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Civil Engineering Department Week #4 Calculus I

Integration
The idea of integration is that we can compute many quantities by breaking them into small pieces,
and then summing the contribution from each small part.

Area

Suppose we want to find the area of the shaded region R that lies above the x-axis, below the graph
of = 1 − 𝑥 2 , and between the vertical lines x = 0 and x = 1

Solution: Divide the region to number of rectangles. When the region is divided into two
rectangles, each rectangle has width 0.5.

1 3 1
𝐴 ≈ 1. + . = 0.875
2 4 2
The estimation can be improved by using four thinner rectangles, each of width 0.25. The four
rectangles give the following approximate area:

1 15 1 3 1 7 1
𝐴 ≈ 1. + . + . + . = 0.78125
4 16 4 4 4 16 4

This estimate is larger than the true area (A) since the two rectangles contain R. We say that 0.875
is an upper sum because it is obtained by taking the height of the rectangle corresponding to the
maximum (uppermost) value of ƒ(x).

Suppose instead we use four rectangles contained inside the region R to estimate the area, as in
Figure 5.3a. Each rectangle has width 1/4 as before, but the rectangles are shorter and lie entirely
beneath the graph of ƒ. The function ƒ(𝑥) = 1 − 𝑥 2 is decreasing on [0, 1], so the height of each
of these rectangles is given by the value of ƒ at the right endpoint of the subinterval forming its
base. This will give a lower sum approximation to the area:

15 1 3 1 7 1 1
𝐴≈ . + . + . + 0. = 0.53125
16 4 4 4 16 4 4
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Civil Engineering Department Week #4 Calculus I

Considering both lower and upper sum approximations gives us estimates for the area and a bound
on the size of the possible error in these estimates, since the true value of the area lies somewhere
between them. Here the error cannot be greater than the difference 0.78125 − 0.53125 = 0.25.

Another estimate can be obtained by using rectangles whose heights are the values of ƒ at the
midpoints of the bases of the rectangles. This method of estimation is called the midpoint rule for
approximating the area. The midpoint rule gives an estimate that is between a lower sum and an
upper sum. With four rectangles of width 1/4 as before, the midpoint rule estimates the area of
R to be:

63 1 55 1 39 1 15 1
𝐴≈ . + . + . + . = 0.671875
64 4 64 4 64 4 64 4
By taking more and more rectangles, with each rectangle thinner than before, it appears that these
finite sums give better and better approximations to the true area of the region R.

The Definite Integral

The definite integral in symbols can be written as:


𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎

We read this as “the integral from a to b of ƒ of x dee x” or sometimes as “the integral from a to b
of ƒ of x with respect to x.” The component parts in the integral symbol also have names:

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Civil Engineering Department Week #4 Calculus I

Properties of Definite Integrals


𝑎 𝑏
Order of integration ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑏 𝑎
𝑎
Zero width interval ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑎
𝑏 𝑏
Constant multiple ∫ 𝑘. 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
Sum and difference ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ± 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ± ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑏 𝑐 𝑐
Additivity ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎
Max-Min inequality: If f has maximum 𝑏
value max f and minimum value min f min 𝑓. (𝑏 − 𝑎) ≤ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ≤ max 𝑓. (𝑏 − 𝑎)
on [a, b] 𝑎
𝑏 𝑏
𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑔(𝑥)on[𝑎, 𝑏] ⟹ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ≥ ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎
Domination 𝑏 𝑏
𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑔(𝑥)on[𝑎, 𝑏] ⟹ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ≤ ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎

Example 1: Suppose that:


1 4 1
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 5, ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = −2, ∫ ℎ(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 7
−1 1 −1

Using the rules of definite integrals to estimate the followings:

1 1 4
• ∫4 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 =? ∫4 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = − ∫1 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 2

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Civil Engineering Department Week #4 Calculus I

1 1 1
• ∫−1[2𝑓(𝑥) + 3ℎ(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 =? = 2 ∫−1 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + 3 ∫−1 ℎ(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 2 (5) + 3(7) = 31

4 1 4
• ∫−1 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 =? ∫−1 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + ∫1 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 5 + (−2) = 3

1
Example 2: Show that the value of ∫0 √1 + cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 is less than or equal to √2 .

Solution:
𝑏
The max-min inequality says that min 𝑓. (𝑏 − 𝑎) is a lower bound for the value of ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 and
max 𝑓. (𝑏 − 𝑎) is an upper bound.

The maximum value of √1 + cos 𝑥 on [0, 1] is √1 + 1 = √2, so


1
∫ √1 + cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ≤ √2. (1 − 0) = √2
0

Area under the Graph

If 𝑦 = ƒ(𝑥) is nonnegative and integrable over a closed interval [a, b], then the area under the
curve 𝑦 = ƒ(𝑥) over [a, b] is the integral of ƒ from a to b,
𝑏
𝐴 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎

Example 3: Find the area under the line 𝑦 = 𝑥 over the interval [0, b], 𝑏 > 0

Solution:

Since the area equals the definite integral for a nonnegative function, we can quickly derive the
definite integral by using the formula for the area of a triangle having base length b and height 𝑦 =
1
𝑏. The area is 𝐴 = (2) . 𝑏. 𝑏 = 𝑏2 /2.

𝑏
Therefore, ∫𝑎 𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑏2 /2

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Civil Engineering Department Week #4 Calculus I

Some definition for integration of f(x):


𝑏 0 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏 𝑎2 𝑏2
• ∫𝑎 𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 + ∫0 𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫0 𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 + ∫0 𝑥. 𝑑𝑥 = − + 𝑎<𝑏
2 2

𝑏
• ∫𝑎 𝑐𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐(𝑏 − 𝑎), 𝑐 is constant

𝑏 𝑏3 𝑎3
• ∫𝑎 𝑥 2 . 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑎<𝑏
3 3

Average Value of a Continuous Function

The average as the area under the graph of 𝑦 = ƒ(𝑥) divided by 𝑏 − 𝑎. In integral notation we
write this as:
𝑏
1
ave(𝑓) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑏−𝑎 𝑎

Example 4: Find the average value of 𝑓(𝑥) = √4 − 𝑥 2 on interval [-2, 2].

Solution: We recognize 𝑓(𝑥) = √4 − 𝑥 2 as the function whose graph is the upper semi-circle of
radius 2 centered at the origin.

The area between the semicircle and the x-axis from -2 to 2 can be computed using the geometry
formula:

1 1
𝐴 = . 𝜋𝑟 2 = . 𝜋(2)2 = 2𝜋
2 2
Because ƒ is nonnegative, the area is also the value of the integral of ƒ from -2 to 2,
2
∫ √4 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝜋
−2

Therefore, the average value of ƒ is:


2
1 1 𝜋
∫ √4 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = (2𝜋) =
2 − (−2) −2 4 2

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Civil Engineering Department Week #4 Calculus I

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Part 1:


𝑥
If ƒ is continuous on [a, b], then 𝐹(𝑥) = ∫𝑎 ƒ(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on
(a, b) and its derivative is ƒ(x):

𝑑 𝑥
𝐹 ′ (𝑥) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑎

Example 5: Use the Fundamental Theorem to find 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥 if:


𝑥
a) ∫0 cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑥 1
b) ∫0 𝑑𝑡
1+𝑡 2
5
c) ∫𝑥 3𝑡 sin 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑥2
d) ∫1 cos 𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Solution: We calculate the derivatives with respect to the independent variable x.

𝑑 𝑥
a) ∫ cos 𝑡
𝑑𝑥 0
𝑑𝑡 = cos 𝑥
𝑑 𝑥 1 1
b) ∫ 𝑑𝑡 = 1+𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥 0 1+𝑡 2
𝑑𝑦 𝑑 5 𝑑 𝑥 𝑑 𝑥
c) = ∫ 3𝑡 sin 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = (− ∫5 3𝑡 sin 𝑡 𝑑𝑡) = − ∫ 3𝑡 sin 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = −3𝑥 sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 5
𝑢
d) 𝑦 = ∫1 cos 𝑡𝑑𝑡 and 𝑢 = 𝑥2

We must use the Chain Rule when finding 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑥:

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥

𝑢
𝑑 𝑑𝑢
= ( . ∫ cos 𝑡𝑑𝑡) .
𝑑𝑢 1 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑢
= cos 𝑢 . = cos 𝑥 2 . 2𝑥 = 2𝑥 cos 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Part 2:

If ƒ is continuous over [a, b] and F is any anti-derivative of ƒ on [a, b], then:

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Civil Engineering Department Week #4 Calculus I

𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎)
𝑎

Example 6: We calculate several definite integrals using the Evaluation Theorem


𝜋
a) ∫0 cos 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥]𝜋0 = sin 𝜋 − sin 0 = 0 − 0 = 0

0 𝜋
b) ∫–𝜋/4 sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥]0−𝜋/4 = sec 0 − sec (− ) = 1 − √2
4

4 3 4 4 4 4 4
c) ∫1 (2 √𝑥 − 𝑥 2) 𝑑𝑥 = [𝑥 3/2 − 𝑥] = [(4)3/2 + 4] − [(1)3/2 + 1] = [8 + 1] − [5] = 4
1

Indefinite Integrals

Since any two anti-derivatives of ƒ differ by a constant, the indefinite integral 1 notation means
that for any anti-derivative F of ƒ,

∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥) + 𝐶

We must distinguish carefully between definite and indefinite integrals. A definite integral
𝑏
∫𝑎 ƒ(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 dx is a number. An indefinite integral ∫ ƒ(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 is a function plus an arbitrary constant
C.

The Power Rule in Integral Form


𝑛
𝑢 𝑛+1
∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = +𝐶 (𝑛 ≠ −1)
𝑛+1

Substitution: Running the Chain Rule Backwards

Example 7: Find the integral

∫(𝑥 3 + 𝑥)5 (3𝑥 2 + 1)𝑑𝑥

Solution: We set 𝑢 = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 then,

𝑑𝑢 = (3𝑥 2 + 1)𝑑𝑥

so that by substitution we have

∫(𝑥 3 + 𝑥 )5 (3𝑥 2 + 1)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑢 5 𝑑𝑢

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Civil Engineering Department Week #4 Calculus I

𝑢6 (𝑥 3 + 𝑥)6
= +𝐶 = +𝐶
6 6

Example 8: Find ∫ √2𝑥 + 1 𝑑𝑥

Solution: We set 𝑢 = 2𝑥 + 1 and 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑑𝑥 then,

1
∫ √2𝑥 + 1 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑢1/2 . 𝑑𝑢
2

𝑢 3/2 (2𝑥 + 1)3/2


= +𝐶 = +𝐶
3 3

Example 9: Find ∫ √1 + 𝑦 2 .2𝑦 𝑑𝑦

Solution: We set 𝑢 = 1 + 𝑦 2 and 𝑑𝑢 = 2𝑦𝑑𝑦 then,

∫ √1 + 𝑦 2 .2𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑢1/2 𝑑𝑢

𝑢 (1/2)+1
= +𝐶
(1/2) + 1

2 3/2 2
= 𝑢 + 𝐶 = (1 + 𝑦 2 )3/2 + 𝐶
3 3
Integrals involving trigonometric functions

Basic Integration Formulas

1. ∫ 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑢 + 𝐶

2. ∫ 𝑘 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑘𝑢 + 𝐶, (any number k)

3. ∫(𝑑𝑢 + 𝑑𝑣) = ∫ 𝑑𝑢 + ∫ 𝑑𝑣

𝑢𝑛+1
4. ∫ 𝑢 𝑛 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑛+1
+𝐶 (𝑛 ≠ −1)

5. ∫ sin 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = − cos 𝑢 + 𝐶

6. ∫ cos 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = sin 𝑢 + 𝐶

7. ∫ sec 2 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = tan 𝑢 + 𝐶

8. ∫ csc 2 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = − cot 𝑢 + 𝐶

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Civil Engineering Department Week #4 Calculus I

9. ∫ sec 𝑢 tan 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = sec 𝑢 + 𝐶

10. ∫ csc 𝑢 cot 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 = − csc 𝑢 + 𝐶

Expanding a Power and Using Trigonometric Identity

Example: Evaluate the following integral

∫(sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥

Solution:

∫(sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (sec 2 𝑥 + 2 sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 + tan2 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

But, sec 2 𝑥 = tan2 𝑥 + 1, therefore,

∫ (sec 2 𝑥 + 2 sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 + tan2 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (sec 2 𝑥 + 2 sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 + sec 2 𝑥 − 1) 𝑑𝑥

= 2 ∫ sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 2 ∫ sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥

= 2 tan 𝑥 + 2 sec 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝐶

Eliminating a Square Root

Example: Evaluate the following integral


𝜋/4
∫ √1 + cos 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0

Solution:

1 + cos 2𝑥
cos 2 𝑥 = or 1 + cos 2𝑥 = 2 cos 2 𝑥
2
With the same identity the angle x can be doubled: 1 + cos 4𝑥 = 2 cos 2 2𝑥
𝜋/4 𝜋/4 𝜋/4
∫ √1 + cos 4𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ √2 cos 2 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = √2 ∫ |cos 2𝑥| 𝑑𝑥
0 0 0

sin 2𝑥 𝜋/4 1 1
= √2 [ ] = √2 [ − 0] =
2 0 2 √2

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