Pa 00 JGT 6

Groundnut Grower’s Guide for Mozambique:
Production, Harvesting and Post-harvest Handling
Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea)
Submitted to: Submitted by:
Olipa-Odes Jeffrey E. Engels, Ph.D.

c/o CNFA-Mozambique Senior Technical Advisor
Viveiros Road, no. 220 59 Church Street
Nampula (Mogovolas District) Hawthorn, VIC, 3122
Mozambique Australia
Front cover: Köhler, Franz Eugen (1887) ‘Groundnuts’ in Medizinal-Pflanzen, Leipzig,
Germany: Gera-Untermhaus.
Groundnut Grower’s Guide for Mozambique: Production, Harvest, and Post-harvest Handling
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of Contents i
List of Tables and Figures iii
Abbreviations and Acronyms iv
1. Agricultural technical assistance for Mozambique 1
1.1 CNFA 1
1.2 Olipa-Odes 2
1.3 Ikuru 3
1.4 Olam International 3
2. Groundnuts 4
2.1 History 4
2.2 Varied applications 4
2.3 Worldwide production 5
2.4 Nutritional value 6
2.5 Growth habits 7
2.6 Cultivars 8
2.6.1 Virginia group 9
2.6.2 Runner group 9
2.6.3 Spanish group 9
2.6.4 Valencia group 10
2.7 Molding 10
2.7.1 Mycotoxin problems 10
2.7.2 Health effects of aflatoxins 13
2.7.3 Economic effects of aflatoxins 14
2.7.4 Maximum tolerable levels of enforcement 15
2.7.5 Aflatoxin testing in Nampula 16
3. Aspects of plant cultivation 17

3.1 Site requirements 17
3.2 Climatic requirements 17
3.3 Soil requirements 18
3.4 Cropping systems 19
3.5 Soil preparation 20
3.5 Fertilizers 20
3.6 Seeds 21
3.6.1 Seed selection 21
3.6.2 Seed storage 21
3.6.3 Seed shelling 22
3.6.4 Seed bed preparation 22
3.7 Crop rotation 23
3.8 Mixed crops 23
i
3.9 Sowing 24
3.9.1 Method and rate of sowing 24
3.10 Weed control 25
3.11 Scouting 26
3.12 Diseases 27
3.12.1 Groundnut rosette virus 27
3.12.2 Leaf spot 28
3.12.3 White mold 31
3.12.4 Collar rot 32
3.12.5 Peg rots 32
3.12.6 Black pod 32
3.13 Insects and their control 33
3.13.1 Termites 33
3.13.2 White grubs 34
3.13.3 Millipedes 35
3.13.4 Aphids 35
3.13.5 Thrips 36
3.13.6 Leafminer 36
3.13.7 Nematodes 37
3.13.8 Moths and beetles 38
3.14 Irrigation 39
4. Harvest and post-harvest handling 39

4.1 Time of harvest 39
4.2 Methods of harvest 40
4.3 Picking 41
4.4 Making hay 42
4.5 Cleaning 42
4.6 Drying 43
4.7 Decorticating or shelling 45
4.8 Storage 46
4.8.1 Storage pests 48
4.8.2 Monitoring insects 51
4.8.3 Prevention of infestation 52
4.8.4 Infestation management 53
References 54
ii
List of Tables
Table 2.1 Top ten producers of groundnuts in 2008/2009 5
Table 2.2 Groundnut calorie, protein, and fat content 6
Table 2.3 Groundnut growth stages 8
Table 2.4 Common mycotoxins found in foodstuffs 11

Table 2.5 Examples of types of economic losses associated
with aflatoxin (and other mycotoxins) contamination 15
Table 2.6 Maximum level of total aflatoxin in foodstuffs 16
Table 3.1 Effects of different row spacings and soil types on

yields of groundnuts 25
Table 4.1 Methods to reduce the incidence of foreign material

in groundnuts 43
Table 4.2 Important insect pests of groundnuts during storage 49
List of Figures
Figure 1.1 Groundnut value chain 2
Figure 2.1 Chemical structures of Aflatoxin B1, Aflatoxin B2,

Aflatoxin G1, Aflatoxin G2, Aflatoxin M1, and Aflatoxin M2 11
Figure 3.1 Map of Mozambique 17
Figure 3.2 Field scouting pattern 27
Figure 3.3 Assessment of Groundnut leaf spot control 30
Figure 3.4 Leaf spot control graph 31
Figure 4.1 Universal nut sheller 45

Figure 4.2 Sampling procedure in each layer of stack 52
Figure 4.3 Ceramic pot used for groundnut storage in Vietnam 53
iii
Abbreviations and Acronyms
CNFA Citizens Network for Foreign Affairs

CLUSA Cooperative League of the USA
IPM Integrated Pest Management
MT Metric Ton
NCBA National Cooperative Business Association
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
USAID United States Agency for International Development
iv
1. Agricultural technical assistance for Mozambique

The groundnut (Arachis hypogeal L.), also known as peanut, earth-nut, monkey nut, booger,
panda, pinder, and Manilla nut is an important crop for Mozambique. It is important in terms of
being an essential source of livestock feed and a component in rural and urban diets. The
groundnut is consumed in various forms including consumption of the pods, roasted, or boiled.
In addition, peanut butter is incorporated in traditional African dishes and it used as a basic
condiment. Once considered a food crop, today the groundnut is considered a cash crop due to
its economic importance and ability to generate income for Mozambique farmers.
Notwithstanding the fact four local types of groundnut are cultivated (Ramas, Virginia, Spanish,
and Valencia) throughout Mozambique, a number of factors are responsible for low production
yields. In general, farmers lack high-quality farm inputs and training in good agricultural
practices. Soil fertility, scarcity of rainfall, diseases, and local pests also contribute to low
productivity.
Most groundnut farmers are smallholders who use traditional methods of cultivation and farm
less than 1 ha. Farmers struggle with having to sow seed varieties that are not uniform in size or
color, have limited technical knowledge to improve productivity, and their post-harvest practices
encourage rather than prevent or limit aflatoxin contamination (Muindi & Bernardo, 2010).
To address these problems, Olipa-Odes, a local horticultural NGO located in the northern
province of Nampula, applied to CNFA, a USAID-funded international development
organization, for technical assistance in pre- and post-harvest handling of groundnuts. With
improved production practices via technical assistance, farmers can expand their groundnut sales
to Ikuru and Olam International, two large wholesalers that export to European markets (Fondo
& Bernardo, 2009).
This Groundnut Grower’s Guide for Mozambique: Production, Harvest, and Post-harvest
Handling is provided by CNFA in compliance with Olipa’s request. This groundnut handbook
addresses all aspects of plant cultivation and harvest and post-harvest handling. Further, this
Grower’s Guide was used to accompany extensive training in groundnuts for Olipa staff in a
train-the-trainer program during October 2011.
1.1 CNFA
CNFA was established in 1985 as a not-for-profit organization to stimulate economic growth

around the world by supporting entrepreneurship, private enterprise, and market linkages.
CNFA’s core competencies are strengthening market linkages, building input supply networks,
promoting enterprise growth and development, agribusiness financing, and improving processing
and post-harvest handling. Headquartered in Washington, D.C., CNFA’s programs extend from
ex-Soviet republics and the Caucasus, to Central Asia and Africa. CNFA’s current five-year
USAID Southern Africa Program is authorized by the current Farm Bill (PL. 110-234), and it
targets technical assistance to improve agricultural markets and improve productivity. Through
this program, CNFA contributes to helping Mozambique farmers increase competitiveness,
expand exports, and generate higher income along the value chain (CNFA, 2011).
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1.2 OLIPA-ODES
Olipa-Odes (organization for sustainable development) was formed in 1999 and was registered
as a horticultural NGO in 2000 as part of the Group Rural Enterprise Development Programme
implemented by the Cooperative League of the USA (CLUSA). CLUSA has worked in
developing countries for more than 50 years to economically empower individuals and
communities by developing sustainable cooperative businesses focused on agriculture and
agribusiness. To date, CLUSA has managed more than 200 long-term projects in 55 countries.
By helping establish Olipa, CLUSA contributed to increasing incomes and building
organizational capacity in marginalized rural communities (NCBA, 2011).
Olipa’s mission is to strengthen producer associations by providing marketing support and

market information, provide agricultural training, agro-processing management, and micro-
financing. Improved food security, gender equality, and environmental education are also
objectives of the organization (Hivos, 2011). With farmers-producer associations at the core of
economic development in remote communities, Olipa has mapped the groundnut value-chain as
shown in Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1 Groundnut value chain
Export Europe Fair Trade market South Africa
Maputo Local Maputo Maputo

Retailers
w
Transportation
Wholesaler h
o
l
Informal e
Storage wholesale FAINA s
IKURU a
Selection &cleaning l
e
Associations Small traders r
Distribution
Production Farmers
Inputs Local seed: Certificad seed: NGO, Several seeds:

farmers IKURU, Goverment traders
Source: Muindi & Bernardo (2010)
By providing groundnut farmers with targeted and comprehensive training in pre- and post-
harvest techniques, Olipa expects farmers will increase their yield and produce higher quality
product to take advantage of regional and international market opportunities. In so doing, Olipa
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expects that incomes will increase as much as 30% in Mecate and Murrupula districts (Muindi &
Bernardo, 2010). Wholesale buyers interested in high quality groundnuts are Ikura and Olam
International.
1.3 Ikuru
Ikuru is a Mozambique-owned agricultural processing and trading company. Ikuru was founded
in 2003 and financed through shares issued to ethical investors Oxfam Novib (45%), GAPI, a
local NGO (45%), and various forums (10%). In total, Ikuru is owned by more than 22,000
farmer-shareholders grouped in 29 farmer associations in northern Mozambique. Forty percent
of its shareholders are women. Ikuru means ‘strength’.
Ikuru is one of Mozambique’s most successful farmer-owned businesses. The total volume of
crops its members market has increased from 300 MT in 2004 to 2,250 MT in 2009, representing
an annual growth of around 50% per year. Ikura conducts research on seed varieties, purchases,
processes, and packages agricultural products for export on behalf of its shareholders, owns a
sesame cleaning factory and groundnut grading line, and has an on-site Quality Control Lab to
verify quality standards before exporting to markets in Europe and southern Africa. Ikuru has
been certified by FairTrade Products (cashew nuts and groundnuts) and Eco-Cert Organic
Products (soybeans, sesame, and groundnuts).
Ikuru is located in Nampula, a major groundnut producing area in northern Mozambique. The
majority of Ikuru shareholder-farmers are groundnut producers, growing predominately the
Spanish (locally called Nametil) variety. Groundnuts are sold by producers to middlemen for
resale in the capital city of Maputo, 1,200 miles to the south, but this is a volatile market and
beginning in 2006 Ikuru members began exporting groundnuts to FairTrade and organic markets
in Europe (Ikuru, 2011). To maintain these markets it is critical for Ikuru to be able to continue
to supply high-quality groundnuts that have not been contaminated by aflatoxin (IKURU, 2011).
1.4 Olam International
Olam International is also interested in Mozambique groundnuts. Olam International is a

Singapore-based enterprise in supply chain management of agricultural products and food
ingredients, sourcing 20 products with a direct presence in over 60 countries and supplying them
to over 10,000 customers in more than 55 destination markets. Olam International was
established in 1989 and has evolved from a single-product, single-country business to a multi-
product, multi-national, integrated supply chain manager. Between 1993 and 1995 Olam grew
first within West Africa (including Benin, Togo, Ghana, Cote d’Ivoire, Burkina Faso, Senegal,
Guinea Bissau, Cameroon and Gabon) and then East Africa (Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, and
Mozambique) and finally India. Its move into multiple origin countries coincided with the
deregulation of the agricultural commodity markets.
Olam trades agricultural commodities such as cocoa, coffee, sesame, rice, cashews, and other
nuts. Although an estimated one-third of the world’s raw cashew nuts are produced in Africa,
80% of these are exported to Vietnam or India for processing. Initially, Olam began exporting
cashews from Nigeria to India for processing. Later Olam expanded into other key producing
countries in West Africa, including Mozambique. Today Olam maintains an office in Maputo,
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processes cashews in the country, and also deals in groundnuts. Producing groundnuts in large
volume that meet international export standards will also increase the number of transactions
between Olam and Mozambique farmers (Olam, 2011; Wikipedia-Olam, 2011).
2. Groundnuts
The groundnut or peanut (Arachis hypogaea) is a species in the legume or bean family
(Fabaceae). The botanical name for groundnut, Archis hypogaea Linn., is derived from two
Greek words, Archis meaning a legume and hypogaea meaning below ground, referring to the
formation of pods in the soil (Nautiyal, 2002).
The groundnut is an annual herbaceous plant growing 30-50 cm. (0.98-1.5 feet) tall. The leaves
are opposite, pinnate with four leaflets (two opposite pairs; no terminal leaflet), with each leaflet
1-7 cm. (3/8 to 2-3/4 inches) long and 1-3 cm. (3/8-1 inch) broad. The flowers are a typical pea
flower in shape, 2-4 cm. (3/4 to 1-1/2 inches) across, yellow with reddish veining. Pods are 3-7
cm (1.2-2.8 inches) long, containing 1 to 4 seeds. The flower is borne above ground and after it
withers the stalk elongates, bends down, and forces the ovary underground. The seed matures
below the surface, and the plant thrives in light sandy soil. Once the seed matures the inner lining
of the pods or seed coat, change from white to brownish. The entire plant, including most of the
roots, is removed from the soil during harvesting (Wikipedia-Peanut, 2011).
2.1 History
The origin of the groundnut is uncertain, although they were known as early as 950 B.C. The
groundnut was supposed to have been first domesticated in Brazil or Peru. Cultivation spread as
far as Mesoamerica where the Spanish conquistadors found the tlalcacahuatl (Nahuatl= ‘peanut’,
hence, Mexican Spanish, cacahuate and French cacahuète) being offered for sale in the
marketplace of Tenochtitlan (modern day Mexico City). When the Spaniards returned to Europe
they took groundnuts with them. Later, traders were responsible for spreading the groundnut to
Asia and African countries such as Mozambique (Higgins, 1951; Wikipedia-Peanut, 2011; Pattee
& Young, 1982).
2.2 Varied applications
Groundnuts are one of the most important food crops in the tropics and subtropics. All parts of
the plant can be used. The groundnut, grown primarily for human consumption, has several uses
as whole seeds or as processed to make peanut butter, oil, and other products. The seed contains
25 to 32% protein (average of 25% digestible protein) and 42 to 52% oil. A pound of groundnuts
are high in food energy and provides approximately the same energy value as 2 pounds of beef,
1.5 pounds of Cheddar cheese, 9 pints of milk, or 36 medium-size eggs.
Groundnut oil is often used in cooking because it has a mild flavor and a relatively high smoke
point. Due to its high monounsaturated content, it is considered healthier than saturated oils, and
is resistant to rancidity. There are several types of groundnut oil including: aromatic roasted
groundnut oil, refined groundnut oil, extra virgin or cold pressed groundnut oil, and groundnut
extract.
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Flour is also made from groundnuts. Groundnut flour is lower in fat than peanut butter and it is
popular with cooks because of its high protein content that makes it suitable as a flavor enhancer.
Groundnut flour is used because it is gluten-free.
Non-food products such as soaps, medicines, cosmetics, and lubricants can be made from
groundnuts. The vines with leaves are excellent high protein hay for horses and ruminant
livestock. The pods or shells serve as high fiber roughage in livestock feed, fuel (fireplace logs),
mulch, and are even used in manufacturing particle board or fertilizer (Woodroof, 1973; Putnam
et al., 1991; Augstburger, 2002; Wikipedia-peanut, 2011).
2.3 Worldwide production
Groundnuts are currently grown on approximately 42 million acres worldwide. It is the third
major oilseed of the world next to soybean and cotton. China leads in production of groundnuts,
having the greatest share of overall world production, followed by India and then the United
States. See Table 2.1. In contrast to these large producers, Mozambique produced 0.11 million
metric tons from a total of 279,000 ha (Putnam et al., 1991; Nautiyal, 2002; USDA-FAS, 2010).
Table 2.1 Top ten producers of groundnuts in 2008/2009
Country Production (million metric tons)

People's Republic of China 14.30
India 6.25
United States 2.34
Nigeria 1.55
Indonesia 1.25
Myanmar 1.00
Sudan 0.85
Senegal 0.71
Argentina 0.58
Vietnam 0.50
Mozambique 0.11
Other countries 4.99
World total 34.43
Source: Adapted from USDA-FAS (2010)
In most developing countries, the productivity levels are lower than in developed countries.
Mozambique is no exception. A number of production constraints confront Mozambique
farmers, such as cultivation of the crop on marginal lands under rain fed conditions, occurrence
of frequent drought stress due to vagaries of storms, a higher incidence of disease and pest
attacks, low input-use, and factors related to socio-economic infrastructure.
Most of the groundnuts produced in developing countries are used for extraction of oil for
domestic consumption and export. As a high-quality cooking oil it is an important source of
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protein for both human and animal diet and also provides much needed foreign exchange by
exporting the kernels and cakes. Indeed, over half of the groundnut harvested worldwide is
crushed for oil and a substantial quantity of groundnut produced in developing countries is traded
in domestic markets. International trade of groundnuts is mainly in the form of in shell (pods),
shelled (kernels), and meal (cake). A large trade of confectionery groundnut is also booming in
the international market. The international price of groundnuts is generally decided by the crop
size and quality in the United States (Nautiyal, 2002).
2.4 Nutritional value
Groundnuts are rich in nutrients, providing over 30 essential nutrients and phytonutrients.
Groundnuts are a good source of:
Niacin—niacin contributes to brain health and blood flow;
Folate—Folate is a B vitamin associated with heart health, cancer prevention, and decreases the
risk of birth defects in babies;
Fiber—Fiber helps to lower blood cholesterol and is essential for healthy bowel function;
Magnesium—Magnesium is a mineral essential for good nerve and muscle function and for
strong bones;
Vitamin E—Vitamin E is an antioxidant that helps protect tissues in the body from damage;
Zinc—Zinc is needed for many processes in the body and is necessary for a strong immune
system and healing and protecting skin: and
Coenzyme Q10—Coenzyme Q10 is also found in oily fish, beef, soybeans, and spinach
(Wilkinson, 2005).
Groundnuts are also naturally free of trans-fats and sodium amd contain about 25% protein. See
Table 2.2.
Table 2.2 Groundnut calorie, protein, and fat content
Groundnuts-no Saturated Unsaturated

Calories Proteins Total Fat
salt (100 grams) Fat Fat
Dry-roasted 585 23.7 49.7 6.9 40.3
Peanut butter
589 24.06 49.9 8.1 39.4
(chunky-style)
Peanut butter
588 25.1 50.4 10.3 37.6
(smooth-style)
Source: Adapted from Weightlossforall (2011)
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2.5 Growth habits
The Groundnut is a self-pollinating, indeterminate, annual herbaceous, legume. Natural cross

pollination occurs at rates of less than 1% to greater than 6% due to atypical flowers or action of
bees. The fruit is a pod with one to five seeds that develops underground within a needlelike
structure called a peg, an elongated ovarian structure.
Peanut emergence is intermediate between the epigeal (hypocotyl elongates and cotyledons
emerge above ground as in soybean) and hypogeal (cotyledons remain below ground as in
fieldpea) types. The hypocotyl elongates but usually stops before cotyledons emerge. Leaves are
alternate and pinnate with four leaflets (two pairs of leaflets per leaf). The peanut plant can be
erect or prostrate (15-61 cm./6-24 inches tall or more) with a well developed taproot and many
lateral roots and nodules. Plants develop three major stems, i.e. two stems from the cotyledonary
axillary buds equal in size to the central stem during early growth.
Bright yellow flowers with both male and female parts are located on inflorescences resembling
spikes in the axils of leaves. One to several flowers may be present at each node and are usually
more abundant at lower nodes. The first flowers appear at 4 to 6 weeks after planting and
maximum flower production occurs 6 to 10 weeks after planting. See Table 2.3 for groundnut
growth stages.
Eight to 14 days after pollination aerial pegs will grow 5-7.5 cm. (2-3 inches) into the soil and
then turn to a horizontal orientation to mature into a groundnut pod. Pods reach maximum size
after 2 to 3 weeks in the soil, maximum oil content in 6 to 7 weeks, and maximum protein
content after 5 to 8 weeks. The groundnut crop matures after 7 to 9 weeks in the soil, which is
indicated by maximum levels of protein, oil, dry matter, and presence of darkened veining and
brown splotching inside the pod. Groundnuts usually require a minimum of 100 to 150 days from
planting to maturity depending on the variety planted.
Flowering continues over a long period and pods are in all stages of development at harvest.
Pegs will eventually rot in the soil (25% after 12 weeks in the soil) and the resulting loose pods
are lost during the harvest (Coffelt, 1989; Putnam et al., 1991).
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Table 2.3 Groundnut growth stages
Approx.
days Growth stage Description
after
planting*
7 Emergence Seedling ‘cracking’ the ground and cotyledons visible
35 Bloom One-half of the plants with a bloom
45 Peg Half of the plants with a visible peg
50 Swollen peg Half of the plants with a peg tip swollen to twice the peg
diameter
60 Full size Half of the plants with a full size pod and a visible seed
pod/begin pod-fill beginning to form
75 Full size seed Half of the plants with a seed filling the pod cavity
100 Early harvest Half of the plants with a pod having interior hull color and
orange to brown mesocarp
130-140 Harvest maturity 70% of harvestable pods have an orange, brown, or black
mesocarp (scrape pod saddle with knife) and interior hull color
(crack pod open)
150 Over-maturity Kernels in oldest pods develop tran-brown seed coat and pegs
may have deteriorated; over-mature pods have coal-black
mesocarp color
*Based on adequate soil moisture and average temperature conditions for mid-
maturity (130-140 day variety).
Source: Chapin (2010)
2.6 Cultivars
Thousands of groundnut cultivars are grown, with four major market groups being the most
popular: Spanish, Runner, Virginia, and Valencia. All four types are cultivated in Mozambique,
mostly growing in the Mogovolas region of the country. Overall, specific cultivar groups are
preferred for particular uses because of differences in flavor, oil content, size, shape, and disease
resistance. For many uses the different cultivars are interchangeable. Most groundnuts marketed
in the shell are of the Virginia type, along with some Valencias selected for large size and
attractive appearance of the shell. Spanish groundnuts are used mostly for candy, salted nuts,
and peanut butter. Most Runners are used to make peanut butter.
The various types are distinguished by branching habit and branch length. There are two main
growth forms—bunch and runner. Bunch types grow upright, while runner types grow near the
ground. Virginia types and Runner types are different from Valencias and Spanish types in that
neither the Virginia nor Runner types bloom and produce fruit on the upright main stem. The
difference between a Virginia and a Runner is based on pod size. If at least 40% of pods ride a
34/64 inch roller standard, then that variety technically has enough ‘fancy pods’ to qualify as a
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Virginia market type. Additional characteristics of each type are as follows (Peanut Bureau of
Canada, 2004; Chapin, 2010; Wikipedia-Peanut, 2011):
2.6.1 Virginia group
Virginia types are long (occasionally medium) season, have a high calcium requirement and are
high-yielding in most situations. The larger kernels from the Virginia type are used in the snack-
food trade (e.g. beer nuts). They are increasing popular due to demand for large peanuts for
processing, particularly for salting, confections, and roasting in the shells.
Virginia groundnuts are either bunch or running in growth habit. The bunch type is upright to
spreading. It attains a height of 45 to 55 cm. (18 to 22 inches), and a spread of 70 to 80 cm. (28
to 31 inches), with 80 to 90 cm. (31 to 35 inches) rows that seldom cover the ground. The pods
are borne within 5 to 10 cm. (2-4 inches) of the base of the plant. Cultivars of Virginia type
peanuts include NC 7, NC 9, NC 10C, NC-V 11, VA 93B, NC 12C, VA-C 92R, Gregory, VA
98R, Perry, Wilson, Hull, AT VC-2 and Shulamit.
2.6.2 Runner Group
Runner types have a smaller kernel compared to Virginia types and often have a flatter bush.
They are long (occasionally medium) season and generally respond well to irrigation. Runner
kernels are mainly used for confectionery (e.g. chocolate, muesli bars) and manufacturing (e.g.
peanut butter).
Runner has become a dominate type due to the introduction in the early 1970s of a new runner
variety—the Florunner, which was responsible for a spectacular increase in yields. Runners
have rapidly gained wide acceptance because of their attractive kernel size range; a high
proportion of runners are used for peanut butter and salting.
Cultivars of Runners include Southeastern Runner 56-15, Dixie Runner, Early Runner, Virginia
Bunch 67, Bradford Runner, Egyptian Giant (also known as Virginia Bunch and Giant),
Rhodesian Spanish Bunch (Valencia and Virginia Bunch), North Carolina Runner 56-15,
Virugard, Georgia Green, Tamrun 96, Flavor Runner 458, Tamrun OL01, Tamrun OL02 and
AT-108.
2.6.3 Spanish Group
Spanish types are quicker to mature and may therefore escape drought. Most have an erect bush
and are easier to pull on heavier soils because the pods cluster tightly around the taproot with
strong pegs. Spanish groundnuts can tolerate slightly more acidic soils than the other types.
However, they are not as high-yielding as the Virginia or runner types in good conditions and are
more prone to pod splitting when the soil remains wet. Spanish kernels are mainly used for
confectionery and manufacturing. They have a higher oil content than other types of groundnuts
which is advantageous when crushing for oil. Prices are usually not as high as for Virginia or
runner types.
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Cultivars of the Spanish group include Dixie Spanish, Improved Spanish 2B, GFA Spanish,
Argentine, Spantex, Spanette, Shaffers Spanish, Natal Common (Spanish), White Kernel
Varieties, Starr, Comet, Florispan, Spanhoma, Spancross, OLin, Tamspan 90, AT 9899-14,
Spanco, Wilco I, GG 2, GG 4 and TMV 2.
2.6.4 Valencia Group
Valencia Group groundnuts are coarse, and they have heavy reddish stems and large foliage.
They are comparatively tall, having a height of 125 cm. (49 inches) and a spread of 75 cm. (30
inches). Valencia pods are borne on pegs arising from the main stem and the side branches. Most
of the pods are clustered around the base of the plant, and only a few are found several inches
away. Valencia types are three seeded and smooth, with no constriction between the seeds. Seeds
are oval and tightly crowded into the pods. There are two strains, one with flesh and the other
with red seeds. Typical seed weight is 0.4 to 0.5 g. Valencia groundnuts usually have three or
more small kernels to a pod. They are very sweet and usually roasted and sold in the shell.
2.7 Molding
Groundnuts, regardless of their variety, are extremely susceptible to molding. Molds can
manifest themselves by discoloring seed coats to completely destroying groundnut kernels. In
some cases, groundnuts mat together. The growth of molds on groundnuts is the direct result of
too much moisture, regardless of contributing causes which are many and varied. Many types of
molds and other soil organisms are present on the nuts when harvested, and during shelling and
handling the seed may become infected with other organisms. Since there is no commercially
feasible method of washing or sterilizing without risking damage to the groundnuts, the growth
of organisms contaminating the surface of edible groundnuts is best prevented by low moisture
(Woodroof, 1973).
2.7.1 Mycotoxin problems
Several species of fungi infect agricultural crops both in the field and during storage. These
include Aspergillus, Fusarium, Penicillium, Alternaria, Cladosporium and Nigrospora species.
These species have been mainly found associated with cereals, spices, and nuts. In addition to
these fungi reducing crop yields, some of these molds produce mycotoxins (Hocking, 1991).
Mycotoxins are toxic substances produced by fungi and can be classified according to their
fungal origin, chemical structure, and biological activity. These toxins occur in foods mainly as a
result of direct contamination of a food product. Over 200 mycotoxins have been reported but
only those occurring naturally in foods are of significance in terms of food safety. These are
produced mainly by species of Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium. See Table 2.4. The most
widely studied and dangerous mycotoxins are aflatoxins (Smith & Moss, 1985; Scott, 1991;
Miller, 1991).
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Table 2.4 Common mycotoxins found in foodstuffs
Mycotoxin Main causal agent Foods commonly

contaminated
Aflatoxin Aspergillus flavus, A. All grains, dried fruits,
parasiticus nuts
Fumonisin Fusarium verticillioides Maize
Zearalenone Fusarium graminearum Maize
Ochratoxin Aspergillus ochraceous Coffee, cocoa
Trichothecenes (T2 Fusarium spp Cereals (wheat, barley,
Toxins and maize, rice)
deoxynivalenol)
Patulin Penicillium digitatum Apples
Source: Okello et al. (2010)
A. flavus is common and widespread in nature and is most often found in food products under
stressful conditions such as drought. This mold is found widely in subtropical and tropical
climates throughout the world. There are four major aflatoxins: B1, B2, G1, and G2, plus two
additional metabolic products, M1 and M2. The chemical structures of these toxins are presented in
Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1 Chemical structures of Aflatoxin B1, Aflatoxin B2, Aflatoxin G1, Aflatoxin G2,
Aflatoxin M1, and Aflatoxin M2
Source: Alexander, N. (2011)
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It should be noted that it is difficult to eliminate aflatoxins completely from food after they have
developed, although some reduction can occur during processing. Aflatoxins persist under
extreme environmental conditions and are even relatively heat stable at temperatures above 100°
C./212°F., the boiling point of water (Jacobsen et al., 2011).
Considerable research has found that aflatoxin B1 is the most common occurring form of
aflatoxin. All aflatoxins, however, can be toxic at certain concentrations and may primarily
cause liver cancer in animals and human. Aflatoxins can also cause a lack of appetite, weight
loss, hemorrhaging, and abortions. Young livestock are more sensitive and vulnerable to
aflatoxicosis than older animals.
There are two types of aflatoxin toxicity: (1) direct toxicity and (2) relative toxicity. Both can be
acute or chronic. Aflatoxins have become a subject for concern in agriculture on a global scale.
Many countries have assigned high priority to research to find a solution to aflatoxins that
contaminate groundnuts. Aflatoxins are a serious problem, especially in countries like
Mozambique with warm to hot subtropical conditions, and the problem is more acute during and
following alternative dry and wet periods, i.e. drought followed by rain showers. Fungal growth
and aflatoxin production in the pods is most favorable when temperatures range from 20-
30°C./68-86°F. and the relative humidity in the pod microenvironment ranges from 85-95%.
Fungus can invade groundnuts during flower and peg formation, gradually as the pod matures
and rapidly once the pod has become over mature (Okello et al., 2010).
Strain variation in the fungus, interference by other micro-organisms, moisture temperature, and
the pH are also important factors. In addition, the incidence and levels of fungal infection and
aflatoxin contamination vary from one geographic location to another. In most instances,
however, aflatoxins are formed after harvest, particularly when harvesting takes place during
floods, or unseasonal rains or when groundnuts are poorly stored after not having been
sufficiently dried (Smith & Moss, 1985; Kaaya et al., 2006).
The following factors have been singled out as those that mainly encourage mold growth and
aflatoxin production in groundnuts (Okello et al., 2010)
Moisture content: The amount of moisture affects both the grade and storability of groundnuts
and has a critical effect on mould growth and mycotoxin production. It is one of the most
important considerations in determining whether aflatoxin will develop in groundnuts after
harvest. A. flavus grows when the moisture content exceeds 9%, at 80-85% relative humidity
and above.
Soil moisture stress has also been reported to enhance pre-harvest aflatoxin contamination.
Groundnuts exposed to drought stress in the field have been reported to have more A. flavus
infected kernels than in irrigated plots. Excessive drought causes strains on groundnut pods and
testas thus providing entry points for infection by fungi.
Temperature: The effect of temperature is difficult to separate from the effect of moisture. Under
favorable temperature and relative humidity conditions, aflatoxigenic fungi grows on cereals and
groundnuts. Production of aflatoxins is optimal at relatively high temperatures, so contamination
is most acute and widespread in warm, humid climates.
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Handling and drying: Mechanical damage to kernels makes them much more vulnerable to mold
attacks. Fungal growth is several times faster in damaged kernels in comparison to intact kernels.
Traditional groundnut drying techniques in Mozambique involving field and bare ground drying
are a major source of fungal contamination. They are slow, time consuming and labor-intensive
involving lots of crop handling, and due to rains that can occur at harvesting and drying times, it
is difficult to achieve the recommended moisture level for safe storage.
Storage conditions: The fundamental reason why commodities are stored dry is to increase
storability and in part, prevent growth of storage fungi. If commodities are incorrectly stored,
that is, in an improperly dried state or under high humidity with inadequate protection, fungi will
inevitably grow. Duration of storage is an important factor when considering mycotoxin
formation. The longer the retention in storage the greater will be the possibility of building up
environmental conditions conducive to groundnut fungi growth (Kaaya et al., 2000).
Storage structures commonly used by farmers in Mozambique are traditional and may not
maintain an even, cool and dry internal atmosphere. They do not provide adequate protection
from insects and rodents, are not easy to clean, and above all they are not waterproof. All of
these conditions invite mold growth and aflatoxin production.
Insect infestation or damage: Insect infestation during storage is one of the major problems that
can contribute to fungal colonization in different ways. Fungal spores can be carried by insects.
Also toxin-producing fungi can infect growing crops, due to insect damage, and can produce
toxins pre- and post-harvest and during storage. During storage, insects, due to their metabolic
heat and water, can increase the water activity and temperature of groundnuts to levels suitable
for fungal growth. Thus, it is important that insects are controlled both pre and post-harvest (Hell
et al., 2000).
2.7.2 Health effects of aflatoxins
Aflatoxins (especially aflatoxin B1) are potent carcinogens in animals and humans. There are a
range of possible consequences of exposure to aflatoxins, largely determined by the dose and the
duration of exposure. In all cases, the young are more susceptible than adults.
Acute illness and death: Acute illness is the result of consuming foods contaminated with very
high levels of aflatoxin. People die as a result of jaundice and liver failure. In 2004, more than
200 people died in Kenya and more children than that died in Kenya last year consuming maize
contaminated with aflatoxins. No animal species is resistant to acute toxic effects of aflatoxins
(Williams et al., 2004).
Chronic illnesses/Cancers: The International Cancer Research Institute identifies aflatoxin as a

Class 1 carcinogen. This classification is the basis for the regulation of this toxin to exceptionally
low levels in traded commodities (in the U.S.10 ppb in grain; and 0 ppb in milk; in the EU 4 ppb
and 0 ppb in milk).
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Aflatoxin is predominantly perceived as being associated with liver cancers. For a country like
Mozambique, the the synergistic effects of aflatoxin compound the risk due to Hepatitis B virus
(HBV), which is the other predominant cause of liver cancer.
Immunology: Aflatoxins have been reported to reduce immunity in humans and animals. This is
as a result of aflatoxins interfering with the activities of important cells that boost immunity in
the body. Thus, aflatoxins have been strongly linked to HIV/AIDS and malaria throughout
Africa.
Nutritional illnesses: In animals studies have proven that aflatoxin in the diet decreases the rate
of growth and productivity. In children, especially those under three years of age, aflatoxin
exposure enhances stunting and underweight. Generally, from the animal health perspective,
aflatoxins causes growth reduction due to interference with proteins and micronutrients, such as
vitamins A, B12, C, D, and E; and minerals such as zinc, iron, and calcium. Hence, aflatoxins
put consumers’ health at high risk (Okello et al., 2010).
2.7.3 Economic effects of aflatoxins
Aflatoxins in groundnuts, as in all crops, can have a direct economic impact that results in the
loss of an agricultural product or the loss of market value. Aflatoxins also increase costs for
veterinary and human health services, costs for food-borne disease surveillance, and food
monitoring. The presence of high levels of aflatoxins in groundnuts can make them
unacceptable for marketing, causing financial loss to the farmer and the food retailers.
Depending on the size of the market, economic losses can reach 100%, when the entire product
is rejected by the market if aflatoxin levels are higher than acceptable standards. It is estimated
that Africa loses over USD670 million annually due to requirements for EU aflatoxin standards.
Worldwide, billions of dollars are lost by farmers and traders due to aflatoxin contamination. It
is therefore essential that contamination from mycotoxins in groundnuts be minimized as much
as possible (Otsuki et al., 2001; Guo et al., 2009). See Table 2.5.
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Table 2.5 Examples of types of economic losses associated with aflatoxin (and other
mycotoxins) contamination
Bearer Economic losses and costs

National level
Primary producer  Outright food and feed loss
 Less income from contaminated
food
 Reduced productivity of livestock
Intermediary  Less income for products refused,
condemned, or sold at a discount
 Increased storage, transport, and
packing costs
 Potential loss of market
 Increased costs due to
surveillance and control
National government  Increased costs due to
surveillance and control
 Increased costs of shipment,
sampling, and analysis of
products for export
 Increased need for expenditures in
human health and livestock care
services
 Increased costs of training,
communication, and extension
programs
Consumer (human or livestock)  Impaired health and productive
capacity
 Possible higher medical and
veterinary costs
International level  Loss of market value or market
 Trade distortions
Source: Adapted from Jemmali (1987)
2.7.4 Maximum tolerable levels of enforcement
Mozambique does not have clearly set standards on aflatoxin contamination based on aflatoxin
levels in most local foodstuffs. However, Mozambique in collaboration with other bureau of
standards from the East African Community has nonetheless set a limit of 10 ppb for all foods
and feeds but only currently certified products intended for export. Other countries have
different maximum tolerable levels of aflatoxin contamination with the EU having the most
stringent standards. See Table 2.6.
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Table 2.6 Maximum level of total aflatoxin in foodstuffs
Country Product Maximum tolerable

limit (ppb)
EU Groundnuts-ready to eat 4
USA Groundnuts (all products) 20
India Groundnuts (all products) 30
Kenya Groundnuts (all products) 10
Uganda Groundnuts (all products) 10
Mozambique Groundnuts (all products) 10
Source: Adapted from Okello (2010)
2.7.5 Aflatoxin testing in Nampula
Currently there is no central policy or strategies on aflatoxin contamination and management in

Mozambique. However, capacity exists within the country to test for aflatoxin levels in
foodstuffs.
The World Food Programme’s Purchase for Progress (WFP/P4P) initiative uses the WFP’s
purchasing power and its expertise in logistics and food quality to offer smallholder farmer’s
opportunities to access agricultural markets. In so doing, this five-year initiative began in 2010
to invest in providing equipment to and training the technical team at the UniLurio laboratory, a
microbiology laboratory at Lurio University, Nampula. The WFP investment enables the
laboratory to conduct advanced scientific research in the area of food contamination, and to
efficiently provide the quality control services normally required by the WFP, including
aflatoxin testing.
Once trained, fully equipped and accredited, the laboratory and its technicians will provide
quality testing services to the public. Prior to this laboratory’s capacity, commodity trading
companies used the services of a South African laboratory to screen for aflatoxin contamination
at a total cost of approximately USD150. The results would take three weeks. The new
laboratory will offer the same test for USD36.00 and with results available within the hour
(World Food Programme, 2011).
For more information about the WFP/P4P initiative and the Lurio University laboratory’s testing
abilities, contact: WFP/Rome: Mary-Ellen McGroarty, Senior Programme Advisor for
Mozambique at: [email protected] or P4P Country Coordinator-Mozambique
Billy Mwiinga at: [email protected] (WFP/P4P, 2011).
- 16 -
3. Aspects of plant cultivation

3.1 Site requirements
The groundnut is very adaptable and it is cultivated in continental areas with hot summers and
predominately grows between the latitudes of 40° N. and 40° S. The main latitude of
Mozambique is 18° 15’ S., with Nampula being 15° 06’ S. Mozambique falls in between the
Equator and the Tropic of Capricorn. See Figure 3.1. The close proximity of latitudes of
Mozambique to the Tropic of Capricorn is responsible for the sub-tropical type of climate in
most of the country (Maps of the World, 2011).
Figure 3.1 Map of Mozambique
Source: Lonely Planet (2011)
3.2 Climatic requirements
Temperature
The rate of growth and vegetation period of groundnuts are highly influenced by temperature.
30-34°C. (86-93.2°F.) is optimum for germination (max. 45°C./113°F., min. 15°C./59°F.). Under
20°C. (68°F) the capacity to germinate, the rate of growth and development are rapidly reduced,
and at around 14°C. (57°F.) they cease altogether. 25-30°C. (77-86°F.) is optimum for vegetative
growth. Temperatures above 34°C. (93.2°F.) can damage the flower formation. The optimum
temperature influences the net rate of photosynthesis, the flower formation and the growth of the
pods, and is therefore responsible for the greater yields outside the hot tropics. Night-time
- 17 -
temperatures should not sink below 10°C. (50°F.) during the fructification process. Frost will
always kill off the plant.
Light
The groundnut can tolerate shade; it poses no problems when cultivated with trees or with other
mixed crops. When placed in shade, the leaves get bigger, and the number of reproductive organs
lessens, meaning that the yield will only be reduced if the plant is subjected to extremely shady
conditions. When the light is very intense, the groundnut (a C3-plant) achieves a comparable
level of photosynthesis as C4-plants. The groundnut plant is in a photoperiodic sense, practically
neutral, although photoperiodic sensitive and insensitive varieties also exist.
Water
The optimum time to sow, which corresponds in many places with the rainy season, depends
largely on the rain, as the yield sinks rapidly when the plants are sown outside the optimum
planting time. The germination process requires enough air in the soil. A grown groundnut plant
can tolerate flooding conditions for up to a week, providing the water then flows away
completely without leaving behind any stagnant pools. In case of regular heavy rain fall during
the vegetation period, the ground must be well drained, or the plant planted on ridges.
500-1000 mm. (19.5-39.3 inches) of rainfall during the growth period will produce good yields
among the late ripening varieties (up to 145 days vegetation period). 300-500 mm. (11.8-19.5
inches) permits the planting of early ripening varieties (up to 100 days vegetation period). 250-
400 mm (9.8-15.7 inches) of rainfall, when evenly spread, is sufficient for varieties that ripen
extremely early. The type of soil, and its capacity to retain water after it has been saturated with
water before sowing also play an important role. At least 300 mm. (11.8 inches) of rainfall
should be available between the plant’s appearance and the main flowering period, in order to
ensure sufficient vegetative growth, because there is a direct correspondence between the
number of branches and flowers, and the eventual number of pods. Moist soil allows the pegs to
penetrate into the ground more easily. Precise information on the average spread of the rainfall to
be expected on the farm is useful in choosing the correct variety, which will then ripen before the
dry season. Stress due to drought during the ripening period of the seeds can lead to an aflatoxin
infection (Augstburger et al., 2002).
3.3 Soil requirements
Soil for peanut production should be a light-colored, light textured with good drainage, and with
moderately low amounts of organic matter. Such soil is preferred since it is usually loose and
permits easier penetration of roots and pegs, better percolation of rainfall, and easier harvesting.
Light-colored soils reduce staining of pods which ensures greater aesthetic appeal when the crop
is used for unshelled nuts. Well-drained soils provide proper aeration for the roots and nitrifying
bacteria that are necessary for proper mineral nutrition of the plant. Medium to heavy soils or
those with high clay content should also be avoided due to excessive loss of pods when
harvesting groundnuts. The disadvantages of heavy/clay soils are that:
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 they are more difficult at harvest—especially when harvesting manually (though this can be
alleviated with the appropriate tools and by planting on ridges);
 there is the possibility of malformed pods;
 there is a tendency for harvest losses through pegs breaking off;
 pods can become dirty and discolored due to the soil sticking to them (which might affect
sales).
Organic matter should be maintained at a level of 1 to 2% to improve water-holding capacity of

the soil and supply plant nutrients. Groundnuts grow best in slightly acidic soils with a pH of 6.0
to 6.5, but a range of 5.5 to 7.0 is acceptable. Saline soils are not suitable since groundnuts have
a very low salt tolerance (Weiss, 1983; Putnam et al., 1991).
3.4 Cropping systems
Groundnuts should not be grown on the same land for successive years, but should be worked
into a crop rotation system. There are several factors to consider in a crop rotation plan.
Since groundnuts can use fertilizers in large quantities from a previous crop, it is a desirable crop
to follow heavily fertilized crops, ones that do not result in disease build-up such as corn. A crop
like cotton makes land preparation more difficult. It is also desirable to follow groundnuts with a
soil-improvement crop, particularly where the hay is not returned to the soil. Groundnuts are
considered a soil-depleting crop when the entire plants are removed and a soil-improvement crop
when the vines and leaves are returned to the soil.
Crops that are susceptible to attack by the same nematodes, fungi, or bacteria should not succeed
on another in rotation. The possible toxic effects of decomposing crop residues on the
succeeding crop must also be considered. Generally speaking, groundnuts do better following
grass crops such as sod, small grains, and corn. When groundnuts follow sweet potatoes,
soybeans, or other nematode susceptible crops that leave large quantities of heavy-stemmed
green vegetable matter at or near the surface of the soil, the conditions are favorable for the
winter carry-over of southern root rot, a disease that may cause heavy losses to groundnuts.
Thus, rotation helps in control of nematodes, white mold, and leaf spots. It also maintains a
greater balance of groundnut nutrients.
A recommended three-year crop rotation is: (1) corn with crimson clover as a cover crop; (2)
potatoes followed by grain sorghum; and (3) groundnuts followed by rye as a winter cover crop.
A two-year rotation followed in congested groundnut areas is the growing of groundnuts and
corn on alternative years. Corn is desirable just before groundnuts, as it is resistant to root-knot
nematodes and to southern stem rot, and is a clean cultivated, heavily fertilized crop.
Immediately following harvest, the land should be planted to a crop to cover the soil and prevent
erosion. Oats, rye, and other rapidly growing crops are good. The grain should be well fertilized
and grazed or turned under 4 to 6 weeks prior to planting groundnuts (Woodroof, 1973).
- 19 -
3.5 Soil preparation
The latest and most effective system for preparation of land for groundnuts is to turn the land
deep and bury all plant debris to a depth of at least 7.6-10 cm. (3-4 inches) below the surface of
the soil. An effective procedure for preparing land in this manner is as follows: shred or cut
stalks of preceding crop as soon after harvest as possible and dig/disk into the upper 7.6-10 cm.
(3-4 inches) of soil. This practice allows more time for decay of stalks and other litter. Winter
cover crops can be planted shallow on most soils without working the litter to the surface.
Groundnuts benefit from this type of land reparation in several ways. Burying the plant debris
aids greatly in preventing damage from root rot disease. Weed and grass seed will be more
adequately covered and destroyed, and deep plowing breaks up the hard pan and provides for
better root penetration (Boyle, 1952).
Aflatoxin management recommendation(s):

Application of lime (0.5 t/ha), farm yard manure (10t/ha) and cereal crop residue (5 t/ha)
at the time of sowing helps reduce A. flavus seed infection and aflatoxin contamination
by 50-90%. Lime, a source of calcium, enhances groundnut wall thickness and pod
filling and decreases fungal infection. Organic supplements, such as farmyard manure
and crop residues, favor growth of native microbial antagonists and suppress soil- and
seed-borne infections. These three components also improve the water-holding capacity
of the soil, minimizing the effect of end-of-the-season moisture stress, and thereby
limiting aflatoxin accumulation in groundnuts. Lime and farmyard manure are cheap and
easily available in Mozambique (Karthikeyan, 1996; Rosolem et al., 1997).
3.5 Fertilizers
Many changes have occurred in the recommended use of fertilizers on groundnuts over the years
as a result of agricultural research. More reliance is being placed on the results from soil testing
for fertilizer requirements for groundnuts. With improvements of recent years, larger quantities
of more complete fertilizers are being found profitable, and broadcasting is the recommended
method of applying lime and fertilizers. This avoids injury to the seed and plants. Much of the
increase in yield has been due to better use of fertilizers, particularly to those crops immediately
preceding groundnuts in rotation. Several months before planting and as a part of soil
preparation, enough lime should be added to bring the pH to 6.0 to 6.4. If the soil is low in
phosphorus and potassium, 400 to 1000 lbs. of 0-10-20 (nitrogen-phosphorus-potassium),
fertilizer should be broadcast per acre. Certain micro-nutrients, particularly copper, boron, and
sulfur, may be beneficial. Since groundnuts are a legume, nitrogen fertilizer should not be
required. Small amounts (4-12-12 or 5-10-15), however, are beneficial.
It is also recommended that gypsum be applied to all plantings of large seeded types of
groundnuts at a minimum rate of 500-700 lbs. per acre. If applied directly on top of the plants
during the early boom stage, it falls or is washed from the plants to the soil at the base of the
plants. Here it provides a high concentration of readily available calcium in the top few inches
- 20 -
of the soil where the pods develop. Gypsum will not be effective if broadcast or applied in the
rows before planting. Gypsum is used because it is readily soluble and because it does not
appreciably affect the acidity of the soil (Perry, 1963).
3.6 Seeds
Since groundnut flowers are self-fertile and varieties seldom cross in the field, the seed of a
certain variety may be considered genetically uniform. However, individual nuts vary in size,
maturity, mechanical injury and contamination by soil organisms. All of these influence the
germinability and vigor of the seedlings.
3.6.1 Seed selection
Whether the groundnut seed is grown by the farmer-grower for his own use or for sale, care must
be exercised in selecting seed groundnuts. Seed that is to be planted must be true to the variety
and type. Frequently rouge plants in the field cause plantings to become mixed. Inspections
should be made during the growing period for off-type, diseased, or otherwise objectionable
plants that should be removed.

Groundnut varieties should be chosen, when possible, that are genetically more resistant to
the growth of fungus and the production of aflatoxins (for example, Serenut 2). Drought
tolerant varieties also have found to have greatly reduced aflatoxin contamination.
Additionally, choosing varieties which are resistant to diseases and pests can help reduce
aflatoxin contamination (Okello et al., 2010).
Groundnuts intended for seed should be harvested when a maximum number of pods have
reached suitable maturity without loss of appreciable numbers through discoloration and decay.
Daily inspection is desirable as harvest time approaches to determine the optimum time for
harvesting. After removing from the soil all diseased, off-type or poor-yielding, plants should be
removed for commercial use leaving only selected plants for seed purposes.
Pods should not be exposed to direct sun rays for long periods. Quick drying and curing of
groundnuts at relatively high temperatures reduces viability and causes splitting or skinning
during shelling. Groundnuts intended for seed should be carefully picked. The seeds should be
harvested manually whereby the pods should also be removed from the plant by hand to avoid
damage (Woodroof, 1973; Augstburger et al., 2002).
3.6.2 Seed storage
Special care should be taken to protect seed from insects, mice, or other pests, as well as from
high temperatures and high humidity. The groundnuts should be relatively dry before storage,
about 8% or less for unshelled seed and 6% or less for shelled seed.
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Storage temperature affects viability. To maintain peanuts that are highly germinative, the
moisture should be six percent or lower and the temperature should be well below 20°C. (68°F.).
It is considered good practice to shell seed groundnuts in the fall as soon as they are thoroughly
dry. Place in ventilated bags and store at 2.2°C. (36°F.) with 65% relative humidity. Under these
conditions the seed will remain viable for up to two years (Woodroof, 1973).
3.6.3 Seed shelling
Groundnut seed should be shelled in advance of the planting season when there is plenty of time
to perform the work. Care should be taken to prevent a minimum of scratching, skinning, or
damaging of the seeds. Any form of injury to the seed coat is harmful and breaking or splitting
the kernels renders them useless for seed.
Very dry groundnuts, those having 4-5% moisture, are skinned and broken easily during shelling.
With 7-8% moisture, the damage is usually less than half as much. Groundnuts dried quickly at
high temperatures in the sun usually have excessively high skinning and breakage losses during
shelling.
Commercial equipment for shelling groundnut seed is available in sizes for the small farmer.
With all shellers some handpicking to remove skinned, weather-damaged, or otherwise
undesirable seeds is advisable. Very large, very small, and immature kernels should be screened
out. The use of uniform-sized seed, having a range in size or not over 1.6 mm. (4/64 inch) in
diameter is desirable.
Shelled groundnut seed should not be roughly handled. Skinning and breakage may result from
pouring seed from one metal container into another or into the metal hopper of the planter. After
planting, soil organisms may enter damaged seed and cause rotting of the seed. Bags used for
groundnut seed should be tied tightly so seed is not jostled (Beattie, 1954; Woodroof, 1973).
3.6.4 Seed bed preparation
Many Mozambique farmers prefer planting groundnuts on raised beds instead of flat planting.
Raised beds can facilitate quicker germination and early growth, provide adequate water
drainage, and may reduce pod losses during harvest. During this time, fungi can cause seed and
seed rot, manifested by seeds not germinating (seed rot), seeds germinating but not penetrating
the soil surface (pre-emergence damping off), and seeds dying shortly after emergence (post-
emergence damping off). To avert this, special attention should be taken to properly prepare
groundnut seed beds (Okito, 2009).
Seed beds should be prepared deep, loose, and not too fine—to avoid becoming muddy during
any periods of rain. The upper 10 cm. (3.9 inches) should not be kept loose over a longer period
in order to assist the pegs to bore down and the pods to have space to develop.
If planting occurs on ridges or in flat beds, this eases harvesting. They can be formed during
sowing or afterward while tilling weeds. To protect against erosion, the ridges should run along
- 22 -
contour lines so they retain water. Furrows will help to further improve water retention capacity
(Augstburger et al., 2002).
3.7 Crop rotation
Groundnuts should only be planted in a three year crop rotation. Otherwise soil-borne diseases
can accumulate and humus be lost due to excessive soil loosening during the harvest. The
amount of nitrogen fixed in the upper soil layers by groundnuts should not be over-estimated.
Additional sources of nitrogen fixing should be planned within the crop rotation system. The
nutrient content of the soil is especially depleted when not only the foliage, but also the weeds
are used as fodder, thereby leaving little residue to be worked back into the soil. Nevertheless,
groundnuts possess good soil enrichment potential for non-leguminosae, and act as an excellent
crop prior to planting grain. The previous crop should leave little in the way of weeds behind,
and be harvested early, to allow plenty of time to work over the soil to permit early sowing to
take place. The previous crop should be allowed to largely go to seed. Suitable crop partners
include grain, sorgo, pearl barley, maize, rice, as well as sesame, bastard saffron, cotton, sweet
potatoes and grain leguminosae, such as mung beans (Vigna mungo) or cowpea (Vigna
unguiculata) (Augstburger et al., 2002).

The continued cultivation of groundnuts on the same land can lead to a build-up of
A.flavus/A. parasiticus in the soil, which will increase the probability of infection and
aflatoxin contamination. A rotation of 3 years or longer can usually reduce disease, pest
and weed problems. Because of pests and soil-borne diseases, groundnuts should not be
grown after cotton, although cotton can be used in rotation after groundnut. Other
legumes, tomatoes and certain other vegetables can cause a build-up of nematodes and
soil-borne diseases. These should be avoided in rotation with groundnuts. Crops such as
cassava, sweet potato and sunflower can also be used, while crops such as maize should
be avoided in rotations as it is susceptible to Aspergillus infection (Okello et al., 2010).
3.8 Mixed crops
Planting groundnuts in mixed crop systems is widely practiced and it is more often the rule than
the exception on small farms. Some advantages to mix crop systems are
1) Avoidance of the total failure of a crop;

2) Greater total production per area;
3) Reduction of transpiration especially in alley-cropping;
4) Better regulation of erosion and weeds; and
5) Reduced susceptibility to pests.
Due to their tolerance for shading, groundnuts are especially suited to mixed cultivation together
with tall-growing crops such as pearl barley, sorghums, maize, cotton, hibiscus (Hibiscus
- 23 -
sabdariffa), manioc and sunflowers; and as an under-sown crop together with such other crops as
bananas, pigeon peas (Cajanus cajan), castor beans (Ricinus communis), sugar cane, or
permanent crops such as e.g. coconut palms, oil palms, rubber and cocoa.
When their vegetation periods are similar in length, other crops cultivated together with
groundnuts will benefit by a gain in yield. Even greater increases in yield have been observed for
some crops, e.g. cotton –which have a vegetation period which is up to 3 months longer. The
success of cultivating in a mixed system is dependent largely upon choosing site-appropriate
crops and the way the combination of crops work together (Azam-Ali et al., 1990; Roy, Samsal,
& Bhattacharjee, 1990; Peter & Runge-Metzer, 1994; Waterworth, 1994; Schrot, Balle, &
Pelthier, 1995; Tonye & Titi-Newl, 1995).
3.9 Sowing
Weather and soil conditions determine the best time for planting groundnuts. Early planting,
consistent with settled weather and a well-warmed soil is usually ideal. However, some growers
make succession plantings of the same variety a few days apart for the purpose of increasing the
length of the harvesting season. Because of variable weather and soil conditions, this plan does
not always work. A better plan is to plant early-, midseason-, and late-maturing varieties at one
time. Differences of as much as three weeks may be often obtained in the harvesting dates
between the early and the late sorts.
Groundnut seeds are very sensitive to unfavorable conditions for germination and it is wise to
defer planting until a warm, moist seedbed is available. Planting dates vary with the
geographical location. Groundnut seed should be covered to a depth of about 6.3 cm. (2-1/2
inches) on light-textured soil, and slightly shallower on heavier soils (Woodroof, 1973).
Planting 2-3 seeds per hole instead of only one seed will increase the prospects for plant growth,
provide more pods, and contribute to a higher yield (Okito, 2009).
3.9.1 Method and rate of sowing
Seeds should be planted on smooth, uniform, well-prepared seedbeds to prevent damage to the
seed. Seed that splits will not germinate and grow. The short plant height of Spanish varieties
results in them not filling 76 cm. (30 inch) rows, yet other varieties may fill them by midsummer.
Spanish and Valencia varieties have greater yield with 46 cm. (/18 inch) row spacing than 76 cm.
(30 inch) rows, except on dry land sand. See Table 3.1.
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Table 3.1 Effects of different row spacings and soil types on yields of groundnuts
Row spacing (centimeters)

Soil type
46 76
Lbs pods/acre
Silt loam 1580 1370
Dry land sand 1210 1250
Irrigated sand 1870 1680
Source: Adapted from Putnam et al. (1991)
3.10 Weed control
Because groundnuts are a low-growing crop, weeds can out-compete them for light, water, and
nutrients. Weeds also cause losses during harvest. The presence of weed seed and/or plant parts
in the harvest crop may cause spoilage during groundnut drying or storage. All these factors
result in reduced yield or quality and thereby reduce economic return.
Other factors that make weed control more difficult in groundnuts than in other crops such as
corn or soybeans include:
 slow early-season growth;

 the limited number of herbicides available;
 the need for precision, flat, cultivation.
Crop rotation is just as important for weed control as it is for disease control. The best time to
start a weed control program for groundnuts is 2 or more years before planting the crop (Weeks,
2000).
Thoroughly preparing the soil prior to planting is a distinct aid to later cultivation of a groundnut
crop. The control of weeds is the most important benefit of cultivation, but cultivation that
leaves the surface mellow and smooth is an aid in retaining rainfall and reduces erosion.
Cultivation keeps the soil mellow around the plants as they spread. This condition is best
insured by adequate and initial deep land turning which leaves the soil smooth.
Two critical periods occur in the control of weeds in groundnuts: first, when the plants are very
small and second, when the plants start setting fruit. If used, cultivating tools must not be
allowed to come too close to plants to interfere with the developing pegs bearing the pods that
are buried an inch or two deep in the soil. Chemical weed control may help with the weed-
control problem during the early as well as the late period of growth.
Chemical weed control products will reduce or eliminate the need for close cultivation. They
also reduce development of southern blight. Furthermore, heavy movement of the soil which
covers lower portions of the groundnut plant limits normal branching, flower, and pod
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development. Research has shown that conventional cultivation is more harmful to yield than is
any other currently used weed control system (McGill & Samples, 1965; Woodroof, 1973).
3.11 Scouting
Scouting is a tool that groundnut producers have used since the 1970s to make appropriate
treatment decisions about diseases and pests. Scouting is only one part of an overall
management program called Integrated Pest Management (IPM). The goal of IPM is to apply the
most up-to-date technology to keep pest populations below economic levels so that growers can
produce a quality crop more profitably with minimal effects on the environment.
Scouting is a fundamental part of IPM. It involves correctly identifying the disease or pest,
determining the pest population level, and evaluating the amount of damage to the crop. Then
treatment decisions can be based on established thresholds for a particular pest or on the level of
damage caused to the crop plants.
IPM includes many other techniques for managing pests, including crop rotation, use of resistant
varieties, proper use of tillage, fertility management, conservation of beneficial insects,
biological control materials, irrigation management, and use of pheromone traps to monitor adult
insect populations. Blending or integrating any or all of these techniques into a program for each
farm is the goal of groundnut IPM.
Scouting should begin as soon as groundnuts emerge from the soil and until just prior to harvest.
To become a good groundnut scout you must learn what to look for and when. During mid-
season a scout should check fields once a week to monitor pest populations and evaluate plant
damage.
To make an accurate evaluation of an entire field, a scout should walk groundnut fields in a
random manner to check for problems. Since some pests are likely to be a problem in sandy soil
fields and others in heavier, clay soils, all areas of a field should be covered. Some pests may
occur in ‘hot spots’ or along field margins, so samples should be taken in these areas, too. Scouts
should also walk different routes each time in a particular field. Figure 3.2 shows how a
groundnut field might be walked for two consecutive weeks.
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Figure 3.2 Field scouting pattern
Field scouting pattern for Week 1 Field scouting pattern for Week 2
0=Start X=Scouting site
Source: Weeks et al. (2000)
Scouting allows for a sampling for insects and leaf spot at a scouting site. A scouting site is a
location picked at random as you walk the patterns illustrated in Figure 3.2. A thorough scouting
of each field allows a scout to get a sample of the pest populations and conditions in the field.
The farmer can then use this information to make treatment decisions. Weekly scouting
information should be recorded on a groundnut scout form. These scouting reports, other
information on weed and soil-disease losses, and results of nematode and fertility soil tests
should be compiled yearly for each field to develop a field history. Plans for next year’s weed,
nematode, and fertilizer management program can be obtained from this field history (Weeks,
2000).
3.12 Diseases
Controlling diseases results in a greater number of healthier plants, increased yield of better
quality groundnuts, and more hay for feed or soil improvement. The most important methods of
avoiding diseases are:
1) Crop rotation;
2) Choosing the right variety;
3) Sufficient supply of nutrients;
4) Uproot infesting plants to stop the disease spreading; and
5) Destruction of any invested plant parts after the harvest.
Two of the most important groundnut diseases in Mozambique are groundnut rosette virus and
leaf spot. These and other diseases are discussed below.
3.12.1 Groundnut rosette virus (GRV)
Groundnut rosette virus or simply rosette is the most destructive virus diseases in groundnuts in
Africa. Some rosette epidemics have been devastating. In 1975 rosette affected almost 0.7
million ha of groundnut in Nigeria and caused yield losses estimated at over 0.5 million tons,
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with a value estimated at USD250 million. In 1995, about 43,000 ha were affected in eastern
Zambia, with losses amounting to USD5 million. Unpredictability is an important feature of the
disease: the sudden unexpected loss of an important source of protein and cooking oil, of
income, and of the seed for the next crop, has led farmers to abandon growing groundnuts in
subsequent years. Following the epidemic in Malawi in 1994/5, groundnut plantings decreased
by 23%, from 89,000 to 69,700 ha (Yaycock et al., 1976; Anon, 1996).
Rosette is transmitted to the plant through an aphid (Aphis craccivora), a small insect that feeds
on groundnut leaves. The disease is transmitted after the insect feeds on one leaf at a time.
Aphids may be seen on young leaves as early as the first three weeks of planting. Rosette only
occurs throughout Africa south of the Sahara and it has manifested itself in three varieties—
chlorotic rosette, green rosette, and mosaic rosette. Since only African groundnuts are affected
by rosette disease, this suggests that the causal agents of rosette are endemic to Africa and are
pathogens of a wild African plant species (Murant, Robinson, & Taliansky, 1996; Okito, 2009).
Groundnut rosette virus control recommendations:
1) Plant early and plant densely. This reduces the incidence of disease because the landing area
of the aphid is limited as the ground becomes covered by plant growth;
2) Develop resistant cultivars. This is the best approach. Resistance is currently available in
late-maturing cultivars derived from groundnut material found in the border region between
Côte d'Ivoire and Burkina Faso. The resistance, however, does not amount to absolute
immunity, though it is effective against both Chorotic and Green forms of rosette (Murant,
Robinson, & Taliansky, 1996).
3.12.2 Leaf spot
Early leaf spot (caused by Cercospora arachidicola) and late leaf spot (caused by
Cercosporidium personatum) are widespread and potentially destructive diseases of groundnuts.
Late leaf spot is the more destructive of the two.
The earliest symptoms of both diseases appear as small yellow spots on the leaves—rounded
blemishes caused by parasitic fungi. Spots of early leaf spot on groundnuts are usually reddish
brown and surrounded by a yellow halo. Those of late leaf spot are dark brown and almost
black, particularly on the lower leaf surface.
Spots of early leaf spot appear smooth, because the fungus produces few spores on the upper
surface of the leaves. Because the late leaf spot fungus produces many spores on both leaf
surfaces, the spots have a raised or tufted appearance. The spore masses of both fungi can be
seen with a hand lens (20x). On plants severely damaged by late leaf spot, the characteristic
black spots may also be seen on the leaf petioles and stems.
Heavily spotted leaves are shed well before harvest. Leaf shed usually starts at the base of the
stem and continues upward until all but the youngest leaves are lost. To avoid heavy losses to
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early pod shed, badly defoliated groundnuts must be harvested well before their expected crop
maturity date.
Leaf spot diseases can easily be mistaken for injury caused by soil- and foliar-applied pesticides.
Pesticide injury is more likely on fast-growing young groundnut plants, while leaf spot diseases
are more likely from mid-season to harvest.
The common symptoms of injury from soil-applied pesticides are early-leaf-spot-like spots (up
to a dozen) around the margin of young peanut leaves. Typically, injury from foliar-applied
pesticides will be seen within a day or two of the application; the randomly scattered brown to
reddish brown spots will appear, concentrated in the upper canopy of the plants. In indirect light,
white areas of pesticide residue may be seen within these spots.
Three fungi produce spots on the leaves, stems, and pegs of groundnuts. Unless leaf spot is
controlled one year, damage may be more severe the following year. The disease is progressive;
the oldest leaves turn yellow and drop off, then the stems weaken and the plant (with nuts) dies
prematurely.
Leaf spot control recommendations:
1) Crop rotation will slow early-season development of leaf spot diseases on future groundnut
crops. Ideally, groundnuts should not be grown more often than every third year in a given
field;
2) Deep-turning the debris from the previous peanut crop will also help delay disease
development;
3) If possible, apply a recommended fungicide within 45 days of planting. In most fields

fungicide applications made on a 12-14 day schedule should give good protection from leaf
spot. In irrigated fields frequently cropped in groundnuts, consider following 10-12 day
spray schedules for fungicide applications. Continue fungicide applications until 2 weeks
before digging in all fields;
4) Establish a leaf spot-tolerant cultivar such as the Southern Runner or Georgia Green in fields
where heavy leaf spot pressure is expected.
Scouting for leaf spot will help determine how advanced and persistent the disease is. Scouting
should begin about 9 weeks after planting. The first visit should pick up any outbreaks of early
leaf spot. Collect a total of fifty leaves, each with four or five leaflets, from five or more separate
locations in the field. Select leaves in the groundnut canopy midway between the ground and
newest leaves. Count the total number of leaf spots on the leaves. See Figure 3.3. Make two
more collections at two week intervals to further assess the situation.
- 29 -
Figure 3.3 Assessment of Groundnut leaf spot control
Source: Weeks, et al. (2000)
Locate the number of leaf spots counted on the left side of Figure 3.4. Pinpoint the age of the
groundnut plant at the base of the graph. Then, connect the vertical and horizontal lines within
the graph to determine the effectiveness of your leaf spot remedy (Weeks et al., 2000).
- 30 -
Figure 3.4 Leaf spot control graph
Source: Weeks et al. (2000)
3.12.3 White mold (aka southern blight or southern stem)
White mold, which is also known as southern blight or southern stem is among the most
damaging diseases of groundnuts. This disease, caused by Sclerotium rolfsii, occurs in nearly
every field where groundnuts are cultivated. Yield loss to white mold is heaviest where
groundnuts are grown each year or every other year. Estimated losses in these fields may reach
20% or more of expected yields.
White mold is primarily a mid- to late-season disease. Wilting or flagging of a vine or central
stem(s) starts to occur on randomly scattered plants across a field as the vines begin to cover the
row middles. The leaves on the wilted vines or stems quickly turn brown and die. The wilting
and death of the remaining stems on a diseased plant usually follow. The white mold fungus will
also attack the roots, pods, and pegs of a groundnut plant. Pods on damaged pegs are usually
shed. Diseased pods turn dark brown and disintegrate. Sometimes, severe pod rot may occur
without any apparent damage to the rest of the plant.
A dense white mat of mycelia (filaments) of the white mold fungus may be seen on the soil
surface, nearby crop debris, stems on or just above the soil surface, and occasionally lower
leaves during humid, hot weather. This mat may grow across the soil surface to colonize adjacent
healthy plants.
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Round, light tan to brown, seed-like bodies called sclerotia usually form on this mat of filaments.
They are usually most abundant on decaying groundnut stems and leaves. These dense white
mats usually disappear when the soil dries or weather cools, but the sclerotia remain. The white
mold fungus will survive in the soil as sclerotia until the next susceptible crop.
White mold control recommendations:
To make an informed decision on white mold control, you need good cropping history and
scouting records for each groundnut field. Fungicides will give a good return in fields where light
to moderate disease pressure is anticipated. In some fields, white mold causes such severe crop
loss that rotation to a non-host crop is the only viable control measure.
While no single treatment controls the disease, the following are helpful:
1) Crop rotation is the most effective control for white mold. A 2-year minimum between
groundnut crops is suggested;
2) Completely bury trash from preceding crop at least 10 cm./4 inches deep;
3) Plant early;
4) Plant groundnuts after a blight resistant crop, such as corn;
5) Plant some varieties of groundnuts that are more resistant than others—Southern Runner, or
Georgia Green in field prone to heavy white mold pressure;
6) Avoid mechanical and insect injury to groundnut plants (Weeks, 2000).
3.12.4 Collar rot
Collar rot is associated with sunburn and is similar to white mold/southern blight. It occurs
especially on Virginia type groundnuts following cotton. Treatment of the disease is the same as
for white mold.
3.12.5 Peg rots
Peg rots are caused by organisms that are similar to those causing southern blight and they cause
the seed to decay. Control is the same as for white mold.
3.12.6 Black pod
This is a calcium deficiency disease associated with varieties having large pods and seed.
Various soil fungi attack the dead pod tissues causing discoloration. The trouble is worse
following cotton or soybeans and during droughts early in the season. The methods for
controlling black pod are poor but there are actions that can be taken. Research has shown that
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spacing plants closer can often yield healthier pods. Loss of pods from black pod also decreases
when plants are inspected frequently and infected pods are removed when showing the earliest
symptoms. Some control of black pod has also been obtained with other species of plants with
copper fungicides, applied with either a hand sprayer or a power-sprayer (Woodroof, 1973;
Thorold, 2008).
3.13 Insects and their control
Groundnut plants are attacked by a number of insect pests which feed on the foliage, pegs, pods,
and kernels. Because cultural practices, weather conditions, and other factors vary widely, it is
impossible to predict the insect problems a producer will encounter in a given year.
While some groundnut insects are controlled by cultural practices, most are controlled by the use
of insecticides. Some years producers able a crop of groundnuts to grow without using
insecticides. Other years, producers have needed to make several insecticide applications. With
the continually increasing cost of insecticides and the importance of keeping the environment as
pesticide-free as possible, groundnut producers should use insecticides only as needed.
Cultivation measures to prevent infestation by pests include:
1) Mixed crops and diversification of planting;
2) Provide alternative food sources (nectar/blooms) for parasitic insects;
3) Integrate habitats for natural enemies (e.g. selective weeding);
4) Include hedges and trees within the system;
5) Plant different varieties in strip form (e.g. alternative resistant with other types).
The following is a shortlist of common groundnut pests common to Mozambique:
3.13.1 Termites
Termites are serious groundnut pests throughout Africa. Species of Microtermes and
Odontotermes are the most damaging, while Macrotermes cause occasional damage. The small-
sized Microtermes spp., in particular, attack and invade growing groundnut plants through the
roots and stem near ground level, hollowing them out and causing the plants to wilt and die with
a consequent reduction in crop yield.
Roots damaged by other soil pests, such as white grubs, are also prone to attack by termites.
Some termite species (Macrotermes spp., Hodotermes mossambicus) cut off stem bases, and may
cause 25-100% of plant losses. As the crop ripens the outer layers of the pods are scarified
(removal of soft corky tissue between the veins of the pod) by termites allowing contamination
of the seed and soil fungi such as Aspergillus flavus which produce aflatoxins.
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Scarification of pods is by far the most common type of termite damage at plant maturity, a
factor often aggravated by late harvest. Scarification as high as 30% has been reported. Infested
plants are not obviously diseased and are frequently harvested with and contaminate the rest of
the crop. Species such as Microtermes spp. also penetrate the pod to feed off the soft inner lining,
filling the pod with soil. This form of attack leads to additional loss through premature
germination of kernels. Stacks of plants left drying in the fields are also frequently attacked by
species such as Odontotermes spp. with farmers losing between 30-40% of their crop at this
stage. Termite damage is generally most serious towards the end of the growing season just prior
to harvesting, and it is particularly serious during periods of drought.
Termite control recommendations:
1) Remove any residues of previous cereal crops, such as sorghum, millet, or maize. Plant
residues left in agricultural fields serve as food for termites, which may infest a new crop.
Groundnut crops with high plant residues have been observed with 100% termite infestation;
2) Planting should be carried out early enough to avoid drought periods. Moisture deficiency
may stress a crop and lead to attack by termites due to water-stressed plants;
3) Harvest promptly. Research has shown that termite damage increases with harvest delays.
Furthermore, most groundnut-producing areas in Africa experience drought and high
temperatures during the later part of the growing season, conditions that favor termite
infestation;
4) The complete destruction of mounds and removal of queen termites are effective control
measures against mound-building species (Macrotermes spp.). Partial destruction of mounds
is unlikely to solve the problem, since replacement reproduction may develop from the
remaining termites;
5) It has been reported that close spacing during planting helps to deter termite infestation. High
density sowing, followed by thinning of surviving plants where necessary to reduce
competition, offsets anticipated losses due to termites (Infonet-biovision, 2011).
3.13.2 White grubs
White grubs are the larvae of scarab ‘chafer’/June beetles. There are about 200 known species.
Mature grubs are about 1.3-2.5 cm. (0.5-1 inch) long with six prominent legs. The rear of the
body is smooth, shiny, and usually black. White grubs have curved C-shaped bodies. They live
in the soil and feed on the underground parts of the groundnut plant. Their life cycle varies in
length from 1-4 years, depending on the species. Many species of white grubs are associated
with groundnut damage in Africa.
White grubs attack groundnut plants at all stages of growth. They eat the roots and damage the
pods. White grubs feed mainly on the taproots and/or peripheral roots leading to plant stunting or
death. They inflict cuts in the crown region of taproots; these lesions are often invaded by rot-
causing fungi. White grubs also cut out pods from the base of groundnut pegs and destroy larger,
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soft pods. Plants are often attacked in a row. White grubs seem to prefer soils with sandy or
loamy sand textures and are seldom observed in clay soils.
White grubs control recommendations:

1) Allow enough time between manure application and groundnut planting. Note that the
excessive use of organic manure in groundnut farms has been observed to increase the
incidence of white grubs, especially when manure is applied during the cropping season;
2) Plough deeply and hand hoe tillage as it exposes soil pests to desiccation and to predators,
thus helping to reduce their numbers and damage (Infonet-biovision, 2011).
3.13.3 Millipedes
Millipedes are persistent soil pest of groundnuts. They are brown to blackish in color and curl
when disturbed. Millipedes attack groundnut seedlings between planting and approximately 20
days after planting, feeding on the emerging cotyledons and moving to the root system at the
collar region. The cortex is often damaged serving as an entry point for secondary infection by
microorganisms.
Millipedes also attack maturing groundnut plants during pod formation, e.g. when the pods are
still soft. Immature pods from severed pegs are often perforated and thus suffer secondary
infection or invasion by rot-causing organisms such as Aspergillus flavus. Millipedes may also
damage flowers. Birds are the main predators of millipedes.
Millipede control recommendations:
1) Practice good farm sanitation;
2) Prepare the land properly before planting;
3) Select growing sites away from forest regions (breeding sites for millipedes);
4) Cover exposed pods;
5) Close any cracks in the soil;
6) Use groundnut varieties with pods well buried (Infonet-biovision, 2011).
3.13.4 Aphids
Aphids are a serious pest as a vector of virus diseases, such as the rosette virus disease (discussed
earlier), and they are a major constraint to groundnut production, particularly in the dry season.
The groundnut aphid is black or dark brown in color, variable in size (1.5 to 2.0 mm long) with
two black cornicles (horns at the rear of the body), and a black tail.
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Aphids control recommendations:

1) Plant early and plant close together. Early planting allows plants to start flowering before
aphids appear. Dense planting provides a barrier to aphids penetrating in from field edges
and discourages population build-up of aphids and reduces incident of rosette disease;
2) Conserve natural enemies: Ladybug beetles are important natural enemies in groundnuts;
3) Use neem seed or leaf extracts if necessary;
4) Do not cultivate groundnut or other legumes continuously on the same ground;
7) Use aphid-‘resistant’ varieties. The groundnut variety ‘Nyanda’ is reported to be tolerant of

aphids (Infonet-biovision, 2011).
3.13.5 Thrips
Several species of thrips attack groundnuts. Thrips are small slender insects that jump or fly
when disturbed. Thrips larvae are similarly shaped and are usually yellow. They feed in buds or
plants on young, folded leaflets. The flower thrips (Frankliniella schultzei and Megalurothrips
sjostedti) infest mainly buds and flowers. Attacked flowers are discolored and scarred; terminal
leaf buds are blackened and distorted after unfolding. Other species of thrips (e.g. Scirtothrips
dorsalis and liothrips indicus) infest foliage. Thrips feeding causes yellowish-green patches on
the upper leaf surface and brown necrotic areas and silvery sheen on the lower surface of the
leaf; leaves become thickened and some curling occurs. In severe infestations, young leaves are
severely deformed, plants are stunted and leaves are blighted. In the past, controlling thrips has
not consistently resulted in yield increases.
Thrips control recommendations:
1) Plough and harrow before transplanting. This can be useful in reducing thrips attacks by
killing pupae in the soil;
2) Conserve natural enemies to thrips, such as lacewings and other predatory bugs;
3) If necessary, spray the crop with botanicals—some plant extracts (e.g. garlic, rotenone, neem,
pyrethrum, etc.). A mixture of garlic and pepper has been recommended for organic growers
in the United States (Infonet-biovision, 2011).
3.13.6 Leafminer
The Leafminer is a common pest of groundnuts in South and South-East Asia, a major pest in
India, and leafminers have invaded Africa. Leafminers were first reported in Uganda in 1998
and have now been recorded in Mozambique, Malawi, Democratic Republic of Congo and South
Africa. In all African countries where leafminers have been found, the pest has reached epidemic
densities and severe yield losses have occurred.
- 36 -
The adult leafminer is a mottled moth, with a full wing span of up to 18mm. (18/24 inches). The
moth lays eggs on the underside of the groundnut leaf. Yellowish green caterpillars hatch, tunnel
into the leaves and feed between the upper and lower epidermis of the leaf. Mined leaves become
distorted within a few days. Caterpillars are grey-green with a shiny black head.
Three or four attacks per groundnut leaflet can cause so much distortion that a leaf exposes as
little as 30% of the potential photosynthetic area to the sun. Later, when the caterpillar becomes
too large to occupy the mine, they emerge to the leaf surface and either fold over a single leaf
and hold it down with silk, or web together two or more leaflets. Leafminers live and feed in the
shelter they have constructed. Pupation takes place inside the webbed leaflets. Damaged leaves
become brownish, rolled and desiccated, which results in early defoliation and affects the growth
and yield of the plants.
Leafminer control recommendations:
1) Plant during the first short rains when normally the leafminer population is low;
2) Avoid drought stress by irrigating or sowing so as to avoid periods when drought is likely.
Plants that are water-stressed are much more susceptible to leafminer attack than irrigated
plants;
3) Use tolerant/resistant varieties. In Uganda, the variety ‘Egola-1’ has been reported to show
signs of relative resistance (Infonet-biovision, 2011).
3.13.7 Nematodes
There are three types of nematodes—root-knot, meadow, and string, which cause stunting and
yellowing of the plants. Plant parasitic nematodes can severely limit the production of
groundnuts. Yield loss is closely tied to cropping sequence; the more often peanuts are grown,
the higher the risk of significant crop injury. The peanut root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne
arenaria) is the most widely distributed and destructive nematode pest of groundnuts. Other
nematodes reported to damage groundnuts are the lesion nematode (Pratylenchus brachyurus)
and the ring nematode (Criconemoides species). Nematode populations are usually highest in
light, sandy soils.
Nematode injury is difficult to diagnose on the basis of above-ground symptoms. The damage
may easily be mistaken for nutritional deficiency, a soil-related disorder, or drought stress.
Nematode-damaged peanut plants are usually found in circular to irregular patches ranging from
a few feet to several acres.
Symptoms of nematode injury never occur uniformly across a field. The foliage of damaged
plants turns yellow and wilts at mid-day, even when soil moisture is plentiful. During periods of
hot, dry summer weather, the death of severely damaged plants is common. At times, sizable
yield reductions will occur without any apparent damage to the plant.
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Galls form on roots invaded by the groundnut root-knot nematode; these galls can be several
times the normal root diameter in size. Pegs and pods attacked by this nematode are also galled.
Elongated, swollen areas may appear on heavily infested roots and pegs.
Development of the fibrous root system is greatly restricted by the peanut root-knot, lesion, and
ring nematodes. Affected roots usually are discolored and stunted. Small brown to black spots
associated with the feeding of the lesion nematode often give damaged pods a speckled
appearance. Pods weakened by nematode feeding often break when the vines are inverted and
are left scattered across the soil surface.
An assay of soil for plant parasitic nematodes is generally needed for the accurate diagnosis of
nematodes. More importantly, soil assays can also be used to identify fields with potentially
damaging nematode populations and to begin effective control measures before significant loss
occurs. Collecting soil samples for nematode analysis is recommended for all fields going into
groundnuts the next year, regardless of previous cropping history. Particular attention must be
paid to those fields cropped to groundnuts nearly every year. Fields fallowed the previous
summer should also be sampled for nematodes.
Nematodes control recommendations:
1) Crop rotation can be used to prevent nematode populations, particularly those of the
groundnut root-knot nematode, from reaching damaging levels. The best rotation is 1 to 2
years of groundnuts behind 4 to 5 years of a pasture grass. Otherwise, a 2-year minimum
between groundnuts crops is recommended. Avoid groundnut-soybean rotations;
2) Turn over summer-fallowed fields several times to destroy groundnut stands;
3) Granular and fumigant nematicides will give some control of nematodes (Weeks, 2000).
3.13.8 Moths and beetles
Stored groundnuts may be attacked by moths (Ephestia cautella, Plodia interpunctella, Cadra
cautella), and beetles (Caryedon serratus, Tribolium castaneum, Trogoderma granarium). The
larvae of moths and the grubs and adult beetles bore into and damage seeds. Moths cause
extensive webbing. The bruchid beetle Caryedon serratus is the major pest of groundnuts in
shells. A good post harvest pest management program based on good storage practices is very
important.
Moths and beetles control recommendations:
1) As most post-harvest groundnut pests, except bruchids, are unable to penetrate intact pods,
leave the crop in the shell for as long as possible during storage for an effective method of
limiting damage;
2) Adding sand as an abrasive material at the farm level has also been shown to be effective
(Infonet-biovision, 2011).
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3.14 Irrigation
Groundnuts are mostly grown on the residual moisture without any supplementary irrigation.
Apart from reducing the buildup of aflatoxin, well co-ordinated irrigation will also produce
higher yields.
Groundnuts respond well to two or three irrigations given at an interval of 12-15 days starting
from 75 days after sowing. The results from trials show an increase of 35-40% in pod yield
corresponding to extra pod yield of 300-400 kg/ha.

Drought conditions favor aflatoxin contamination. Avoid end-of-season drought with
supplementary irrigation or timely planting groundnut varieities with maturity period
fitting in the rainfall cycle. Drought resistant varieties also help withstand an end or mid-
season drought (Okello et al., 2010).
Irrigation is usually stopped before the harvest as soon as two-thirds of the pods have ripened.
After two more weeks, harvesting can begin, when the soil is sprinkled directly beforehand in
order to loosen it and ease the work. If the temperature allows, groundnuts can be planted during
the dry season when irrigated, so eventually two harvests are possible per year (Augstburger, et
al., 2002).
4. Harvest and post-harvest handling

4.1 Time of harvesting
The crop must be harvested at the proper time. This will depend on the variety grown and its
duration. The optimum time for harvesting is when most pods have a veined surface, seed coats
are colored, and 60-75% of pods show darkening on the inner surface of the hull. As the
groundnut produces flowers almost daily over a number of weeks, the nuts, even on a single
plant, do not mature simultaneously. While some of the oldest kernels may be mature and even
sprout in hot weather, many are still newly formed. Plants in different parts of a field should,
therefore, be examined at intervals of 2-3 days. Bush varieties mature in 110-130 days after
sowing; branching varieties in 130-15 days.

It is very important to harvest groundnuts at optimum maturity, as excessive numbers of
over-mature or very immature pods at harvest can be reflected in high levels of aflatoxin
in the production. Also delays in harvesting will result in poor quality seed due to mold
infections and subsequent aflatoxin contamination of the seeds/pods (Okello et al., 2010).
- 39 -
The symptoms like yellowing and drying of lower leaves and reddish color of the kernels after
the pods are broken are the visual indicators to decide upon harvesting. The individual seeds are
ripe when:
 The structure of the pods is easily recognizable;

 The pods have been largely filled with seeds within;
 The inner walls of the pods has taken on a darker color (brown).
As soon as 60-75% of the pods are ripe, any further delays in harvesting will result in losses. The
optimum period for harvesting is very short. If harvesting takes place either 5-10 days before this
time or after this time, then up to 25-50% of the production may be lost. If groundnuts are
harvested too late, especially in hard and dry soils, this will result in the pegs breaking off, since
they will already be quite brittle. The pegs often stay stuck in the soil when the plant is pulled out
(Augstburger et al., 2002).
4.2 Methods of harvest
Manual harvesting of groundnuts is commonly practiced in Mozambique. Manual harvesting

usually consists of a series of operations comprising digging, lifting, windrowing, stocking, and
threshing. Manual harvesting can be more profitable over mechanical harvesting for small areas
since fewer pods are left in the soil and they are less likely to be damaged. Planting on ridges,
especially in hard soils, can make harvesting easier. The plants can be extracted by hand with a
hoe; this can be made easier still by cutting below all the rows with special uprooting blades
(pulled by either animals or a tractor). In light soils, harvesting machines—similar to those used
for potato crops—can used, and for heavy soils, special groundnut uprooters.

Damage to pods at the time of harvest should avoided as much as possible since this can
lead to rapid invasion of the pods by A. flavus/A. parasiticus which leads to aflatoxin
contamination. Remove excessive moisture from the pods after harvesting through shaking
(Okello et al., 2010).
In bunch type groundnuts, pod development is confined to the base of the plant and the pegs
carrying the pods into the soil are thick and strong. Almost all the pods are recovered with the
plants when they are pulled out of the soil. The bunch type of groundnut is mostly harvested by
pulling out the plants by hand. Usually 12 to 14 field workers can harvest a one-hectare area of
groundnut crop in one day.
Harvesting may sometimes become a problem especially when the crop has passed the stage of
full maturity and the soil has hardened. In this case, it is necessary to lift the plants by loosening
the soil either by working a hand hoe or a plough along the plant rows. If after lifting the crop
manually it is observed that a good percentage of the pods have been left in the soil, the same
implements may be used to pick the leftover pods. In the latter case, additional work will be
- 40 -
required. In the case of the spreading type groundnut, the process of up-rooting the crop from the
soil is a rather difficult operation as pod formation takes place all along the creeping branches of
the plant. The pegs are comparatively thinner and more delicate.
As compared to manual uprooting, animal-drawn diggers are satisfactory and economical. The
digger lifts groundnut plants from a depth of 10-12 cm. (3.9-4.7 inches). Several models are
available in local African markets to be operated either by the animal draught or by a power tiller
drive (3-6 hp).
Harvesting delays may be caused by the logistics of lifting plants from the ground. Many models
of ploughs or digger blades can be used to up-root one or several rows. The design depends on
whether the digger is animal operated or mechanically powered. It is essential that the blade or
ploughshare be set deep enough to cut below all the pods, but not so deep as to increase draughts
unnecessarily. Slow speeds and additional implements are preferable to higher speeds with fewer
tools.
Harvesting techniques can also affect the milling quality of groundnuts. Sweeps or fingers may
be necessary on the digging blades to ensure that the plants are left well to one side of the opened
furrow and not covered with soil. Where it is necessary to combine several rows of plants into
one, this operation must be carried out soon after lifting as practicable or pod loss can occur.
Raking early in the day when plants are moist reduces this issue.
The groundnut pods from freshly harvested plants still have a moisture content of around 35-
50% and need to be rapidly dried to a moisture content of around 20-25% so that they can easily
be separated from the plants. The best method is to pre-dry them in windrows for 2-3 days. After
the tap roots have been cut away, the plants are stacked on their leaves with the pods facing
downwards. The advantages of this are:
 rapid drying;
 avoidance of contact with the soil;
 a reduction of attacks by insects and the risk of infestation by Aspergillus spp.
The quicker the pods are dried after being uprooted, the less aflatoxin is created. Nevertheless,
care must be taken not to dry them too quickly, as this can result in a weakening of the testa,
which protects the seeds from decay (Nautiyal, 2002; Augstburger et al., 2002).
4.3 Picking
After being dried out in the field, the pods may then be separated from the plants. The
groundnuts are picked from the plants when they can be pulled from the nut stalks without short
coarse threads breaking from the pods or shells. By this time the kernels rattle in the pods and
have a nutty flavor. Depending on how the plants are stacked, and the prevailing weather
conditions, the curing in the stacks takes from 2-6 weeks.
The picking is done by hand or by means of drawn or stationary picking machines. The stacks
should be taken off the field for picking, thereby saving a considerable amount of hay. There is
- 41 -
then also less likelihood of fields becoming systematically infected with the stem and nut rot
fungus, sometimes found in the debris left wherever a stack has been picked.
Nuts of different qualities should, wherever practical, be picked separately so that discolored or
moldy nuts are not mixed with clean and bright ones. Discolored pods frequently contain moldy
kernels which lower the grade of shelled and unshelled nuts (Woodroof, 1973).
4.4 Making hay
Foliage from groundnut plants provide excellent protein-rich fodder, with similar nutritional
values as alfalfa, and is therefore often also harvested. Foliage can be cut down just before the
uprooting takes place and dried into hay. One method of carefully drying after the whole plant
has been harvested is to dry the foliage on hay racks or upright poles, after it has been left to wilt
for a while on a windrow (Augustburger, 2002).
4.5 Cleaning
When groundnuts are harvested they contain a wide range of foreign material. This affects
quality, beginning with airflow restrictions and uneven moisture distribution during drying. More
than 5% foreign material can result in reducing the value of a farmer’s salable product in the
market.

Freshly harvested groundnuts should be cleaned and sorted to remove damaged nuts and
other foreign matter. It is important to shake the plant after lifting/harvesting to remove
soil from pods and avoid forming optimum conditions for aflatoxin development.
Damage to pods at the time of harvest should be avoided as much as possible since this
can lead to rapid invasion of the pods by A. flavus/A. parasiticus. Every effort should be
made to minimize physical damage at all stages of harvesting and transportation.
Individual plants that die from pest attacks (e.g. termites, nematodes) and diseases (e.g.
rosette, pod rots, etc.) should be harvested separately as their produce is likely to contain
aflatoxin (Okello et al., 2011).
Groundnuts to be roasted in-shell and eaten by hand may be cleaned in two steps. The first
consists of removing sand, dirt, stems, empty shells, stones, and other foreign material by
screens, blowers, or hand inspection. This should leave only whole, sound nuts. The second
cleaning insures a bright hull. The nuts are ‘washed’ in wet coarse sand which removes
weathered stains and discoloration. The sand is screened out and reused, while the nuts are dried.
Table 4.1 illustrates methods to reduce the incidence of foreign material in groundnuts.
- 42 -
Table 4.1 Methods to reduce the incidence of foreign material in groundnuts
Best conventional
Best conventional
Foreign material(s) method(s) of
method(s) of removal
prevention
Harvest when soil is not
Dirt too wet or dry. Control Screening
weeds.
Avid planting on rocky or
Rock pieces Specific gravity
pebble-type soil
Remove old crop residue
Sticks/previous crop before planting. When
Screening
residue harvesting cut taproots as
shallow as possible.
Harvesting at optimum
Screening and specific
Immature pods maturity. Remove
gravity.
immature pods.
Leaves, stems, and Harvest at optimum
Screening
hulls maturity
Weeds Control weeds. Screening
Maintain machinery in Screening and magnetic
Metal
good condition. separation.
Source: Nautiyal (2002)
4.6 Drying
Directly after being threshed, groundnut pods should be dried, either artificially or in the sun,
until they attain a moisture content of 6-7 %. Delays must be avoided at all costs to reduce the
risk of infestation by Aspergillus flavus, which rapidly increases. Under 9%, the creation of
aflatoxin is retarded, but protection against storage pests, whose activities create aflatoxins, is
only attained at levels under 7 %. For this reason, a moisture content of 6-7% is necessary.
Problems can often occur when the harvest is carried out during wet weather, and the produce
insufficiently dried afterwards. Only at less than 6% will the seeds become damaged (they break
during shelling). In cases of extreme sunshine and heat, it may be advisable to carry out the
drying process under a roof. The weight loss during drying is compensated for by an increase in
quality and a reduction of the risks involved.
Drying groundnut pods by spreading them in a thin layer on the soil is a common practice in
many parts of Africa and this can be a major source of fungal contamination. Alternatively,
woven matting or tarpaulin material should be used. In Uganda, where harvesting occurs largely
in the wet season, a period of four to six weeks is given as the probable time taken for pods to
dry to about 10 percent moisture content. A layer 3.8 cm. (1-1/2 inches) deep needs no stirring,
while a layer 7.5 cm. (3 inches) deep needs stirring on alternate days. Two major disadvantages
- 43 -
occur when drying groundnut pods by leaving them spread in a layer on the ground or on areas
of concrete or on matting, etc. Initially, there is the problem of moisture in the ground in contact
with the pods together with restricted air movement around the groundnuts. The second difficulty
is the time and effort required to gather the pods together, cover them during a rain shower, and
re-spread them as soon as possible to continue drying.

Do not dry groundnuts directly on soil. Use clean sheets, e.g. polythene sheets or tarpaulin
or mats made of papyrus, cemented grounds or raised structures. Groundnuts should be
dried as soon as possible (drying within 48 hours if possible). Also, do not dry
diseased/infected groundnuts along with healthy ones (Okello et al., 2010).
Alternative methods to ground drying should be used—such as trays, platforms, sacks, and racks.
Trays
In some countries farmers are encouraged to spread groundnuts out on trays, which they leave
exposed to sun-drying during the day and move under cover at night. In Uganda, for example,
trays, which hold one hundred kilograms of groundnuts, consist of a metal mesh base and
wooden sides with handles at both ends. These trays can be raised off the ground by supporting
the four corners on sticks. The Government of Uganda subsidizes these drying trays for the
farmers.
Platforms
Some pods, after removal from the plants, are placed on platforms to complete the drying
process. Very often these pods are left on these platforms for an indefinite period of time and in
some cases they are even stored there.
In sacks
When the moisture content of threshed unshelled and shelled pods is too high, groundnut pods
are sometimes bagged. Each day the bags are brought out of the storeroom and left in the open.
This is common practice at many agricultural stations in Africa but it can be problematic and
attract mold.
Racks
In Australia several trials have been conducted on the natural drying of threshed groundnuts in
suspended bags. In the suspended bag trials, groundnuts of 30% initial moisture content in open
weave bags were suspended vertically from a horizontal wooden rack supported at both ends by
strong vertical posts. A galvanized iron roof provided protection from the rain. Staggered
hanging bags at center distances of 56 cm. (22 inches), two bag rows deep, was reported to have
- 44 -
safely dried groundnuts from approximately 30% moisture content to a safe storage moisture
content in 10 days.
4.7 Decorticating or shelling
Groundnut shelling in Mozambique’s smallholder sector, as in many other African countries, is

often done by hand. While hand shelling keeps the rate of kernel breakage low, it is very labor
intensive and leads to ‘sore thumb syndrome’ when large quantities of groundnuts are handled.
In addition, the low productivity (1-3 kg./hour) of hand shelling puts enormous pressure on
farmers, because they need to shell their groundnuts before the marketing season ends. It is,
therefore, important to use a simple, efficient, low-cost machine to replace hand-shelling. See
Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1Universal nut sheller
Source: IDCR ( 2011)
The universal nut sheller was designed by the Farm Machinery Unit of Malawi, in conjunction
with the Tropical Development and Research Institute, as the first hand-operated wooden
universal nut sheller. Once the International Develop Research Centre modified the design, the
universal nut sheller met market standards—90% average whole kernel efficiency or 10% visible
kernel damage. The sheller has a shelling rate of 21-42 kg./hour and a larger model (twice as
wide) can double the shelling rate of a smaller sheller.
Before shelling can begin, groundnuts need to be graded by size using grading sieves. The
sheller is operated by two people, one at each end pushing the sheller back and forth. Groundnuts
are placed in a hopper, fall through an opening called the throat, and settle into the gaps in the
removable grid, which is placed in a slot in the base. The hopper is pushed against the resistance
provided by the nuts, thereby shelling them. The broken shells and kernels fall through the grid
- 45 -
gaps into a container placed under the base. Although the sheller has been designed and adapted
for three local varieties, it is possible to use it with other varieties of similar size or to adapt it to
new varieties (IDCR, 2011).
 Separate out immature pods as well as those infested with pests and diseases.
 Do not shell by beating or trampling on groundnuts in shells.
 Do not sprinkle water on dry pods while using a mechanical sheller. Instead, adjust
(where possible) the space between the blades and the sieve according to pod size to
reduce breakage.
 Remove shriveled, discolored, moldy and damaged groundnuts from the lot. Also
remove dust and foreign material which can provide a source of contamination
(Okello et al., 2010).
Groundnut farmers benefit from the time and labor savings associated with the universal nut
sheller. Nutritionists, as well as organizations concerned with income generation such as
extracting and selling oil, also find it useful. The sheller costs about USD35.00 to build and a
manual for its construction and use is available by contacting: Farm Machinery Unit, Chitedze
Agricultural Research Station, P.O. Box 158, Lilongwe, Malawi, tel: (265) 720968/720906; Fax:
(265) 784184/741872; E-mail: [email protected].
4.8 Storage
Groundnuts are semi-perishable. They may be held for five years under optimum conditions, but
under unsuitable storage conditions they become inedible within a month due to mold, insects,
discoloration, absorbing foreign flavors, staleness, or rancidity.
Groundnuts are normally held for a period between harvesting and consumption and experience
has shown good packaging and refrigeration is most important. Storage during cool winter
months is not a problem, but in warm weather groundnuts become rancid and insect-infested
within a few weeks, unless refrigerated or otherwise protected. In general, the main factors
which need to be observed in storing is a low moisture content of the seeds and low ambient
temperatures. Room moisture content, coupled with high temperatures, is the main reason for
the creation of aflatoxins. Prevention is achieved by:
 Sufficient air circulation;

 Regulation of the relative air humidity;
 Suitable cooling (Augstburger et al., 2002).
To successfully store groundnuts the following storage requirements should be followed:
Groundnuts should have high initial quality. That is to say, they should be free of mold, insects,
rancidity, and off-odors. They should have the color and characteristics of the variety. The
storage life of groundnuts begins in the field, including the degree of maturity, time and
- 46 -
temperature of curing-drying, and method of cleaning. Ill effects of improper storage are
cumulative and irreversible.
Ideally, the temperature should be low. In general, the lower the temperature the longer will be
the expected storage life of groundnuts. At 21°C. (70°F.) unshelled groundnuts may be expected
to retain edible quality for 6 months; when shelled, the time is reduced to about 4 months.
Groundnuts at this temperature are subject to insect infestation, development of ‘amber’
coloring, staling, and rancidity. At 8.3°C. (47°F.) unshelled groundnuts may be stored for 9
months, shelled nuts for 6 months. Insects are ‘arrested’ at this temperature. At 0-2.2°C. (32-
36°F.) the storage life of shelled groundnuts may be extended to 2 years, at -3.8°C. (25°F.) it
may be for 5 years, and at -12.2°C. (10°F.) it may be 10 years. Storage life of in-shell
groundnuts should be 50% longer.
Also the relative humidity should be low. High moisture in groundnuts is possibly the cause of
more deterioration than any other single factor and may result in nuts becoming inedible within
as short a time as two weeks. The control of moisture in groundnuts during storage is
accomplished by circulating and control of the relative humidity of the air. Research has shown
that at a relative humidity of 65-70% groundnuts equalize at a moisture content of about 7%.
Above 70% relative humidity groundnuts are likely to mold and below this point they lose
weight, become brittle, and may split during handling. Groundnuts with moisture above 8% will
gradually lose moisture to a safe level, when the air is circulated throughout the storage room.
On the other hand, groundnuts with moisture content below 5% will gain moisture. This happens
because groundnuts having an oil content of 48%: if the oil content is lower the moisture content
will be higher under the same temperature and relative humidity conditions.
The atmosphere should be free of odors and well-circulated. Groundnuts readily absorb odors
and flavors from the surroundings. Imperfections in packaging permit odors from the storage
room, the atmosphere, and other products to be absorbed, resulting in foreign flavors, odors or
colors in the nuts. Even faint odors of wood, ammonia, paint, asphalt, and most fruits and
vegetables may accumulate in the oil of the nuts and appear stronger than in the surroundings.
Traces of ammonia, undetected by the human nose, can cause the skins of peanuts to blacken.
The damage by ammonia is more severe to the appearance than to the flavor, while most odors
degrade the flavor first. There is no practical way of deodorizing or restoring the color to
groundnuts. Roasting frequently only intensifies the flavor and color.
The shelf-life of peanuts shelled, salted, and roasted or roasted in the shell is about three weeks
when held at room temperature in transparent bags. It is extended by vacuum or with inert gas
and by holding the low temperature. It is also extended by holding the moisture below 1%. Low
moisture depresses rancidity.
Upon removal from cold storage, steps should be taken to prevent moisture condensation on the
groundnuts. First, the groundnuts should be removed only on days when the relative humidity is
fairly low. Secondly, transportation from refrigerated storage should be in insulated vehicles
allowing the peanuts to slowly temper in transit. Thirdly, groundnuts may be removed to trucks
or cars, and cooled to the same temperature as the storage room (Woodroof, 1973).
- 47 -
Often ideal conditions do not exist for farmers to store groundnuts in developing countries like
Mozambique. Smallholder farmers then use earthen pots, mud bins, and other receptacles. These
containers may be plastered over with mud with little or no use of pesticides. Daily storage of
groundnuts in gunny bags or sacks is a common practice as well. Gunny sacks are then stored in
or near farmhouses. Semi-underground storage of groundnuts has also been used in Africa.
 Properly dry groundnuts to a safe storage moisture level.

 Use new/clean gunny sacks or polybags to store groundnuts. Only put clean sorted
kernels into bags. Bags should not be placed directly on the floor.
 Do not heap groundnuts in shells/pods on the floor/ground instead the storage
facility.
 Maintain proper storage facilities (well-ventilated, dry and low relative humidity) and
take care not to expose groundnuts to moisture during transport and marketing.
 Control insect and rodents during storage.
 Do not mix new with old groundnut stock (Okello et al., 2010).
Throughout history reasonable success has been achieved in storing various foods underground.
In the 1980s various semi-underground storage models were explored. A small semi-
underground warehouse was constructed by waterproofing and placing a 7.6 cm. (29.9 inches)
thick pre-cast concrete tank measuring 304.8 cm. (120 inches) long by 152.4 cm. (60 inches)
deep in the ground with the top of the tank at ground level. Two levels of 20.3 cm. (8 inches)
concrete blocks were installed above the walls and the warehouse was covered with a sheet-
metal gable roof with a 45° slope. The warehouse had a groundnut storage capacity of
approximately 10.2 m³. A fan located in the south gable changed the headspace air once every
two minutes. Thermocouple and relative humidity sensors placed at various locations throughout
the warehouse indicated temperatures and relative humidity at these locations. Temperatures
were found to be more uniform in the underground warehouse than a conventional warehouse,
offering the potential for maintaining groundnut quality in this type of storage (Smith & Sandras,
1987).
4.8.1 Storage pests
Groundnuts are stored both as unshelled pods and as kernels for different reasons. Both forms
are vulnerable to attack by a plethora of insect pests after harvest. However, groundnut kernels
are more susceptible to insect attack than pods in storage. The amount of damage inflicted by
insect pests during storage depends on several factors such as:
 the moisture content in the product;

 the way in which groundnuts are stored;
 the level of maturity at harvest;
 the sanitation of the storage space, and
 the quality of the groundnuts themselves.
- 48 -
In addition, the type of storage structure also influences the rate of deterioration through its
physical environment. Post-harvest processing of groundnuts (threshing, drying and cleaning)
has significant influence on insect behavior and infestation during storage. Mature pods are less
susceptible to insect pests than immature pods. Damage to pod shells also increases susceptibility
to insect pests. In most cases, manual hand picking is safe because it avoids damage to the
groundnut shells.
Excessive drying in the sun can also affect the viability of the nuts; therefore, care should be
taken to ensure that groundnuts are dried either under shade or at the appropriate temperature.
Undamaged unshelled groundnuts can be stored for long periods without insect pest damage
provided the moisture content is below 7%, as discussed above (Rao, Rao, & Nigam, 2010).
More than 100 insect species are known to live and feed on stored groundnuts. The most
commonly reported pests affecting stored groundnuts worldwide are listed in Table 4.2.
Insect infestation in groundnuts is well known for causing direct loss, but indirect loss in terms
of the quality of the product also impacts its use and trade. The heat and moisture generated by a
large insect population in storage also increases the risk of mold growth, which indirectly spoils
the quality through mycotoxin contamination, rendering the stock unfit for human and animal
consumption.
Table 4.2 Important insect pests of groundnuts during storage
Latin name Common name

Abasverus advena (Waltl.) Foreign grain beetle
Alphitobius diaperinus (Panzer) Lesser mealworm
Araecerus fasciculatus (De Geer) Coffee bean beetle
Attagenus megatoma (L.) Black carpet beetle
Carpophilus dimidiatus (F.) Corn sap beetle
Caryedon serratus (Olivier) Groundnut bruchid
Corcyra cephalonica (Stainton) Rice moth
Cryptolestes pusillus (Schoenherr) Flat grain beetle
Dermestes lardarius (Linnaeus) Carpet beetle
Elasmolomus sordidus (F.) Pod sucking bug
Ephestia cautella (Walker) Almond moth
Lasioderma serricorne (F.) Cigarette beetle
Latheticus oryzae (Waterhouse) Longheaded flour beetle
Liposcelis sp. Booklouse – several species
Necrobia rufi pes (De Geer) Checkered beetle
Oryzaephilus mercator (Fauvel) Merchant grain beetle
Oryzaephilus surinamensis (L.) Saw-toothed grain beetle
Plodia interpunctella (Hubner) Indian meal moth
Sitophilus oryzae (L.) Rice weevil
Stegobium paniceum (L.) Drugstore beetle
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Tenebrio molitor (L.) Yellow mealworm

Tenebroides mauritanicus (L.) Cadelle
Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) Red flour beetle
Tribolium confusum (Jacquelin du Val) Confused flour beetle
Trogoderma sp. Khapra beetle
Trogoderma inclusum (LeConte) Larger cabinet beetle
Typhea stercorea (L.) Hairy fungus beetle
Source: Rao, Rao, & Nigam (2010)
Four of the most important species of pests that attack groundnuts in Africa are the groundnut
bruchid, the red flour beetle, the rice moth, and the pod sucking bug (Nautiyal, 2002):
Groundnut bruchid (aka groundnut borer or weevil), Caryedon serratus (Olivier)
The groundnut bruchid is found throughout India and Africa. It breeds on common tree legumes
and harvested groundnuts. It is the only species that can penetrate intact pods to infest the
kernels. Infestation of the harvested groundnuts can occur while the crop is being dried in the
field or stored near infested stocks or crop residues.
Adult females attach their eggs to the outside of pods or kernels. When the first larva hatches it
burrows directly through the pod wall to reach the kernel, where the larva feed and develop. A
single larva can make a large excavation in the cotyledons, but no sign of damage is visible
externally at this stage. Mature larvae emerge partially or completely from the pod and construct
an oval papery cocoon. The egg to adult development period is about 42 days under optimum
conditions of 30°C. (86°F.). The adult is 4 to 7 mm long, with small black markings.
Red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum (Herbst)
The red flour beetle is found throughout the tropics and is regarded as a major pest of shelled
groundnuts. Female beetles lay about 450 eggs at one time. These eggs hatch into cylindrical larvae,
which, like the adult, feed on groundnut kernels. Pupation takes place inside the food without a
cocoon and adult beetles may live for 18 months. The developmental period from egg to adult is
about 20 days under optimum conditions at 35°C. (95°F.). The role of the red flour beetle in the
deterioration of shelled groundnuts has been assessed as loss in weight (4.5%) and loss in
germination (73%).
Rice moth, Corcyra cephalonica (Stainton)
The rice moth has the ability to develop at low humidity (<20 percent RH). The adult is brown
and 12 to 15 mm. (0.47-0.59 inches) long with its wing folded. The head bears a projecting tuft
of scales. A female rice moth lays up to 150 eggs within a few days of emergence from her
cocoon. Her larvae are mobile and feed upon and within the kernels. Infestation causes
aggregation of kernels by the presence of webbing. The development period’s optimum
temperature—about 28-30°C. (82.4-86°F.)—is 4-5 weeks. The larvae are capable of damaging
intact kernels and feed both on the surface and within seed. They spin a tough silky fiber,
- 50 -
webbing together the kernels. Rice moths appear in particularly severe unhygienic storage
conditions.
Pod sucking bug, Elasmolomus sordidus (Fabricius)
This pest is also widespread in India and Africa. It appears on pods left for drying in the field
and in storage. The adult is dark brown, approximately 2mm wide. In the field, females lay their
eggs in the soil or on groundnut stalks, but in storage facilities, eggs are laid loosely among the
groundnuts or in sacking. The first nymphs have a bright red abdomen; later they become
progressively darker. All stages feed on kernels, perforating the pods. This causes the kernels to
shrivel and increases the free fatty acid content of the oil, producing a rancid flavor.
4.8.2 Monitoring insects
It is important to regularly monitor (once every two weeks) insect populations in storage areas so
that remedial measures can be taken as soon an infestation is noticed. Crop handling also has a
bearing on predisposing insect attacks during storage. That is to say, while harvesting a
groundnut crop, damage to the pods should be avoided. Although insect traps (sticky traps, light
traps, and pheromones) are effective in detecting and capturing insects, it is difficult to estimate
insect populations from a trap catch. In some cases insects do not move from their feeding sites
on the groundnuts so they cannot be trapped.
To estimate the loss caused to groundnuts in storage by insects, it is not practical to examine
every bag or pod. Instead, it is recommended that damage be assessed from a representative
sample from the lot. Since insect infestations are not uniform or even randomly distributed
within a storage facility, a sample that gives a true indication of infestation or loss must be used
to ensure appropriate evaluation.
In a large storage facility, the condition of storage may vary among the sacks; for example, the
temperature at the center of the stack may differ from the surface of the stack. These differences
need to be taken into account by following a stratified sampling procedure. To make it easy and
effective, the division of a single stack into a number of layers, each containing the same number
of sacks will help in drawing representative samples. In a given number of sacks in each layer,
samples must be drawn at random without bias. See Figure 4.2.
- 51 -
Figure 4.2 Sampling procedure in each layer of stack
If there are ten sacks or less, sample each sack. If there are 11 to 100 sacks, sample 10 sacks at
random. To obtain a representative sample, the stack must be dismantled, which will involve
disturbing the normal insect movement in the storage facility. When stacks are broken down
while sampling, the sacks should be replaced in their original position, so that the disturbance
within the stack is minimum. If the samples are taken only from the most accessible sacks, the
measurement of pest damage represents only that part, and not the entire stock (Rao, Rao, &
Nigam, 2010).
4.8.3 Prevention of infestation
Commercial storage: Good warehouse management and hygiene are key to preventing insect
infestation in stored groundnuts. Groundnuts must be processed properly after harvest and dried
to bring the seed moisture level below 7%. Before shifting groundnuts to a storage facility, they
should be thoroughly cleaned and free from crop residues. If old gunny sacks are used they
should be checked first for any infestation before filling them with newly harvested groundnuts.
The filled sacks should be placed on wooden pallets away from the facility walls to protect them
from moisture from the ground and to provide proper ventilation around the stacks.
Pod storage: Insect pests that attack groundnuts after harvest prefer kernels as they are unable to
infest intact pods. Keeping groundnuts in pods for as long as possible is an effective strategy in
limiting pest damage
Kernel storage: Groundnuts are sometimes stored as kernels to economize storage space, to
reduce transportation costs, and for export purposes. Groundnuts meant for confectionary use
are often shelled soon after harvest so that the damaged and shriveled kernels can be discarded.
Applying any insecticide to kernels is discouraged because of possible residues in the kernel if
not used for seed (Rao, Rao, & Nigam, 2010).
- 52 -
4.8.4 Infestation management
On farms groundnuts are often stored as pods and it may not be possible for smallholder farmers
to provide high quality storage conditions. In such cases, pods should be stored in polythene
lined gunny sacks or in some other safe storage structures (e.g. small seed bins, earthen pots, or
metal drums) in a well-ventilated and rodent free room. For example, in Asia well dried pods are
stored in earthen pots of 20-25 kg capacity lined with dried banana leaves. The top of the
container is filled with a thin layer (one cm depth) of rice and then sealed with mud. This
facilitates effective storage against insect pests without affecting the groundnuts’ viability. See
Figure 4.3.
Figure 4.3 Ceramic pot used for groundnut storage in Vietnam
Only undamaged, well-dried clean pods should be stored to avoid fungal and insect attacks. After
2–3 days of drying in the field, in exceptionally high temperatures (40-45°C./104°-113°F.) at the
time of harvest, the pods should be stripped immediately and dried under shade to maintain seed
viability for a longer period.
Storage containers should be thoroughly cleaned and exposed to sunlight for a couple of days
before storing groundnuts.
Storing groundnut kernels with dried neem leaves (about 500 grams of leaves for every 10 kilos
of kernels) in any sealed container can be effective against some pests (Rao, Rao, & Nigam,
2010).
- 53 -
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Groundnut Grower’s Guide for Mozambique:

Production, Harvesting and Post-harvest Handling

Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea)

Submitted to: Submitted by:

Olipa-Odes Jeffrey E. Engels, Ph.D.

1. Agricultural technical assistance for Mozambique 1

3. Aspects of plant cultivation 17

4. Harvest and post-harvest handling 39

Table 2.2 Groundnut calorie, protein, and fat content 6

Table 2.3 Groundnut growth stages 8

Table 2.4 Common mycotoxins found in foodstuffs 11

Table 2.6 Maximum level of total aflatoxin in foodstuffs 16

Table 3.1 Effects of different row spacings and soil types on

Table 4.1 Methods to reduce the incidence of foreign material

Table 4.2 Important insect pests of groundnuts during storage 49

Figure 2.1 Chemical structures of Aflatoxin B1, Aflatoxin B2,

Figure 3.1 Map of Mozambique 17

Figure 3.2 Field scouting pattern 27

Figure 3.3 Assessment of Groundnut leaf spot control 30

Figure 3.4 Leaf spot control graph 31

Figure 4.1 Universal nut sheller 45

Figure 4.3 Ceramic pot used for groundnut storage in Vietnam 53

Abbreviations and Acronyms

CNFA Citizens Network for Foreign Affairs

1. Agricultural technical assistance for Mozambique

CNFA was established in 1985 as a not-for-profit organization to stimulate economic growth

Olipa’s mission is to strengthen producer associations by providing marketing support and

Figure 1.1 Groundnut value chain

Export Europe Fair Trade market South Africa

Maputo Local Maputo Maputo

Inputs Local seed: Certificad seed: NGO, Several seeds:

Source: Muindi & Bernardo (2010)

1.4 Olam International

Olam International is also interested in Mozambique groundnuts. Olam International is a

2.2 Varied applications

2.3 Worldwide production

Table 2.1 Top ten producers of groundnuts in 2008/2009

Country Production (million metric tons)

Source: Adapted from USDA-FAS (2010)

2.4 Nutritional value

Niacin—niacin contributes to brain health and blood flow;

Table 2.2 Groundnut calorie, protein, and fat content

Groundnuts-no Saturated Unsaturated

Source: Adapted from Weightlossforall (2011)

2.5 Growth habits

The Groundnut is a self-pollinating, indeterminate, annual herbaceous, legume. Natural cross

Table 2.3 Groundnut growth stages

Source: Chapin (2010)

2.6.1 Virginia group

2.6.2 Runner Group

2.6.3 Spanish Group

2.6.4 Valencia Group

2.7.1 Mycotoxin problems

Table 2.4 Common mycotoxins found in foodstuffs

Mycotoxin Main causal agent Foods commonly

Source: Okello et al. (2010)

Source: Alexander, N. (2011)

2.7.2 Health effects of aflatoxins

Chronic illnesses/Cancers: The International Cancer Research Institute identifies aflatoxin as a