UNIT– II

UNIT II Integral Calculus

Integration – The Definite Integral – Integrals of Transcendental Functions – The Fundamental
Theorem of Calculus (without proof)– Indefinite Integrals and the Substitution Method – Definite
Integral Substitutions and the Area between Curves – Integration by Parts – Trigonometric
Substitutions – Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions.

The Definite Integral

When we find the area under a curve by adding rectangles, it is called a Riemann sum.
The width of a rectangle is called a subinterval. The entire interval is called the partition.
If the partition is denoted by P, then the length of the longest subinterval is called the norm of P and is
denoted by ‖P‖.
n
Area  lim
P 0
 f  c  x
k 1
k k

n
lim
P 0
 f  c  x
k 1
k k

is called the Definite Integral of ‘ f ’ over[a, b].If we use subintervals of equal length, then the length
𝑏−𝑎
of a subinterval is:∆𝑥 = 𝑛

n
lim  f  ck  x
n 
The definite integral is then given by k 1

n
lim  f  ck  x   f  x  dx
b

n  a
Leibnitz introduced a simpler notation for the definite integral as k 1

Thus we have the notation for integration, but we still need to learn how to evaluate the integral.
Integrability of Continuous Functions:

If a function f is continuous over the interval [a, b], or if f has atmost finitely many jump
𝑏
discontinuities there, then the definite integral ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 exists and f is integrable over [a, b].

When f and g are integrable over the interval [a, b], the definite integral satisfies the following rules.
Area under the curve:
If y = ƒ(x) is non negative and integrable function over a closed interval [a, b], then the area under the
𝑏
curve y = ƒ(x) over [a, b] is the integral of ƒ from a to b, is 𝐴 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

Average Value / Mean:

If ƒ is integrable on [a, b], then its average value on [a, b], also called its mean, is
𝑏
1
𝑎𝑣(𝑓) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑏−𝑎
𝑎
Evaluating Definite Integrals
2𝜋
1. ∫𝜋 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
3
√7
2. ∫0 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑧
3. ∫2 (1 + 2) 𝑑𝑧
√2
4. ∫0 (𝑡 − √2) 𝑑𝑡
2
5. ∫0 (3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 5) 𝑑𝑥
Finding Area by Definite Integrals
6. Use a definite integral to find the area of the region between the curve y = 3x2 and the x-axis on the
interval [0, b].
7. Use a definite integral to find the area of the region between the curve y = πx2 and the x-axis on the
interval [0, b] .
8. Use a definite integral to find the area of the region between the curve y = 2xand the x-axis on the
interval [0, b] .
9. Use a definite integral to find the area of the region between the curve y = x/2 + 1andthe x-axis on
the interval [0, b].

Finding Average Value

10. Find the average value of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 1 𝑜𝑛 [0, √3]
11. Find the average value of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = −3𝑥 2 − 1 on [0, 1]
12. Find the average value of the function 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑡 2 − 𝑡 on [-2, 1]
13. Find the average value of the function 𝑔(𝑥) = |𝑥| − 1 on the intervals a) [-1, 1] b) [1, 3] c) [-1, 3]
14. Find the average value of the function ℎ(𝑥) = −|𝑥| on the intervals a) [-1, 0] b) [0, 1]c) [-1, 1]

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

The Mean Value Theorem for Definite Integrals:

1 𝑏
If ƒ is continuous on [a, b], then at some point c in [a, b], 𝑓(𝑐) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑏−𝑎 𝑎

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (Evaluation Theorem):

If ƒ is continuous over [a, b] and F is any antiderivative of ƒ on [a, b], then
𝑏

∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹𝑎)

𝑎

Total Area
Area is always a nonnegative quantity. The Riemann sum contains terms such as ƒ(ck) Δxk that gives
the area of a rectangle when ƒ(ck) is positive. When ƒ(ck) is negative, then the product ƒ(ck) Δxk is the
negative of the rectangle’s area. When we add up such terms for a negative function, we get the
negative of the area between the curve and the x-axis. If we then take the absolute value, we obtain the
correct positive area.

To find the area between the graph of y = ƒ(x) and the x-axis over the interval [a, b]:
1. Subdivide [a, b] at the zeros of ƒ.
2. Integrate ƒ over each subinterval.
3. Add the absolute values of the integrals.
Example: Find the area of the region between the x-axis and the graph of ƒ(x) = x3 - x2 - 2x, -1 ≤ x ≤ 2.

Solution: First we find the zeros of ƒ. Since ƒ(x) = x3 - x2 - 2x = x(x2 - x - 2) = x(x + 1)(x - 2)
The zeros are x = 0, -1, and 2. The zeros subdivide [-1, 2] into two subintervals:[-1, 0], on
which ƒ ≥ 0, and [0, 2] , on which ƒ ≤ 0. We integrate ƒ over each subinterval and add the
absolute values of the calculated integrals.
0 0
𝑥4 𝑥3 1 1 5
∫(𝑥 − 𝑥 − 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = [ − − 𝑥 2 ] = 0 − [ + − 1] =
3 2
4 3 −1
4 3 12
−1
2 2
𝑥4 𝑥3 8 8
∫(𝑥 − 𝑥 − 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = [ − − 𝑥 2 ] = [4 − − 4] = −
3 2
4 3 0
3 3
0

The total enclosed area is obtained by adding the absolute values of the calculated integrals.
5 −8 37
Total enclosed area = +| |=
12 3 12

Evaluate the following integrals

2 3 −𝜋
1. ∫−2 𝑑𝑥 12. ∫−𝜋4 (4𝑆𝑒𝑐 2 𝑡 +
𝜋
) 𝑑𝑡
(𝑥+3)4
4
𝑡2
1
2. ∫−1 𝑥 299 𝑑𝑥 1 𝑢2 1
13. ∫√2 ( − ) 𝑑𝑢
2 𝑢5
1
3. ∫0 (𝑥 2 + √𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 −1 𝑦 5 −2𝑦
14. ∫−3 𝑑𝑦
32 −6 𝑦3
4. ∫1 𝑥 5 𝑑𝑥 1 2
8 (𝑥 3 +1)(2−𝑥 3 )
𝜋 15. ∫1 1 𝑑𝑥
5. ∫0 2𝑆𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3
𝑥3

𝜋 𝜋 𝑆𝑖𝑛 2𝑥
6. ∫0 (1 + 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 16.∫𝜋/2 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑥
3𝜋 𝜋/3
4
7. ∫ 𝐶𝑠𝑐 𝜃 𝐶𝑜𝑡 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝜋
17. ∫0 (𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑆𝑒𝑐 𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥
4
2 1
𝜋
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝑢 18. ∫1 ( − 𝑒 −𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
8. ∫0 4 2 𝑑𝑢
3
𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑢
1/2 4
𝜋 19. ∫0 √1−𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥
2
9. ∫0 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
4
1/√3 𝑑𝑥
𝜋 20. ∫0
1+4𝑥 2
10. ∫0 (𝑆𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑇𝑎𝑛 𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥
6

𝜋
11. ∫0 𝑆𝑖𝑛 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
8
 Find the total area between the region and the x-axis for the following problems
21. y = – x2 – 2x, –3 ≤ x ≤ 2

22. y = 3x2 – 3, –2 ≤ x ≤ 2

23. y = x3– 3x2 + 2x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2

24. y = x1/3 – x, –1 ≤ x ≤ 8

Indefinite Integrals and the Substitution Method

The Substitution Rule:
If u = g(x) is a differentiable function whose range is an interval I, and ƒ is continuous on I, then

∫ 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) 𝑔′ (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑢) 𝑑𝑢

The Substitution Method to evaluate ∫ ƒ(𝒈(𝒙)) 𝒈′(𝒙) 𝒅𝒙

1. Substitute u = g(x) and du = (du/dx) dx = g′(x) dx to obtain ∫ 𝑓(𝑢) 𝑑𝑢
2. Integrate with respect to u.
3. Replace u by g(x).

Example 1: Find the integral ∫(𝑥 3 + 𝑥)5 (3𝑥 2 + 1) 𝑑𝑥

Solution: Put 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 = 𝑢 then (3𝑥 2 + 1) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢
and by this substitution we have

∫(𝑥 3 + 𝑥)5 (3𝑥 2 + 1) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑢5 𝑑𝑢

𝑢6 (𝑥 3 +𝑥)6
= +𝐶 = +𝐶
6 6
2
Example 2: Find the integral ∫ 5 𝑆𝑒𝑐 (5𝑥 + 1) 𝑑𝑥
Solution: Put 5𝑥 + 1 = 𝑢 then 5 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢
and by this substitution we have

∫ 5 𝑆𝑒𝑐 2 (5𝑥 + 1) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑆𝑒𝑐 2 𝑢 𝑑𝑢

= 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑢 + 𝐶 = tan(5𝑥 + 1) + 𝐶
Evaluate the following indefinite integrals
2𝑧 𝑑𝑧 sec 𝑧 tan 𝑧
1. ∫ 3 18. ∫ 𝑑𝑧
√𝑧 2 +1 √sec 𝑧

2. ∫ 𝑥 √2𝑥 + 1 𝑑𝑥 1 𝑥 2 −1
19. ∫ 𝑥 3 √ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2

3. ∫ 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 3 −3
20. ∫ √ 𝑥 11 𝑑𝑥
4. ∫ 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑥 𝑥4
5. ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥 21. ∫ √𝑥 3 −1 𝑑𝑥

6. ∫ 2𝑥 (𝑥 2 + 5)−4 𝑑𝑥 22. ∫(𝑥 + 1)2 (1 − 𝑥)5 𝑑𝑥

4𝑥 3 1 1
7. ∫ (𝑥 4 +1)2 𝑑𝑥 1
23. ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑒 1/𝑥 sec (1 + 𝑒 𝑥 ) tan (1 + 𝑒 𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥

8. ∫(3𝑥 + 2) (3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥)4 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

24. ∫ 𝑥 𝑖𝑛 𝑥
(1+√𝑥)1/3
9. ∫ 𝑑𝑥 𝑖𝑛 √𝑡
√𝑥 25. ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑡

10. ∫ 𝑆𝑒𝑐 2𝑡 tan 2𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥

26. ∫
𝑥 √𝑥 4 −1
9𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟
11. ∫ √1−𝑟3 −1 𝑥
𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑥
27. ∫ √1−𝑥 2
3
12. ∫ √𝑥𝑆𝑖𝑛2 (𝑥 2 − 1) 𝑑𝑥
−1 𝑥
𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑑𝑥
28. ∫ √1−𝑥 2
1 1
13. ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
(𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥
29. ∫ √1−𝑥 2
14. ∫ 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 2𝜃 cot 2𝜃 𝑑𝜃
√𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
15. ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 30. ∫ 1+𝑥 2

𝑟5 𝑑𝑦
16. ∫ 𝑟 4 (7 − 10)3 𝑑𝑟 31. ∫ (𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑦) (1+𝑦 2)

sin(2𝑡+1) 𝑑𝑦
17. ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 (2𝑡+1) 𝑑𝑡 32. ∫
(𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑦)(√1−𝑦2
Definite Integral Substitutions and the Area Between Curves

There are two methods for evaluating a definite integral by substitution. One method is to find an
antiderivative using substitution and then to evaluate the definite integral by applying the Evaluation
Theorem. The other method extends the process of substitution directly to definite integrals by
changing the limits of integration. We apply the new formula introduced here to the problem of
computing the area between two curves.

Substitution in Definite Integrals:

If g′is continuous on the interval [a, b] and ƒ is continuous on the range of g(x) = u, then
𝑏 𝑔(𝑏)

∫ 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) 𝑔′ (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑢) 𝑑𝑢

𝑎 𝑔(𝑎)
1
Example: Evaluate ∫−1 3𝑥 2 √𝑥 3 + 1 𝑑𝑥
Solution:
Method 1: Transform the integral and evaluate the transformed integral with the transformed limits.
Taking 𝑥 3 + 1 = 𝑢 ⇒ 3𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢
When x = -1, u = 0 and when x = 1, u = 2
1 2

∴ ∫ 3𝑥 2 √𝑥 3 + 1 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ √𝑢 𝑑𝑢
−1 0
2 3/2 2
= [𝑢 ]0
3
2 3 3 2 4√2
= [22 − 02 ]20 = [2√2] =
3 3 3
Method 2: Transform the integral as an indefinite integral, integrate, change back to x,and use the
originalx-limits.
Put 𝑥 3 + 1 = 𝑢 ⇒ 3𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑢

∴ ∫ 3𝑥 2 √𝑥 3 + 1 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ √𝑢 𝑑𝑢
2 2
= 𝑢3/2 + 𝐶 = (𝑥 3 + 1)3/2 + 𝐶
3 3
𝟏
2
∴ ∫ 3𝑥 2 √𝑥 3 + 1 𝑑𝑥 = [(𝑥 3 + 1)3/2 ]1−1
3
−𝟏
3
2
= [(13 + 1)3/2 − ((−13 ) + 1)2 ]
3
3
2 2 4√2
= 3
[(2)3/2 − (0)2 ] = 3
[2√2] = 3
Definite Integrals of Symmetric Functions:
Let ƒ be continuous on the symmetric interval [-a, a].
𝑎 𝑎
(a) If f is even, then ∫−𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫0 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
(b) If f is odd, then ∫−𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 0
Areas Between Curves:
Suppose we want to find the area of a region that is bounded above by the curve y = ƒ(x), below by the
curve y = g(x), and on the left and right by the lines x = a and x = b. The region might accidentally have
a shape whose area we could find with geometry, but if ƒ and g are arbitrary continuous functions, we
usually have to find the area with an integral.

If ƒ and g are continuous with ƒ(x) Ú g(x) throughout [a, b], then the area of the region between the
curves y = f (x) and y = g(x) froma to b is the integral of (f – g) from a to b:
𝒃

𝑨 = ∫[𝒇(𝒙) − 𝒈(𝒙)] 𝒅𝒙
𝒂

Example: Find the area of the region bounded above by the curve y = 2e-x+ x, below by the curve
y = ex/2 , on the left by x = 0, and on the right by x = 1.
Solution: The area between the curves over the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 is given by
1
1
1 1 1
𝐴 = ∫ [(2𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑥) − 𝑒 𝑥 ] 𝑑𝑥 = [−2𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑒 𝑥 ]
2 2 2 0
0
1 1 1 2 𝑒
= (−2𝑒 −1 + − 2 𝑒) − (−2 + 0 − 2) = 3 − − 2 ≈ 0.9051.
2 𝑒

Example: Find the area of the region enclosed by the parabola y = 2 – x2 and the line y = – x.
Solution: The limits of integration are found by solving y = 2 – x2 and y = – x simultaneously for x.
2 – x2 = – x ⇒ x2 – x – 2 = 0 ⇒ (x+1)(x – 2) = 0 ⇒ x = –1, 2.
The region runs from x = –1 to x = 2. The limits of integration are a = –1, b = 2.
The area between the curves is
𝑏 2

𝐴 = ∫[𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥 = ∫[(2 − 𝑥 2 ) − (−𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥

𝑎 −1
2
𝑥2 𝑥3 2
= ∫[(2 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 )] 𝑑𝑥 = [2𝑥 + − ]−1
2 3
−1
4 8 1 1 9
= (4 + 2 − 3) − (−2 + 2 + 3) = 2
Evaluate the following Definite Integrals
𝜋/4 𝜋/2
1. ∫0 tan 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 12. ∫𝜋/4 (1 + 𝑒 cot 𝜃 )𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

3𝜋 2 2 𝑙𝑛 𝑥
2. ∫2𝜋 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 13.∫1 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
1
3. ∫−1 𝑡 3 (1 + 𝑡 4 )3 𝑑𝑡 4 𝑑𝑥
14.∫2
1 5𝑟 𝑥 ln 𝑥
4. ∫−1 𝑑𝑟
(4+𝑟 2 )2
4 𝑑𝑥
√3 4𝑥 15.∫2
5. ∫−√3 √𝑥2 +1 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 (ln 𝑥)2

1 4𝑥 3 16 𝑑𝑥
6. ∫0 √𝑥 4 +9
𝑑𝑥 16.∫2
2𝑥 √ln 𝑥
𝜋/3
7. ∫𝜋/6 (1 − cos 3𝑡) sin 3𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ln √3 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
17.∫0
2𝜋 cos 𝑧 1+𝑒 2𝑥
8. ∫0 𝑑𝑧
√4+3 sin 𝑧
1 4 𝑑𝑠
𝜋 1/4 18.∫
9. ∫0 5(5 − 4 cos 𝑡) sin 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 0 √4−𝑠 2

𝜋/4
10. ∫0 (1 − sin 2𝑡)3/2 cos 2𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2√2 𝑑𝑦
19.∫−1
𝑦√4𝑦 2 −1
𝜋/4
11. ∫0 (1 + 𝑒 tan 𝜃 )𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
3 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
20.∫0
√5𝑦+1

Find the areas of the regions enclosed by the lines and curves in exercises 21–28.

21. y = x2 – 2 and y = 2 25. y = x2 and y = –x2 + 4x

22. y = 2x – x2 and y = –3 26. y = 7 – 2x2 and y = x2 + 4

23. y = x4 and y = 8x 27. y = x4 – 4x2 + 4 and y = x2

24. y = x2 – 2x and y = x 28. y = |x2– 4| and y = (x2/2) + 4

 Techniques of Integration

Integration by Parts
Integration by parts is a technique for simplifying integrals of the form ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
We use the formula for integration by parts as
∫ 𝑓 (𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓 (𝑥) ∫ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ [𝑓 ′ (𝑥) ∫ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥] 𝑑𝑥

Taking u = f(x) and v = g(x), the above formula can be written as

∫ 𝑢 𝑣 = 𝑢 ∫ 𝑣 − ∫ [𝑢′ ∫ 𝑣]

Evaluate the following integrals using integration by parts.

𝑥
1. ∫ 𝑥 sin 𝑑𝑥
2
cos √𝑥
2 15. ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2. ∫ 𝑡 cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 √𝑥

𝑒 ln 𝑥
3. ∫1 𝑥 3 ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 16. ∫
𝑥2
𝑑𝑥

4. ∫(𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1)𝑒 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 17. ∫ sin 3𝑥 cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

5. ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 18. ∫ sin 2𝑥 cos 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥

6. ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑒 √𝑥
19. ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥
7. ∫ 4𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
20. ∫ cos √𝑥 𝑑𝑥
4 −𝑝
8. ∫ 𝑝 𝑒 𝑑𝑝
1

21. ∫0 2𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥
√2
9. ∫ 𝑒 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑥
10. ∫ 𝑒 2𝑥 cos 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 22. ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥
2

11. ∫ 𝑒 −2𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

1
12. ∫0 𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

13. ∫ ln(𝑥 + 𝑥 2 ) 𝑑𝑥

14. ∫ 𝑧 (ln 𝑧)2 𝑑𝑧

 Trigonometric Substitutions

𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑥 = 𝑎 tan 𝜃, 𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑎2 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 = 𝑎2 (1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃) = 𝑎2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃

𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑥 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃, 𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 = 𝑎2 − 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = 𝑎2 (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃) = 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑥 = 𝑎 sec 𝜃, 𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 = 𝑎2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 − 𝑎2 = 𝑎2 (𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 − 1) = 𝑎2 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃
Procedure for a Trigonometric Substitution:
1. Write down the substitution for x, calculate the differential dx, and specify the selected values of u
for the substitution.
2. Substitute the trigonometric expression and the calculated differential into the integrand, and then
simplify the results algebraically.
3. Integrate the trigonometric integral, keeping in mind the restrictions on the angle u for reversibility.
4. Draw an appropriate reference triangle to reverse the substitution in the integration result and
convert it back to the original variable x.
𝑑𝑥
Example: Evaluate ∫ √4+𝑥 2
Solution:
Trigonometric Substitutions
3 √3⁄
1) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 2 4𝑥 2
√1+9𝑥 2 12) ∫0 3 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑑𝑥 (1−𝑥 2 ) ⁄2
2) ∫0 8+2𝑥 2 ⁄3
(1−𝑥 2 ) 2
3⁄ 𝑑𝑥 13) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
3) ∫0 2 √9−𝑥 2 𝑥6
6 𝑑𝑡
1⁄ 14) ∫ (9𝑡 2 +1)2
2𝑑𝑥
4) ∫0 2√2 √1−4𝑥 2 𝑙𝑛4 𝑒 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
15) ∫0
√𝑒 2𝑡 +9
5) ∫ √1 − 9𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
ln(4/3) 𝑒 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 16) ∫ln(3/4)
6) ∫ , 𝑥 > 7⁄2 (1+𝑒 2𝑡 )3/2
√4𝑥 2 −49
𝑥 𝑑𝑥
√𝑦 2 −25 17) ∫ √1+𝑥 4
7) ∫ 𝑑𝑦 , 𝑦 > 5
𝑦3
√1−(𝑙𝑛𝑥)2
8) ∫ 2 2
𝑑𝑥 18) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑙𝑛𝑥
𝑥 √𝑥 −1
2𝑑𝑥 4−𝑥
9) ∫ 3 2
𝑥 √𝑥 −1
,𝑥 > 1 19) ∫√ 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑥2
10) ∫ 4+𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 20)
𝑥
∫ √1−𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥
8𝑑𝑤
11) ∫ 𝑤 2 √4−𝑤 2
21) ∫ √𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions

General Description of the Method
Success in writing a rational function ƒ(x)/g(x) as a sum of partial fractions depends on
two things:

● The degree of ƒ(x) must be less than the degree of g(x). That is, the fraction must be
proper. If it isn’t, divide ƒ(x) by g(x) and work with the remainder term.

● We must know the factors of g(x). In theory, any polynomial with real coefficients can
be written as a product of real linear factors and real quadratic factors. In practice, the
factors may be hard to find.
 2𝑥 3 − 4𝑥 2 −𝑥−3
Example: Use partial fractions to evaluate ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 −2𝑥−3
Solution: First we divide the denominator into the numerator to get a polynomial plus a
proper fraction.

Then we write the improper fraction as a polynomial plus a proper fraction.

We found the partial fraction decomposition of the fraction on the right in the opening
example, so
Express the following rational functions as partial fractions.
5𝑥−7 𝑧
1) 4)
𝑥 2 −3𝑥+2 𝑧 3 −𝑧 2 −6𝑧
𝑥+4 𝑡 2 +8
2) (𝑥+1)2
5)
𝑡 2 −5𝑡+6
𝑧+1 𝑡 4 +9
3) 6)
𝑧 2 (𝑧−1) 𝑡 4 +9𝑡 2

Evaluate the following integrals by using partial fractions

𝑑𝑥 𝑒 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
7) ∫ 𝑥 2 +2𝑥 18) ∫ 2𝑡 𝑡
𝑒 +3𝑒 +2
1 𝑦+4 𝑒 4𝑡 +2𝑒 2𝑡 +𝑒 𝑡
8) ∫1/2 𝑦2 +𝑦 𝑑𝑦 19) ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑒 2𝑡 +1
𝑥+3
9) ∫ 2𝑥 3 −8𝑥 𝑑𝑥 20) ∫
√𝑥+1
𝑑𝑥
𝑥
1 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
10) ∫0 21) ∫ 4
𝑥 2 +2𝑥+1 𝑥(𝑥 +1)
𝑑𝑥
11) ∫ (𝑥 2 2 𝑑𝑥
−1) 22) ∫ 6 (𝑥 5
𝑥 +4)
1 𝑑𝑥
12) ∫0 𝑥 2 +4𝑥+1
(𝑥 2 +1)(𝑥+1) 23) ∫ (𝑥−1)(𝑥+1)(𝑥+3) 𝑑𝑥
8𝑥 2 +8𝑥+2
13) ∫ (4𝑥 2 +1)2 𝑑𝑥
2𝑠+2
14) ∫ (𝑠2
+1)(𝑠−1)3

2𝑥 3 −2𝑥 2 +1
15) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 2 −𝑥

16𝑥 3
16) ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
4𝑥 −4𝑥+1

𝑦 4 +𝑦 2 −1
17) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑦 3 +𝑦