export activities. The coast
will be the area where indirect impact of the oil extraction will be seen.
Figure 28 15 of ExxonMobil’s discoveries. Source : Kaieteur News Online, 2020.
As the activity is quite new, no study has informed the impact yet, even the full development program for
offshore oil and gas production is yet to be known. Though in may 2021, the World Wildlife Fund (WWF)
called for a full environmental and social assessment of Guyana’s oil and gas development 52. The
following impact are then the one we can except, based on what happened in similar countries, with
similar activities, both directly in the ocean, indirectly on the coast and possibly in the case of a disaster.
● In the ocean, the increase of marine traffic is a direct driver of biodiversity loss in the marine
environment.
As the marine traffic will increase, collisions with marine life will rise. Consequences on fauna and flora
will be both physical (engulfment, smothering of habitats, noise pollution) and toxic (contamination
of organisms by chemical processes and chemical leaks, decreasing of water quality). Considering
that among the 20 critically endangered species, 14 belongs to marine fauna. The endangered sea turtles
(Green turtle - Chelonia mydas, Leatherback turtle - Dermochelys coriacea, Hawksbill turtle -
Eretmochelys imbricata, Olive Ridley turtle - Lepidochelys olivacea and Loggerhead turtle - Caretta
52
https://oilnow.gy/featured/wwf-calls-for-full-environmental-assessment-of-oil-and-gas-operations-in-guyana-applauds-tougher-measures-
for-flaring/
45
caretta) that breed and live along Guyana’s north-west coastal region might be highly impacted 53. The
marine seismic activity also creates particularly damaging effects by creating empty corridors. As a
secondary effect, a decline in fish population will have high consequence on the entire trophic chain,
highly connected in the marine ecosystem (cf: marine ecosystem section) and on other sector as the
fisheries industry and the tourism industry (ie: Northwest area, Shell Beach, where the sea turtles breed
and live).
● On the coast, the main direct impact will be the development of infrastructure for the oil
industry that will lead to deforestation and disturbance of mangrove habitat.
Mangrove habitat might be destroyed for the purpose of transportation, storage and export activities.
Its functions of filter, carbon sink, protective barrier against natural hazards, nursery, structural
functions will then be altered. Also, mangrove removal will eventually increase the risk of erosion,
sedimentation, saline intrusion and heavy flooding during rainy season. The urban pressure will
also increase, due to the increase of human settlement (economic activity being the corollary of human
settlement), industrial wastes, pollution, soil asphyxiation etc.
● For the future, the disaster risk is also very high, especially in the case of an oil spill, this is a
supposed future driver of erosion
In fact, Guyana’s response capacity is very low (weak institutions, patronage, indebted country) and the
contract signed with Exxon Mobil stipulates that the country is responsible for the clean-up in the
likely scenario that there is an oil spill 54. Even though entire marine species can disappear over a
large area, as well as birds that might be engulfed in crude oil, dying from asphyxiation, the toxicity of
ocean and coast might rise up very fast. In fact, Exxon’s plan for a potential oil spill response relies on
methods heavily criticized, especially a regard the use of Corexit 9500, a chemical dispersant used for
the Exxon Valdez (1989) and BP oil Spill (2010) which increases the toxicity of oil by 52 times55. This
dispersant is banned in United Kingdom and Denmark. Another announced intention is the one-off
burning oil on the ocean surface even though it is drilling in the Amazon-Orinoco Influence Zone,
an area rich in marine biodiversity, with rare and threatened species on which local Indigenous and other
fishers depend (The Guardian, august 2021 56). Finally, the permit for Liza phase 1 does not require to
use a blowout preventer for ultra-deep drilling, which creates an additional risk.
● An indirect driver is linked to political choices. Despite the orientation of the Low Carbon
Development Strategy that started in 2012, the government decided to seize the oil&gas
opportunity to gain economic growth, which is a highly carbonated economic activity.
Oil extraction will highly contribute to global warming, as this oil will eventually be burned (indirect
impact). It is estimated that125m metric tons of carbon dioxide will be released per year from 2025 to
2040, from drilling the oil to burning it (Environmental Law Alliance Worldwide, 2020). Exxon also flares,
or burns, its excess gas. In the first 15 months of production alone, that flaring contributed nearly 770,000
metric tons of greenhouse gas emissions – the equivalent of driving 167,000 cars for one year (The
Guardian, august 202157).
Key drivers of biodiversity loss for the oil & gas sector are the following
● Increase of the marine traffic (direct)

- Disturbance of marine fauna
- Engulfment, smothering of habitats, noise pollution
- Contamination of organisms by chemical processes and leaks
53
https://news.mongabay.com/2017/11/guyana-seeks-offshore-oil-wealth-in-a-green-economy/
54
https://news.mongabay.com/2020/11/guyanas-future-and-challenges-in-oil-qa-with-filmmaker-shane-thomas-mcmillan/
55
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/11/121130110518.htm
56
57
- Decreasing of water quality
● Development of infrastructure for the oil industry
- Mangrove deforestation
- Alteration of its structural functions
● Rise of human settlements (urbanization) (indirect)
- Waste, pollution, construction, soil asphyxiation
● Risk of ecological disaster (future, predictable)
- Loss of fauna (marine, birds)
- High toxicity
● Political choices (indirect)
- Contribution to global warming
C.5 Fisheries and aquaculture

The fishery sector is under-studied, under-researched, in Guyana. The latest baseline evaluation for the
sector have been done in 2017 as part of the Blue Green initiative (Valuation of Guyana’s Marine
Fisheries, WWF), which is the main source of the following information. Another study on seasbob fishing
impact (Vottunarstofan Tún ehf., 2019) confirmed that research are quite limited, apart from the recent
work by Willems on benthic species assemblages (Willems 2018), habitat mapping by CEFAS and early
work by Lowe-McConnel.
Fisheries contributed to roughly 2% of the GDP (Guyana Bureau of Statistics 2017), declining from a
higher 4% ten years ago (in 2006), mainly due to the overall growth in other sectors of the economy.
Though it contributed little to the economy, the sector is considered as economically and socially important
in Guyana. Over 20 000 people are officially estimated to be involved through the commercial capture or
other fisheries dependent activities (CRFM, 2014), to which the informal and artisanal part,
underestimated if not misestimated, should also be added. In fact, fisheries are key to food safety as it
both provide an affordable, dependable, and stable source of protein and a social safety net, as the activity
is organized through family networks, all working in the value chain of sea products. As regard commercial
fisheries, shrimp and prawns are the fifth largest source of foreign exchange, as an export product
representing, 3,4% of total exports (Guyana Bureau of Statistics 2016). As part of this study only the
commercial industry will be studied58.
In the last two decades exports of species such as grey snapper and shark has increased, with sub-
sectors focusing on sea bob, finfish and shrimp, exported in the United Stated of America, Japan,
CARICOM countries and the European Union (MacDonald et al 2015).
Figure 29 Guyana marine capture production from 2007 to 2016 (Source : GoG, 2019 ; FAO, 2018)
58
It has been chosen, in accordance with WWF-Guianas, that the informal activities won’t be studied as part of BIODEV2030, as for the
second phase, sector should create voluntary commitment, which can only be made if the sector is structured enough to do so.
47
In recent years, aquaculture was also promoted to encourage the diversification from traditional
agriculture (sugar, rice). The activity started in 1940’s with the introduction of the Mozambique tilapia
(Oreochromis mossambicus), with attempts to produce fish in irrigated rice field or flooded sugar
cane fields. However, at that time, the government placed more emphasis on the development of marine
capture fisheries, which decreased the dynamic promoting aquaculture. The interest was then renewed
in the 1970’s with the introduction of the Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and the giant river prawn
(Macrobrachium rosenbergii), but never took off (FAO, 2018). In 1994, a draft Action Plan for Aquaculture
Development, was prepared with the support of the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA)
to establish freshwater fish farming station, and since 1997, the Government has embarked on an
aquaculture expansion drive. In that year, the Jamaican red tilapia (hybrid) was introduced with a second
introduction in 2001, as part of the Phase 1 of the Mon Repos Freshwater Aquaculture Demonstration
Farm and Training Centre, an aquaculture hatchery, inspired from traditional knowledge59, to promote
freshwater aquaculture, financed by the Government, the Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) and
the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA). In 2019, FAO financed a new project focusing
on the improvement of the Atlantic sea bob value chain, as part of the FISH4ACP60 program. Today,
Guyana is the world’s largest producer of Atlantic sea bob, and this aims to enhance the productivity
and competitiveness of the Atlantic sea bob fishery in Guyana, where local demand is expected to rise as
a consequence of emerging oil and gas production. The project also aims to increase the production of
small-scale fishers in the sector and strengthen the role of women and youth, while seeking to improve
safety and workers’ rights.
On the low Atlantic coastal areas, pond culture of tilapia and giant river prawn being the main farming
system. Experiments are also made to link aquaculture with agriculture (rice-fish farming in Berbice,
experimental pond rearing of the giant river prawn, Macrobrachium rosenbergii, in several regions,
freshwater culture using grain bran)61. Brackishwater farming is also present with traditionnal practises
involving the opening of the sea defenses to take advantage of tidal inflows. During high tides, juveniles,
larvae, eggs, etc. are trapped in coastal polders and in some cases, enclosures are constructed near the
foreshore where they are allowed to mature to marketable size. These impounded waters contain many
species with the targeted one: salmon shrimp (Mesopaeneus tropicalis), common snook (Centropomus
undecimalis), tarpon (Megalops atlanticus) and mullet (Mugil spp.) (FAO,2005).
In year 2019, the aquaculture production reached 243 tons, which is low, but despite this, the need
for diversification and complementarity with marine fishery sector, and the expected high demand
due to the development of the oil industry on the coast, could attract investment some investment to
develop the sector in the coming years.
Area of impact
The area of impact is the Atlantic coastal area (with an Exclusive Economic Zone, in an area equivalent
to 64 percent of the country’s landmass), the extensive terrestrial network of rivers (ITA, 2021) and some
cropped lands as experiments for aquaculture.
The impact of fisheries is poorly documented. In 2019, the draft of the Marine Stewardship Council
Fisheries Assessment has been made public (Vottunarstofan Tún ehf., 2019) and based on the studying
of the sea bob fisheries, bring element to tackle the impact of fisheries in Guyana. Fisheries count as a
large part of the subsistence for the local market, and as a little impact compared to other sectors.
Nevertheless, selective fishing and the creation of coastal dikes for aquaculture has significant effect.
59
The first attempts at aquaculture in Guyana can be traced back to the early Indian inhabitants of the eastern Corentyne Coast near the
Berbice River estuary. They practised legal or illegal opening of the sea to take advantage of high tides. Juveniles, larvae, eggs, etc. are then
trapped in coastal polders and in some cases in specially constructed pens near the foreshore where conditions ensure good growth and
maturity to reach commercial size (FAO, 2005)
60
http://www.fao.org/3/cb1543en/cb1543en.pdf
61
FAO Fisheries & Aquaculture - National Aquaculture Sector Overview - Guyana
Figure 30 Fishing footprint in relation to sediment type. CEFAS, 2018.
● Selective fisheries and bycatchings are the two first direct driver of biodiversity loss
The over exploitation of stocks is the first threat to the marine ecosystems, which lead to the decline of
species quality and amount (WWF, 2017). Guyana focuses on flagship species (seabob, tilapia), which
put high pressure on it, and reduce the general diversity. A study done by Willems et al. in 2015 indicated
that communities of benthic invertebrates (epifauna) appeared to be dominated by seabob shrimp, with
little other species present on seabob trawling grounds.
In terms of species, bycatchings are common (Vottunarstofan Tún ehf., 2019), especially for rays, baby
sharks and turtles (Medley, 2018), sea turtles being particularly vulnerable for catch and consequently
drowning in fishing nets including shrimp trawls (Crowder et al. 1995). Smaller species are also
catched unintentionally.
● The creation of coastal dikes (hard coastal defense) to protect aquaculture estates is also a
direct driver of biodiversity loss
Apart from land artificialization, those coastal dikes are less effective in dissipating wave energy
than mud banks and disturb processes involved in the consolidation and subsequent mangrove
colonization of mud banks62). The mud supports a rich invertebrate fauna that nourishes a variety of
demersal species (FAO, 2005), which is in the scope of the fishing activity, and are impacted by the
creation of those coastal dikes.
However, the impact on marine habitats (for sea bob fisheries) seems to be limited and localized in
Guyana, due to the naturally dynamic environment (muddy seabed in the areas trawled for sea bob
shrimp). The trawl that is used is relatively lightweight and the fishery is limited to water depths of between
18-30m (Willems, 2016). Still, for the sake of fisheries, mangrove deforestation is a threat to be
foreseen. It hasn’t been formally assessed yet but it is an observed trend in many parts of the world (AI
Robertson, 1987; Campbell, 2021; K Ikejima, 2003; Natalia Siahaan & Wasiq, 2020; Shinnaka et al.,
2007). As mangrove forests serve as a reproductive nursery feeding and protective cover for various fish
species, mangrove’s deforestation will include the need for an increased traveling distance to secure
62
available here: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S092585741200256X
49
adequate catch (WWF, 2017), which will be a growing intrusion into the marine ocean and a threat for the
equilibrum of the seabed.
●
Finally, the introduction of invasive species, Gold tilapia (Oreochromis aureus), Mozambique
Tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus), Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), is a major issue.
Today, tilapia is one of the most common species that can be found in Guyana’s waterways since they
outcompete most of the native species because of their hardiness and ability to survive in both fresh
and brackish water if needed. They can also survive and successfully reproduce in high disturbed
habitats that native species cannot.
Key drivers of biodiversity loss for the fisheries and aquaculture sector are the following
● Selective fisheries and bycatches (direct)

- Loss or decline of species (amount and quality)
● Creation of coastal dikes (direct)
- Disturbance of the mud ecosystem that can even extent to marine environment (direct)
● Mangrove deforestation (predicted)
● Introduction of invasive species (indirect)
C.6 Tourism
In 2019, tourism contributed to 10,4% to the GDP and represented 4,8% of total employment, 5,5% of
the GDP and 3,9% of total employment in 2020, this drop being mainly due to the Covid-19 pandemic
(World Travel & Tourism Council, 2021). Turner (2015) forecasted that the tourism industry will potentially
support 18 000 jobs (7.3% of total employment) by 2025.
In fact, several type of tourism can be seen in Guyana. Business and leisure tourism is increasingly
growing since 2019 due to the country’s oil boom. New hoteliers, restaurants, and transport services
businesses has opened, all to benefit from the anticipated surge in foreign visitors coming into the country.
Concerning ecotourism, Guyana from have a high potential to develop nature-based tourist niche
(Wenner et al., 2015), with is a comparative advantage at the regional scale 63. The country has been
rewarded from 2011 to 2013 by the Caribbean Tourism Organization (CTO) with the travel most
sustainable tourism awards and has been recognized as the number 1 destination for ecotourism in 2019
by the International Travel Agent Magazine.
This sector is confirmed to be a pillar of the national strategy, as highlighted in the draft of the Guyana
Tourism Strategic Action Plan: 2019-202564, with nature, wildlife and birding, culture and heritage,
exploration and active tourism and educational travels activities.
Area of impact
The impact of tourism is visible at the mouthpiece of the Essequibo River and the Demerara river, in
the center of the country with the Irokwama center, in the south-eastern part with Kaiteur
waterfalls and in the south west close to Kanuku Mountains, and the south Rupununi district. With
five airstrips, the western/southern part of the country, inner zones are relatively well accessible
(compared to its neighbor French Guyana for instance), with the intention to increase the air travel
capacity. In 2014, two new Latin American airlines introduced flight which supplemented the introduction
in 2013 of LIAT flights to and from Caribbean countries and Suriname. In that year, hotel room capacity
will increase with the opening of 197 room at Marriott Hotel for instance.
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Caribbean and Latin American countries that focused more on the coastal tourism (surf, beaches, etc.)
64
Tourism-Strategy-2018-2025.pdf (business.gov.gy)
Figure 31 Guyana’s natural resources and infrastructures. Source: Wenner et al., 2015
Tourism has both positive and negative impact in Guyana.
● Ecotourism and community-based tourism are among the positive dynamics in terms of natural
resources management, bringing financial sustainability for biodiversity and resources
management, and a responsible access to wilder places as the service consumed is supposed to
be « environmentally responsible travel and visitation to relatively undisturbed natural areas »
(Ceballos-Lascuráin, IUCN, 1996).
The country also involves the indigenous communities into the management of protected areas, which
has been recognized key for effective conservation. Traditional knowledge is generally based on complex
cosmogonies going beyond the simple separation between nature and culture and integrating the notion
duty-bearers in relation to the environment, before the one of rightsholders (See Janki, 2009;
Campese et al., 2009; and, more broadly, Lausche, 2001; IUCN, Governance of protected areas from
51
understanding to action, 201365). Studies done in Latin America also highlighted the awareness of this
relationship of dependence between their way of life and conservation of the services their ecosystems
provide (Cicchón, 2007).
Nevertheless, the legislative and policy framework still doesn’t effectively incorporate the indigenous
communities and do not recognize indigenous sovereignty for their resources and culture, which is
highlighted as a hurdle (Sinclair, 2003). It results in a change in the traditional way of life of indigenous
communities (knowing how to protect nature) as they often adjust it to accommodate for mass tourism.
As regards the negative effects of tourism on biodiversity, it lies in scale level, the frequency rate being
the tipping point.
Figure 32 Types of tourism and their frequency rates
To assess the impacts of tourism on biodiversity, several variables should be considered: the absolute
value of frequentation, the intensity of pressure, but also its dispersion in space and its evolution
over time (Blanc et al., 2007a). Those variable aim to estimate the carrying capacity of a site, which
corresponds to a level of impact beyond which its sustainability is compromised. It is defined by a
maximum number of visits per unit of area and time, and varies according to the size of the site,
interactions between users and the resistance and resilience of the environment. More generally, tourism
(whether sustainable of not), has direct impact on habitats, species and wildlife due to those following
drivers:
● Transportation, accommodation, trails and developments to access remote area
These developments made by and for humans concentrate recreational activities and channel users by
avoiding their dispersal (Hrnciarova et al., 2018). However, as soon as the trail is established, it involves
habitat fragmentation and edge effects. These disturbances induce microclimatic changes, reduce
dispersal and migration, and increase predation (Jordan, 2000). Whether it is concentrated or diffuse
use, studies show that there are impacts on the biocenosis, the biotope and sometimes the aesthetic
attractiveness of the site (Blanc et al., 2007b; Hrnciarova et al., 2018). These impacts can spread outside
the areas visited (Blanc et al., 2007b).
As regard species, changes in abundance, community composition and population dynamics are
often the first impacts that come to mind. Indeed, populations of the most sensitive species decline or
disappear from disturbed sites and community composition drifts from a natural biocenosis to a
secondary’s vegetation with opportunistic, ruderal, or human commensal species (Hrnciarova et al.,
2018). However, invasive alien species (IAS), their introduction and colonization are a secondary effect
65
https://www.iucn.org/sites/dev/files/content/documents/governance_of_protected_areas_from_understanding_to_action.pdf
and are correlated with a chain of factors (Tonnesen & Ebersole, 1997; Sun & Walsh, 1998; Jordan,
2000). Species richness of alien species declines with increasing distance from the trail (Tyser & Worley,
1992), disturbance favors the establishment of IAS (Kowarik, 1999) and their numbers increase
proportionally with the number of visitors (Lonsdale, 1999).
● The rise of interaction between wildlife and humans is also driver of biodiversity loss on the
long term.
Wildlife is disturbed by human intrusion (Blanc et al., 2007b). Wildlife movements can be limited for
species that avoid open areas with bare ground (Jordan, 2000). The provision of food (Jordan, 2000)
leads to a change in behavior, in terms of predator/prey relationships, and in populations, with the
arrival of commensals such as rats or rock pigeons. Furthermore, humans are passive vectors in the
dispersal of pathogens (Sun & Walsh, 1998) for both fauna and flora.
Overtime is the frequency rate rise, non-sustainable practice can also slowly change the requirement
level for nature protection thresholds, as regard wastes for instance. Statistically the more people
there is, the more wastes also, and the capacity to manage it might be lower than the overwhelming of
the carrying capacity.
The list of key drivers of biodiversity loss for the tourism industry are the following
● Sustainable resource management (positive)

● Mismanagement and non-compliance with the carrying capacity (direct)
- Pressure on ecosystems
- Increasing of waste, noise, any disturbance
- Introduction of pathogens
● Transportation, accommodation, trails and other developments to access remote areas (direct)
- Habitat fragmentation and edge effect
- Microclimatic changes, reduction of dispersal and migration, increasing of predation
- Change in abundance and population dynamic
- Introduction of invasive alien species
● Rise of human-wildlife interactions (direct)
- Disturbance of wildlife
- Change in behavior (predatory/prey relationships)
- Arrival of commensals
- Dispersal of pathogens
C.7 Infrastructures linked to renewable energies

Since 2009, the first steps toward the development of renewable energies were launched through the
Low-Carbon Development strategy, which aimed to reduce Guyana’s dependancy on oil importation
by developing those alternative sustainable sources of energy. Later on, in 2019, Guyana’s
administration signaled its intent to transition towards renewable energy by 2040 through its Green State
Development Strategy, and in that same year, 18% of the country’s primary energy supply was
already derived from renewable energy mainly from biogas (sugarcane), solar and firewood (GEA,
2019) with opportunities also identified for wind power and hydroelectricity.
In terms of solar energy, the country has a high potential, with an annual daily global horizontal
irradiation, receiving average irradiation of 1,800 kWh/m2 annually (Energy Sector Management
Assistance Program, ESMAP). Solar energy is used for several purposes including for drying agricultural
produce, irrigation, Information and communication technologies (ICT) and improvement of electricity
53
access in rural areas (ex: the Hinterland Electrification Programme) (GEA, 2021). Rooftops of 175 public
or government buildings are also equiped with solar energy, and a series of solar PV Farms, totaling 5.2
MW is planned for Bartica, Lethem, Mahdia, Port Kaituma, Kwakwani and Matthew’s Ridge, one solar
farm being already operational in Mabaruma. Solar energy is then a sector that is growing. There is even
fiscal incentives include VAT and import duty exemptions for renewable electricity equipment, solar
appliances, solar water heaters and solar cookstoves, one-off tax holiday of two years for corporation tax
to importers of items for solar energy investments, and a change of the Wear and Tear Schedule of the
Income Tax Act to allow for the write-off of capital expense within 2 years (GEA, 2021; IRENA, 2015).
The GEA also announced the willingness to promote energy diversification in the transport sector,
with pilot project setting up electric vehicle with accompanying solar panels and energy storage system.
Long term PPA’s are also incentive format to catch for investors.
Figure 33 Solar Resource Map of Guyana: Photovoltaic Power Potential Source: World Bank Group & ESMAP
As regard hydroelectricity, the 165MW Amaila Falls hydropower project has been the first to be
developed (along with the high pressure 30MW biomass, sugarcane bagasse, cogeneration plant as part
of the Guyana’s state-owned utility (GPL) Development and Expansion Programme 2013-2017). It
includes private investors, China Development Bank and IADB, and to do so, the substantive
Hydroelectric Power Act and Regulations (1956) have been revised several times (in 1973, 1988, 2013)
and are likely to be still updated and revised.
Several other projects are underway, the 4,500MW hydropower project (GEA, 2021):
● the rehabilitation of the 0.5 MW Moco-Moco
● the 1.5 MW Tumatumari hydropower stations
● the rehabilitation of the 3MW Wamakaru hydropower site (finance by a private company)
● the rehabilitation of the Hosororo Hydropower Project (financed by the GIZ)
● the Kumu Hydropower Project: installation of a 1.5 MW hydropower plant and construction of a
transmission line.
● the Ikuribisi Hydropower Projet: installation of a 1 MW hydropower plant and construction of a
transmission line between the plant and the Bartica Power station
In 2021, it is estimated that there is a potential for 67 hydropower sites in Guyana66.
Figure 34 Guyana Hydroelectric Resources Source: Guyana Energy Agency, 2021
As regard wind-based energy, a wind farm with an installed capacity of about 10 MW is prepared for Hope
Beach. Wind maps has recently been created by GEA’s Energy Engineer using GIS software (ESRI
Arcmap) to obtain wind speed measurements over years. As part of the IDB-GEF Sustainable Energy
Program, 4 sites of interests have been found. This sub-sector is thus at its very first steps.
66
https://gea.gov.gy/energyDev/Potential%20hydropower%20sites.pdf
55
Figure 35 Wind speed potential across Guyana Source: Guyana Energy Agency, 2016
Area of impact
While the area of impact of the solar energy sector is low, the one of hydropower is quite high as regards
the water system and forest ecosystem (especially down the montanes). As regard wind energy sector,
it is still in development but might impact the coastal ecosystem and the montane-submontane
ecosystem.
There is no study or research papers describing the impact of this sector in Guyana particularly. However,
they can be predicted, based on what have been seen in other countries. Impacts can be both positive or
negative, the main one being interferences in landscapes.
● Infrastructure’s settlements is a direct driver of biodiversity loss
For solar and wind energy, the fragmentation of habitat will be detrimental to biodiversity by disturbing
both flora and fauna (wildlife). Noise pollution is an issue as regard wind-based energy, and solar
infrastructures could lead to the disruption of local micro-climate (European Comission, 2016; Suuronen
et al., 2017), which could affect the fundamental plant-soil processes that govern carbon dynamics
(Armstrong, 201467).
As regards hydropower energy, habitat is generally the disappearance of ecosystems (when dams are
impounded) and/or fragmentation of habitats, the disruption of water flows upstream and downstream of
hydropower facilities, the deterioration of water quality due to changes in sediment load, turbidity and
eutrophication.
67
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24132939/
● Collision with fauna is the second direct driver of biodiversity loss
For wind related infrastructures, the collision of birds and bats with wind turbines, and it affects not
only local species but also migratory species, with disruption of migration routes (IDB 2012 68, Thaxter et
al., 201769, Tesfahunegny, 202070).
For bats, this can result in internal trauma (barotrauma) associated with sudden reductions in air pressure
near the blades. As regards hydropower infrastructures, the fish taxa is the most impacted by the
disruption of migration route of some fish species (Freyhof et al., 2020 71, Beck, C., 2020, Meister, J.
202072). As regard solar infrastructure, birds are generally impacted, through exposure to intense solar
flux, collision with installations, and might be disorientated by the intense or polarized light (Clifford K. Ho,
201673, Sisodia et al., 201974) which is the same problem for insects. Ecological traps can also occur, due
to cumulative attractant mechanisms.
● Pollution is the last driver of biodiversity loss for this sector
This section particularly concerns the solar infrastructures. Toxic chemicals are generally used to treat
solar panels and soils (herbicides), which highly pollute water systems. Also, at the origin (construction),
solar panels are (for the majority) made of silicium, the major constituent of Lithosphere, which
exploitation generate a great amount of Suspended Particulate Matter. These particles get accumulated
on leaves and thus they disturb the photosynthesis and respiration process. Later on, rain water
ponded in unfilled mines percolates downward thereby (contaminating the ground water) and surface run-
off of muddy water changes the nature of external water bodies and causes water borne diseases (Mishra,
201575)
Indirectly, the shifting from fossil fuel energy dependency could have a positive impact.
Nevertheless, this last point is objectionable as Guyana now engaged in a large exploitation of oil wells.
The list of key drivers of biodiversity loss for the renewable energy sector are the following
● Infrastructure settlements (direct)
- Habitat fragmentation or loss
- Disturbance of fauna (including noise pollution)
- Microclimatic changes
- Disturbance of water flows
● Collision with fauna (direct)
- Disruption of migrating routes
- Loss of bats, birds and fishes
● Pollution (direct)
- Deterioration of water quality
- Silicium extraction for construction (doesn’t directly impact Guyana)
C.8 Banking sector

68
https://publications.iadb.org/en/bird-and-bat-collision-risks-wind-energy-facilities
69
https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2017.0829
70
https://basicandappliedzoology.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s41936-020-00171-1
71
https://balkanrivers.net/Threatened_Fish_MedBasin.pdf
72
https://www.waterpowermagazine.com/features/featuretowards-more-fish-friendly-hydropower-plants-8512234/
73
https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/1364837
74
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11356-019-06100-2
75
https://academicjournals.org/journal/JGRP/article-full-text-pdf/915EC0C53587
57
The growing responsibility of banks in the destruction of nature is increasingly raised (Bankrolling
extinction, Portfolio Earth, 2019). In 2019, a study showed that the world's 50 largest banks are estimated
to have invested some US$ 2.6 trillion in sectors now considered by governments and the scientific
community to be the main drivers of biodiversity loss, with 66% for activities with direct impacts (fishing,
mining etc.), and 34% creating indirect impacts.
In the case of the said developing countries as Guyana, where there is not national financial resource,
human activities are nearly fully financed by the international banking sector. Its environmental
management capacity all belong to those funds, mainly coming from the British Overseas Development
Agency (who worked on the forest policy), the German Agency for Technical Cooperation (who provided
GIS systems), the Inter-American Development Bank (who financed the environmental protection
agencies and other commissions), and the World Bank (which orientate the formulation of policies and
invest in massive infrastructure projects) (Lakhan et al., 2000).
Recently, a documentary was also published to highlight controversial engagements of the World Bank
in Guyana, both highlighting the country as being one of the most vulnerable to sea-rise level, and
financing the development of the oil and gas industry by allocating one third of its budget for Guyana to
the strengthening of public capacity to manage this oil rent (Shane Thomas Mac Milllan, 2019 76). In fact,
since the discovery of Exxon Mobil, the world bank is giving public assistance to increase investment in
oil&gas sector, spending US$ 2,2 million to hire the law firm Hunton Andrews Kurth under a consultancy
contract to draft new laws, this firm being the law firm from Exxon Mobil.
Area of impact
There are no specific areas of impact, but a systemic impact. The banking sectors has the great power
to impose a governance models by developing economic models. The current trend of banks is to
monetarise nature, and not to create a motion of development as ecogrowth.
The impact is mostly indirect, by driving demand within the supply chain for retail or resource
processing and trade, such as the construction sector which creates demand for raw materials.
However, it is poorly documented. A study comparing the amount of money going to ecological
performance rather than economic performance in the country would be worth to be done.
D. Drivers of biodiversity loss
Those preliminary results are the synthesis of the work being done below and will be completed through
multi-stakeholders’ interviews that will be held during the month of October.
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https://news.mongabay.com/2020/11/guyanas-future-and-challenges-in-oil-qa-with-filmmaker-shane-thomas-mcmillan/
D.1 Coastal plain (including mangroves)
On the coastal ecosystem the main source of pressure is human settlement and urbanization as a result
of the concentration of the economic activity. 90% of the population is living on the coast, close to
employment centers in the following sectors:
● Agriculture
● Fisheries
● Oil and gas
● Mining
● Renewable energies
In the future, the coast is also increasingly threatened by the development of oil&gas sectors. Although
offshore, the development of the oil activity will imply the construction of infrastructures on the coast, for
the activity itself, and for the workers, who will migrate where the work is in demand.
D.2 The white sand plateau
On the white sand plateau, the main driver of biodiversity loss is the mining sector. This ecosystem is
known as being the Bauxite belt of the county, and the source of various minerals. The second driver is
59
agriculture, especially rice production, on the eastern part of the white sand plateau. This area is also a
potential interesting one for forestry activities.
● Mining
● Agriculture
● Forestry
D.3 Forest ecosystem (excluding montane forests)
In the forest ecosystem, the main drivers of biodiversity loss are due to the following sectoral activities
● Mining
● Forestry
● Tourism
D.4 Highlands, mountains, plateaus
In highlands, mountains and plateaus the main drivers of biodiversity loss seems to be climate change,
which is independent from sectoral activities. However, the tourism industry is an increasing threat, as if
Guyana decide to diversify its ecotourism offer, mountains might be targeted. Renewable energy could
also be a threat in the future, especially wind energy infrastructure, but it is not quite developed yet.
● Tourism (future)
● Renewable energies (future)
D.5 Savannas
Among the sectoral activities chosen, savannahs are mainly threatened by agriculture with the recent
opening of a mega-rice farm and the traditional practices of slash and burn agriculture. In parallel, the
hunting and collecting of land animals as well as the wildlife trade is also a source of pressure on the
biodiversity. Savannahs are also key area to sustainable economic models.
● Agriculture
61
D.6 Water system (including freshwaters)
As regards freshwater systems, the main sectoral drivers of biodiversity loss are linked to:
● Mining
● Agriculture
● Renewable energies (hydropower)
● Tourism
Freshwater system receives and disseminate various pollutions coming from the mining and agricultural
sectors and renewable energies is a growing sector especially the hydropower sector.
D. 7 Marine ecosystem
In the marine ocean, the main drivers of biodiversity loss are linked to the following sectoral economic
activities:
● Oil and gas
● Fisheries
● Mining (indirect
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18(3), 104–111. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0269915X04003027
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the Pakaraima Mountains of Guyana. Mycological Research, 106(5), 515–531.
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Ecosystem. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2016.11.004
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43–54. https://doi.org/10.13057/bonorowo/w070109
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Scientific Reports 2018 8:1, 8(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-19358-2
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In http://www.theses.fr. http://www.theses.fr/1992PA066327
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Tropenbos Series 18, 1–224.
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746–758. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02711985
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Vieira, L. T. A., Castro, A. A. J. F., Coutinho, J. M. C. P., de Sousa, S. R., de Farias, R. R. S., Castro, N.
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eastern cerrado, Brazil. Plant Ecology and Diversity, 12(5), 475–488.
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preliminary assessment. https://fisheryprogress.org/sites/default/files/indicators-
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65
ANNEX 1: Vegetation Map of Guyana
ANNEX 2: Mangrove Legislative Framework in Guyana
Legislation Year Remarks

Sea Defense 1998 Defined sea defense as (c, e)"All land fifty (50) feet landwards from the
Act centre of any sea or river dam or sea or river wall and all land on the other
side of such sea or river dam or sea or river wall in the direction of the sea
or river to the toe of such sea or river wall ; and declares that "sea defense
includes — any shell bank or reef, sand bank or reef or other natural feature
which serves as a protection of the sea coast against the erosive action
performed by the Ministry or its agents at the expense of the Board
Sec.13 (1) and Sec. 16 (b) mandated to make regulations for (a) protecting
the growth of Underwood, shrubs, and trees, on or near the foreshore or
between high and low water marks (b) and the protection of the land and
soil between high and low marks ; and generally, conserving the foreshore;
and require estate to protect the foreshore by sowing seed, planting shoots
to promote the growth of or the other tree, underwood, or shrubs, between
and low water marks on the foreshore courida
Sec.I3 (1 Sec. 14, 15 and Sec. 16 (b) (a) (b) Sec, 26 states that everyone
who infringes any of the provision of this Act shall be liable on summary
conviction of twenty-two thousand five hundred dollars (G$ 22,500)
Guyana 2001 This Act establishes the Guyana Lands and Survey Commission as a body
Lands and corporate. The Commission shall be the successor to the Lands and
Surveys Surveys Department. Its functions shall be to take charge of and supervise
Commissio all public lands, rivers and creeks in Guyana, to carry out various surveys
n Act of land and water resources of Guyana, to control and administer land
surveys in Guyana, to establish and maintain a national survey control
system, to evaluate offers for public land and to issue grants or leases
The Forests 2009 Part 3. 23 (b) prohibiting any disturbance of the soil, vegetation, rivers, or
Act creeks in that specially protected area; and Part 3.31. (1) The Minister may
by public notice make an order — (a) declaring any forest on private land to
be a forest conservation area; and (b) prohibiting, restricting, or regulating
all or any of the following - (i) entry into the forest conservation area (ii)
cutting, damaging, taking, or removing any forest produce in the forest
conservation area; (v) clearing, cultivating, or turning of soil in the forest
conservation area; (vi) grazing or pasturing of livestock in the forest
conservation area; (vii) setting of fire in the forest conservation area; (2) No
order may be made except on the advice of the Commission that the order
is necessary for — (a) conserving the forests of Guyana and securing the
proper management of forest land; (b) preventing soil erosion, coastal
erosion, or erosion of the banks of rivers or creeks; (c) preventing the
deposit of mud, stones, or sand in rivers or creeks or on agricultural land;
(d) maintaining water supplies in springs, rivers, canals, reservoirs, aquifers,
or water conservancies; (e) minimising the risk or mitigating the impact of
storms, winds, floods, or landslides
Part 3.31. prohibits the cutting, damaging, or taking any forest produce, or
carry out any other kind of forest operation in a State forest; occupy or use
any land in a State forest
Part 3.24., Part 3. 25 (2), Part 6. 68 b. (iv) section 25(2), section30(3),
section 31(4), section 23(5)- prohibits person in any State forest to throw
down a lighted match or lighted or inflammable material; or do anything else
likely to result in any forest produce being burnt or damaged. Penalty range
from GS250,000 to 1,000,000.
Part 1. 5.3. state the Minister can declare public forested land as state forest
67
Part 15.2 (b) (1) defines forest with reference to mangroves
Part 3 Sec. 5.23. (1) mandates the EPA to declare a specific area of state
forest to be a specifically protected area for a period not exceeding 25years
(a) declare a specified area of State forest to be a specially protected area
for a specified period not exceeding 25 years
Part 3 Sec. 5.22 (1) is to

I) conserve biological diversity
2) protect specific trees and plants
3) conserve soil and water reserves
4) protect forests from fires, pest, diseases and degradation
Part 3. 5. 30 Minister can make order for protection of trees and plants any
tree or plant, Part 3. 5. 31 Minister can declare private land to be a forest
conservation area
The 1996 Part 10.68.1 Minister may make regulations for giving the effect to the
Environmen provisions of this Act for the protection of particular species of prescribed
tal fauna and flora (j.) protecting the coastal and marine resources and
Protection establish, monitor and enforce the environmental regulations
Act
Environmental Protection Agency states that their functions are to take
steps necessary for the effective management of the natural environment
so as to ensure conservation protection, sustainable use of its natural
resources; establish, monitor and enforce the environmental regulations;
assessed environment impact of the project; and promote and encourage a
better understanding and appreciation of the natural environment and its
role in social and economic development
The Civil 1917 Article 4.3 states that no one shall remove any sand, shell, gravel, shingle
Law Act or other mineral substances or any seaweed or vegetation from the lands
without the permission of the Minister responsible for sea defences and are
subject to the like penalties.
Article 4.1 states from and after the date aforesaid, the foreshore of Guyana
(that is to say, the part of the shore of the sea and of tidal navigable rivers
which is covered by the medium high tide between the spring tides and the
neap tides), the soil under tidal waters, and the sea-bed within the territorial
waters of Guyana (hereafter in this section called “the lands”), shall be
deemed to be State lands and may be dealt with in the same manner in
which State lands are now dealt with under the State Lands Act or under
any later Act.
Municipal 1970 Sec. 302(28). states the power of the council to regulate the cutting of wood
and District on land vested in the council.
Council Act
Sec. 287,290 28). stated the power of the council to regulate the grazing of
animals; impounding the stray animal found in public places
Local 1945 Part IV sec 51. (1) 51. (1) The local authority of any village or country district
Government may, subject to the approval of the Minister, make by-laws with respect to
Act the cutting of wood on the common lands of the village or country district
and the fees to be paid therefor.
Sec 50 states that grazing of animals on common land of the village and in
country district will be impound and sec.102 (1-5) straying animals
Guyana 1980 Article 25 state that every citizen has a duty to participate in activities
Constitution designed to improve the environment and protect the health of the nation.
Article 74 (1) states that it is the duty of the Local Democratic to ensure in
accordance with the law the efficient management and development of their
areas and to provide leadership by example (3) to maintain and protect
property, improve working and living condition and raise the level of civic
consciousness.
Article 36 states that in the interest of the present and future generation, the
state will protect and make rational use of its land, mineral and water
resources, as well as its flora and fauna, and will take all appropriate
measures to conserve and improve the environment.
Local 1980 Part 2. Sec. 7 Without prejudice to the generality of section 5, it shall be the
Democratic duty of each local democratic organ and the members and officers thereof
Organs Act within its area—
(a) to maintain and protect public property;
(b) to protect and improve the physical environment;
(c) to improve working and living conditions;
(d) to stimulate economic activities and improve production and efficiency;
(e) to promote the social and cultural life of the people;
(f) to raise the level of civic consciousness;
(g) to preserve law and order;
(h) to consolidate socialist legality;
(i) to safeguard the rights of the people; and
(j) to give advice, encouragement and support to the people in their daily
activities and to give leadership by example.
Fisheries 2003 Part VIII Sec. 21 (1) The Minister may, by Order, declare any area
Act of the fisheries waters and, as appropriate, any adjacent or surrounding
land, to be a marine reserve where he considers that special measures are
necessary—
(a) to afford special protection to the flora and fauna of such areas and to
protect and preserve the natural breeding grounds and habitats of aquatic
life, with particular regard to flora and fauna in danger of extinction;
(b) to allow for the natural regeneration of aquatic life in areas where such
life has been depleted;
(c) to promote scientific study and research in respect of such areas; or
(d) to preserve and enhance the natural beauty of such areas.
(2) Any person who, without permission granted
under subsection (3)—
(a) fishes or attempts to fish;
(b) takes or destroys any flora or fauna other than fish;
(c) dredges, extracts sand or gravel, discharges or deposits waste or any
other polluting matter, or in any way disturbs, alters or destroys the natural
environment; or
(d) constructs or erects any building or other structures on or over any land
or waters,
In any marine reserve, commits an offence and shall be liable on summary
conviction to a fine not exceeding two hundred and fifty thousand dollars.
69
ANNEX 3: Mining Districts of Guyana
ANNEX 4: National Land Cover/Land Use Map
National Land use plan, 2017: https://glsc.gov.gy/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Summary-Booklet-of-the-

National-Land-Use-Plan.pdf
71
PROJECT Analysis of drivers of biodiversity loss and impacting
economic sectors in Guyana
World Wildlife Fund (WWF)
Biotope S.A.S.
22 Boulevard Maréchal Foch
BP58 – F34140 Mèze
FRANCE
www.biotope.fr
Editorial team Fabien QUETIER [email protected]

Manon BOUREY [email protected]
César DELNATTE [email protected]
Seon Hamer [email protected]
Control Fabien QUETIER [email protected]
Offer submission date April 23rd, 2021

Biodev 2030 Guyana Deliverable 2 Report Structure

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BIODEV2030

A.1 Definition of biodiversity and its 3 levels

Ecosystems: Guyana is situated in the neotropical biogeographical territory of northeastern South

(1) Coastal plain (including mangroves)

Figure 5 Maps of abundances. Source : ter Steege, et al., 2000

A.3 General description of Guyana’s human profile and activities

Figure 7 Population of Guyana. Source : World Population Review, 2021

A.4 Consequence of economic development on biodiversity

● Fishing & harvesting aquatic resources, on a large extent, category (5.4.)

● Direct threats, resulting from developmental activities

Regarding specific ecosystems, the threats identified were:

● In forests and savannahs:

Finally, other contingent vulnerabilities were mentioned:

The report structure is divided in three parts as follows:

● Coastal plain (including mangroves)

Habitats and species description

Protection status and vulnerability

Criteria of importance for the ecosystem

Endemism Exceptional type of mangrove

B.2 The white sand plateau, known as Wallaba forests in Guyana

Criteria of importance for the ecosystem

Endemism Oligotrophic soils and

Habitat and species description

Table 1 Area covered by different forest type. Source: ITTO, 2005

Criteria of importance for the ecosystem

Endemism Very high

B.4 Highlands, mountains, plateaus

Two geological forms are typical to the Guiana Shield landscape:

Figure 14 Species range rarity along (left) in comparison with

Highlands, Mountains and Plateaus Characteristic Traits

Criteria of importance for the ecosystem

Habitat and species description

The Savannas’ Characteristic Traits

Figure 17 Status protection of the southern savannahs. Source: SWM project

Criteria of importance for the ecosystem

Endemism High with a wide variety of

B.6 Freshwater Ecosystem

Freshwater Ecosystem Characteristics (not specific to Guyana)

Studies on freshwater ecosystem

Criteria of importance for the ecosystem

Endemism Very high

B.7 Marine ecosystem

Criteria of importance for the ecosystem

Endemism Very high

Though, since 2019 the following economic trends are rising:

Contribution to national economy

● 8.9% from the gold industry

Figure 23 Deforestation due to gold mining. Source : ONFI, WWF, 2020

35 Hansen et al., The fate of tropical forest fragments, 2020

● Land and soil clearing (direct)

C.2 Forestry sector

Figure 24 Forest Allocation Map Source: GFC, 2017

● Genetic erosion is a long stand impact

● Loss of forest stand (direct)

C.3 Agriculture (rice and sugar industry)

Contribution to national economy

● Contribution to climate change is an indirect driver of biodiversity loss

● Deforestation and forest degradation (direct driver)

C.4 Oil and Gas

Contribution to national economy