Designation: C 384 – 04

Standard Test Method for

Impedance and Absorption of Acoustical Materials by
Impedance Tube Method1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation C 384; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (e) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.

1. Scope acoustic impedance,” appearing in the title and elsewhere in

1.1 This test method covers the use of an impedance tube, this test method refer to the following, respectively:
alternatively called a standing wave apparatus, for the mea- 3.2 Definitions:
surement of impedance ratios and the normal incidence sound 3.2.1 impedance ratio, z/rc [ r/rc + jx/rc;
absorption coefficients of acoustical materials. [dimensionless]—the ratio of the specific normal acoustic
1.2 This standard does not purport to address all of the impedance at a surface to the characteristic impedance of the
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the medium. The real and imaginary components are called,
responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro- respectively, resistance ratio and reactance ratio. C 634
priate safety and health practices and determine the applica- 3.2.2 normal incidence sound absorption coeffıcient, an;
bility of regulatory limitations prior to use. [dimensionless]—of a surface, at a specified frequency, the
1.3 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the fraction of the perpendicularly incident sound power absorbed
standard. or otherwise not reflected. C 634
3.2.3 specific normal acoustic impedance, z [ r + jx;
2. Referenced Documents [ML-2T-1]; mks rayl (Pa s/m)—at a surface, the complex
2.1 ASTM Standards: 2 quotient obtained when the sound pressure averaged over the
C 423 Test Method for Sound Absorption and Sound Ab- surface is divided by the component of the particle velocity
sorption Coefficients by the Reverberation Room Method normal to the surface. The real and imaginary components of
C 634 Terminology Relating to Environmental Acoustics the specific normal acoustic impedance are called, respectively,
E 548 Guide for General Criteria Used for Evaluating specific normal acoustic resistance and specific normal acous-
Laboratory Competence3 tic reactance. C 634
2.2 ANSI Standards:
4. Summary of Test Method
S1.6 Preferred Frequencies and Band Numbers for Acous-
tical Measurements4 4.1 A plane wave traveling in one direction down a tube is
reflected back by the test specimen to produce a standing wave
3. Terminology that can be explored with a microphone. The normal incidence
3.1 The acoustical terminology used in this test method is sound absorption coefficient, an, is determined from the
intended to be consistent with the definitions in Terminology standing wave ratio at the face of the test specimen. To
C 634. In particular, the terms “impedance ratio,” “normal determine the impedance ratio, z/rc, a measurement of the
incidence sound absorption coefficient,” and “specific normal position of the standing wave with reference to the face of the
specimen is needed.
4.2 The normal incidence absorption coefficient and imped-
1
This test method is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E33 on ance ratio are functions of frequency. Measurements are made
Environmental Acoustics and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee E33.01 on with pure tones at a number of frequencies chosen, unless there
Sound Absorption.
Current edition approved April 1, 2004. Published May 2004. Originally are compelling reasons to do otherwise, from those specified in
approved in 1956. Last previous edition approved in 2003 as C 384 – 03. ANSI S1.6.
2
For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, or
contact ASTM Customer Service at [email protected]. For Annual Book of ASTM 5. Significance and Use
Standards volume information, refer to the standard’s Document Summary page on
the ASTM website. 5.1 The acoustical impedance properties of a sound absorp-
3
Withdrawn. tive material are related to its physical properties, such as
4
Available from American National Standards Institute (ANSI), 25 W. 43rd St., airflow resistance, porosity, elasticity, and density. As such, the
4th Floor, New York, NY 10036.

Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United States.

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 C 384 – 04
measurements described in this test method are useful in basic tube are not likely to be plane waves. If sound with a frequency
research and product development of sound absorptive mate- below the limiting value enters the tube as a non-plane wave,
rials. it will become a plane wave after traveling a short distance. For
5.2 Normal incidence sound absorption coefficients are this reason, no measurement should be made closer than one
more useful than random incidence coefficients in certain tube diameter to the source end of the tube.
situations. They are used, for example, to predict the effect of 6.1.1.3 Length—The length of the tube is also related to the
placing material in a small enclosed space, such as inside a frequencies at which measurements are made. The tube must
machine.
be long enough to contain that part of the standing wave pattern
5.3 Estimates of the random incidence or statistical absorp-
needed for measurement. That is, it must be long enough to
tion coefficients for materials can be obtained from normal
contain at least one and preferably two sound pressure minima.
incidence impedance data. For materials that are locally
reacting, that is, without sound propagation inside the material To ensure that at least two minima can be observed in the tube,
parallel to its surface, statistical absorption coefficients can be its length should be such that:
estimated from specific normal acoustic impedance values f . 0.75 c/~l 2 d! (3)
using an expression derived by London (1).5 Locally reacting
materials include those with high internal losses parallel with where:
the surface such as porous or fibrous materials of high density l = length of tube, m.
or materials that are backed by partitioned cavities such as a If, for example, the tube is 1 m in length and 0.1 m in
honeycomb core. Formulas for estimating random incidence diameter and the speed of sound is 343 m/s, the frequency
sound absorption properties for both locally and bulk-reacting should exceed 286 Hz if two sound pressure minima are to be
materials, as well as for multilayer systems with and without observed.
air spaces have also been developed (2). 6.1.2 Test Specimen Holder—The specimen holder, a de-
tachable extension of the tube, must make an airtight fit with
6. Apparatus
the end of the tube opposite the sound source. Provision must
6.1 The apparatus is essentially a tube with a test specimen be made for containing the specimen with its face in a known
at one end and a loudspeaker at the other. A probe microphone position. The interior cross-sectional shape of the specimen
that can be moved along the length of the tube is used to holder must be the same as the tube itself. Provision must be
explore the standing wave in the tube. The signal from the made for backing the specimen with a metal backing plate that
microphone is filtered, amplified, and recorded. forms a seal with the interior of the specimen holder. A
6.1.1 Tube: recommended backing is a solid steel plate with a thickness of
6.1.1.1 Construction—The tube may be made of metal,
not less than 2 cm. The sample holder may be constructed in
plastic, portland cement, or other suitable material that has
such a way that a variable depth air space can be provided
inherently low sound absorption properties. Its interior cross
between the back of the test specimen and the surface of the
section may be circular or rectangular but must be uniform
metal backing plate. Provision must be made for substituting
from end to end. The tube must be straight and its inside
surface must be smooth, nonporous and free of dust to keep the the metal backing plate for the specimen for calibration
sound attenuation with distance low. The interior of the tube purposes.
may be sealed with paint, epoxy, or other coating material to 6.1.3 Sound Source:
ensure low sound absorption of the interior surface. The tube 6.1.3.1 Kind and Placement—The sound source may be a
walls must be massive and rigid enough so that the propagation loudspeaker or a horn-driver coupled to a short exponential
of sound energy through them by vibration is negligible. horn. The source may face directly into the tube or, to avoid
6.1.1.2 Diameter—For circular tubes, the upper limit (3) of interference with the probe microphone, it may be placed to
frequency is: one side. Since the source diameter may be larger than the tube
f , 0.586 c/d (1) diameter, it is best to mount the source in an enclosure to which
the tube is connected.
where:
f = frequency, Hz, 6.1.3.2 Precautions—Precautions should be taken to avoid
c = speed of sound in the tube, m/s, and direct transmission of vibration from the sound source to the
d = diameter of tube, m. probe microphone where it enters the tube or to the tube itself.
For rectangular tubes, with d used as a symbol for the larger Such vibrational transmission will be evidenced by a smaller
cross section dimension, the upper limit is: standing wave ratio (higher normal incidence sound absorp-
f , 0.500 c/d (2)
tion) than would be expected for the material under test.
Vibration isolation material, such as polymeric foam, may be
It is best to work well below these limits whether the tube is placed between the sound source and tube or the microphone
circular or rectangular. At frequencies above these limits, cross probe, or both, to minimize this effect. Interaction between the
modes may develop and the incident and reflected waves in the
sound field within the tube and the loudspeaker diaphragm may
cause the frequency response of the loudspeaker to be nonlin-
5
The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to the list of references at the end of ear. Although this has no effect on measurement accuracy, it
this standard. does require awkward changes in amplifier gain settings when

2
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 C 384 – 04
switching between test frequencies. This effect can be mini- 6.1.9 Monitoring Oscilloscope—While not required for any
mized by lining the interior of the tube near the sound source actual measurement purpose, it is recommended that an oscil-
with a porous, absorbent material. loscope be used to monitor both the voltage driving the sound
6.1.4 Microphone—If the microphone is small enough, it source and the output of the amplifier. Observing the oscillo-
may be placed inside the impedance tube connected to a rod or scope trace is useful in locating the exact position of pressure
other device that can be used to move it along the length of the minima within the tube as well as in detecting distortion,
tube. If the microphone is placed within the tube, the total excess noise, and other possible problems in the voltage
cross-sectional area of the microphone and microphone sup- signals.
ports shall be less than 5 % of the total cross-sectional area of
the tube. In most applications, the microphone is on the outside 7. Sampling
connected to a hollow probe tube that is inserted through the 7.1 At least three specimens, preferably more if the sample
source end of the apparatus and is aligned with the central axis is not uniform, should be cut from the sample for the test.
of the tube. In principle, the sensing element of the microphone When the sample has a surface that is not uniform (for example
or of the microphone probe may be positioned anywhere within a fissured acoustical tile), each specimen should be chosen to
the tube cross-sectional area. In practice, the microphone or the include, in proper proportion, the different kinds of surfaces
end of the probe tube must be supported by a spider or other existing in the larger sample.
device to maintain its position on the central axis of the
impedance tube or at a constant distance from the central axis. 8. Test Specimen Preparation and Mounting
6.1.5 Microphone Position Indicator—A scale shall be pro- 8.1 The measured impedance properties can be strongly
vided to measure the position of the microphone with respect influenced by the specimen mounting conditions. Therefore,
to the specimen face. It is not necessary that zero on the scale the following guidelines for the preparation and mounting of
correspond to the position of the specimen face. The resolution specimens are provided.
of this scale should be such that microphone position can be 8.2 The specimen must have the same shape and area as the
measured to the nearest 1.0 mm or, if a vernier is used, to the tube cross section, neither more nor less. The specimen must fit
nearest 0.1 mm. snugly into the specimen holder, fitting not so tightly that it
6.1.6 Test Signal: bulges in the center, nor so loosely that there is a space between
6.1.6.1 Frequency—The test signal shall be provided by a its edge and the holder. Movement of the specimen as a whole
sine wave oscillator generating a pure tone chosen from the list and spaces between the specimen perimeter and sample holder
of preferred band center frequencies listed in ANSI S1.6. The can result in anomalous values of normal incidence sound
test frequency shall be controlled to within 61 % during the absorption. Specimen movement can be minimized by the use
course of a measurement. If a digital frequency synthesizer is of thin, double-sided adhesive tape applied between the back of
used, the test signal may be assumed to agree with the set point the specimen and the metal backing plate. Spaces at the
within the required 61 %. specimen perimeter can be sealed with petroleum jelly.
8.3 The specimen must have a relatively flat surface since
6.1.6.2 Frequency Counter—It may be necessary, and is the reflected wave from a very uneven surface may not have
usually advisable, to measure the frequency of the signal with become a plane wave at the position of the first minimum. If
an electronic counter rather than to rely on the calibration and the specimen is an anechoic wedge, or an array of wedges,
indicated setting of the frequency generator. Frequency should refer to Annex A1.
be indicated to the nearest 1 Hz. 8.4 When the specimen has a very uneven back, a layer of
6.1.7 Output-Measuring Equipment: putty-like material should be placed between it and the metal
6.1.7.1 Filter—The microphone output should be filtered to backing plate to seal the back of the specimen and to add
remove any harmonics and to reduce the adverse effect of enough thickness to make the back of the specimen parallel to
ambient noise. The filter width must be no wider than one-third the front. Otherwise, the unknown airspace may be the
octave, but a one-tenth octave or narrower filter bandwidth is dominant factor in the measured results.
preferable.
6.1.7.2 Amplifier—The signal-to-noise ratio of the measur- 9. Description of Standing Wave Pattern in Tube
ing amplifier must be at least 50 dB. The amplified signal may 9.1 Fig. 1 represents microphone voltages that might be
be read and recorded as a voltage or as a sound pressure level measured in a tube at various distances from the specimen face.
(dB). It is presumed in Sections 9 and 10 of this test method That is, Fig. 1 is a standing wave pattern, in this case for a
that voltages rather than dB levels are being used. As only reflective specimen installed in a one-metre tube with the tube
pressure ratios are required for the computations in this test driven at 500 Hz. The minimum points at x1, x2, and x3 on the
method, it is not necessary that the sound pressure measure- standing wave pattern are spaced half a wavelength apart and
ment system be calibrated to a known, reference sound positioned midway between the maxima. It should be noted
pressure level or to a known voltage. that the data shown in Fig. 1 are plotted as voltage versus
6.1.8 Temperature Indicator—A thermometer or other am- distance rather than voltage level (in dB) versus distance.
bient temperature sensing device shall be located in the vicinity 9.2 The standing wave pattern generally contains a finite
of the impedance tube. This device should indicate air tem- number of discrete minima (for example, x1, x2, x3 in Fig. 1)
perature inside the tube to within 62°C. and the locus formed by these individual minimum microphone

3
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 C 384 – 04

x = the absolute distance traveled by the wave from the

reference position, and
z = the attenuation constant.
Kirchhoff (see Ref. 4) developed and Beranek (5) subse-
quently modified a formula for estimating the attenuation
constant as:
z 5 0.02203 f 1/2/~cd! (6)

where:
z = attenuation constant, m−1.
For this purpose, the equivalent diameter of a tube with
rectangular cross section is four times the area of the cross
section divided by its perimeter.

FIG. 1 Microphone Voltage in 1.0 m Tube Driven at 500 Hz

10. Procedure
10.1 Calculation of Velocity of Sound, c—The velocity of
sound in air is computed from the measured temperature
voltages defines a continuous Vmin(x) function as shown by the according to:
lower dotted line on Fig. 1. Similarly, the locus of maximum c 5 20.05 ~T 1 273.1!1/2 (7)
voltages can be used to define a continuous Vmax(x) function,
shown as the upper dotted line on Fig. 1. A standing wave ratio, where:
SWR, also a function of x, can be formed according to: T = air temperature, °C.
SWR~x! 5 Vmax ~x!/Vmin ~x! (4) 10.2 Calculation of Wavelength, l—The wavelength of
sound at each test frequency is computed from the speed of
where: sound and the test frequency according to:
SWR(x) = standing wave ratio at location x, dimension-
less. l 5 c/f (8)
Note that SWR(x) will be a positive, real number equal to or where:
greater than one. l = wavelength, m.
9.3 The various maxima of the standing wave pattern of Fig.
10.3 Correction Factor:
1 are nearly equal in magnitude. Thus Vmax(x) is very nearly a
straight, horizontal line. The minimum microphone voltages, 10.3.1 To define the standing wave pattern within the tube,
however, form a Vmin(x) locus with a noticeable slope. It is not it is necessary to know the distance from the sample face at
the absorption at the sample face but rather the attenuation which each pressure is being measured. The exact location of
within the tube itself that causes Vmin(x) to exhibit this slope. the face of the mounted sample within the tube can be
Indeed, if there were no attenuation of incident and reflected determined by gently advancing the probe until it makes
waves as they propagated back and forth in the tube, Vmin(x) contact with the sample face and noting the scale reading at the
and Vmax(x) could both be represented as horizontal lines and point of contact. The exact location of a measured pressure,
SWR(x) would be the same everywhere along the length of the however, requires applying a correction factor to the observed
tube. Attenuation within the tube, however, while having only scale reading at the point where the pressure is measured. This
a slight effect on the individual maxima, causes the individual is due to the fact that the acoustic center of a microphone or
voltage minima to increase with increasing distance from the microphone probe does not necessarily correspond with its
face of the specimen. geometric center.
9.4 The primary purpose for making the measurements 10.3.2 The correction factor is computed based on the
described in this test method is to find the standing wave ratio assumption that, with a highly reflective metal backing plate
at the face of the specimen, that is, SWR (0). This determination mounted in the tube, a sound pressure minimum will occur at
must be done indirectly by extrapolation of the maximum and precisely l/4 from the surface of the plate. For each test
minimum microphone voltages actually measured in the tube. frequency the correction factor is thus determined with the
Section 10 of this test method describes several methods for metal backing plate in place as follows:
performing the extrapolation depending on the number of
xcor 5 ~x1/4 2 xmr! 2 l/4 (9)
maxima and minima observed.
9.5 Tube Attenuation—Losses within a tube can generally where:
be described by: xcor = correction factor, m,
p~x! 5 p0e2zx (5) x1/4 = observed scale reading with microphone probe at
first minimum, m, and
where: xmr = observed scale reading with probe touching face of
p0 = the pressure at some reference position, metal backing plate, m.

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 C 384 – 04
10.3.3 During routine measurements with a specimen in 10.5.2 One Minimum and One Maximum Present—When
place, all observed scale readings at a particular test frequency only one minimum and one maximum are observed, the single
should be corrected by the scale calibration factor for that maximum voltage is taken to be Vmax(0). In this case, there is
frequency as follows: only one minimum, V(x1), and a graphical extrapolation back
x 5 ~xobs 2 xsf! 2 xcor to the specimen face cannot be used. However, a valid
(10) approximation for the minimum voltage at the sample face in
this case is given by:
where:
x = true distance from specimen surface, m, Vmin ~0! 5 V~x1! 2 z x1Vmax ~0! (12)
xobs = observed scale reading, m, and where: z is calculated from Eq 6.
xsf = observed scale reading with probe touching speci-
10.5.3 Only One Minimum and No Maximum Present—
men face, m.
When no actual maximum can be measured in the tube, it is not
If the absolute position of the scale on the test apparatus can wise to try to measure the maximum level at the face of the
be adjusted, it is convenient to use this adjustability to make xsf specimen and use this value as a maximum. One reason for this
in Eq 10 equal to zero. is that only when the impedance phase angle is zero is the level
10.3.4 During a protracted series of measurements, the air at the sample face a maximum. Furthermore, if the microphone
temperature in the impedance tube should be held constant to is too close to the specimen, the sound may be blocked and the
within 65°C to keep the variation in the velocity of sound to measured sound pressure level will be less than maximum. In
less than 1.0 %. If, during the course of a series of measure- this situation, however, a maximum level may be inferred from
ments, the air temperature varies outside of this range, a new a measurement of the sound pressure levels at l/8 distance on
set of scale correction factors should be determined and applied either side of the minimum. The rationale for doing so is as
to the observed scale readings. follows:
NOTE 1—The need to make corrections for temperature changes can be 10.5.3.1 The squared pressure at any position x in the tube
minimized if the measurement apparatus is located in a constant- may be written as:
temperature environment.
p 2 5 pi 2 1 pr 2 1 2 pipr cos g (13)
10.4 Measurement of Standing Wave Pattern—With a speci-
men mounted in the tube and the tube excited at a particular where:
test frequency, adjust the voltage to the loudspeaker so that the pi = incident pressure, N/m2,
microphone voltages at the minimums are at least 10 times pr = reflected pressure, N/m2, and
greater than the background noise voltage (10 dB above the g = phase angle between incident and reflected pressure
background noise). Note and record the temperature. Note and waves, degrees.
record the scale reading when the probe just touches the sample If losses due to attenuation in the tube are neglected, the
face. Move the microphone observing and recording the pressure at a standing wave maximum, where g = 0°, will be
locations and microphone voltages of the various maxima and given by:
minima in the tube. Correct the observed locations in accor- pmax 2 5 pi 2 1 pr2 1 2 pipr (14)
dance with Eq 9 and Eq 10. The corrected data can be sketched
in the manner of Fig. 1 to define the general shape of the and at a standing wave minimum, where g = 180°,
standing wave pattern in the tube for this particular test pmin 2 5 pi 2 1 pr 2 2 2 pipr (15)
frequency.
At a distance of l/8 on either side of a minimum, where g
10.5 Determination of Standing Wave Ratio at Specimen
= 90°,
Face—As discussed in Section 9, sound attenuation in the tube
causes the locus of the sound pressure minima (and to a lesser pl/8 2 5 pi 2 1 pr 2 (16)
extent the locus of the sound pressure maxima) to change with
It follows that:
increasing distance from the specimen face. Thus, it is neces-
sary to employ some type of extrapolation or estimation pl/8 2 5 0.5~pmax 2 1 pmin 2! (17)
technique to determine the standing wave ratio, SWR (0), at the Since the measured microphone voltage is indicative of the
specimen face. The particular technique to use depends on the sound pressure, this last result can be rewritten and rearranged
number of minima and maxima in the measured standing wave
to give:
pattern.
10.5.1 Two or More Minima Present—When two or more Vmax 5 ~2Vl/8 2 2 Vmin 2!1/2 (18)
minima are present, one or more maxima will be observed as Thus when no maximum and only one minimum can be
well. If there is only one voltage maximum, it should be used measured, an additional voltage measurement at a distance of
as Vmax(0). If there are two or more maxima, the maximum l/8 from the measured minimum should be taken and used as
nearest (but not at) the sample face should be taken as Vmax(0). Vl/8 in Eq 18 to arrive at an estimated Vmax value. This Vmax
A linear extrapolation of voltage minima back to the sample value together with the measured minimum voltage allows the
face is used to find Vmin(0) according to: procedures of 10.5.2 to be used in determining the standing
Vmin ~0! 5 V~x1! 2 x1@V~x2! 2 V~x1!#/~x2 2 x1! (11) wave ratio at the face of the sample.

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 C 384 – 04
11. Calculation of Normal Incidence Sound Absorption 12. Report
Coefficient and Impedance Ratio 12.1 Report the following information:
11.1 Pressure Reflection Coeffıcient, G—The ratio of re- 12.1.1 Statement, if true in all respects, that the test was
flected to incident pressure at the face of the specimen is called performed in accordance with this test method with any and all
the pressure reflection coefficient and denoted by the symbol G. exceptions clearly noted.
This ratio is a complex quantity with amplitude: 12.1.2 Description of the sample adequate to identify it
|G| 5 [SWR~0! 2 1]/[SWR~0! 1 1] (19) from another sample of the same material.
and phase angle: 12.1.3 Description of the test specimens, including their
number, size, and method of mounting.
u 5 720~x1/l! 2 180 (20)
12.1.4 Normal incidence sound absorption coefficients at
where: the measured frequencies expressed to two significant figures.
G = complex pressure reflection coefficient, dimensionless, Specify the method of calculating the standing wave ratio for
u = pressure reflection coefficient phase angle, degrees, each frequency tested.
and 12.1.5 If determined, the impedance ratio, with resistance
x1 = distance from specimen face to first minimum point, and reactance ratios expressed to two significant figures.
m. 12.1.6 Original data if several measurements have been
11.2 Normal Incidence Sound Absorption Coeffıcient,an made and the results averaged.
—The normal incidence sound absorption coefficient, an, is a 12.1.7 A description of the instruments used and the details
real number, and is given by: of the procedures used, if not made part of the report, shall be
an 5 1 2 |G| 2 made readily available.
(21)
13. Precision and Bias
where:
13.1 Measurements described in this test method can be
an = normal incidence sound absorption coefficient, di-
made with great precision, a greater precision than is some-
mensionless.
times needed. The imprecision comes from sources other than
11.3 Impedance Ratio, z/rc—The impedance ratio, z/rc, is a
the measurement procedure. Some materials are not very
complex quantity that can be found from the complex pressure
uniform so that specimens cut from the same sample differ in
reflection coefficient by the equation
their properties. There can be uncertainty in deciding on the
z/rc 5 ~1 1 G!/~1 2 G! location of the face of a very porous specimen. The largest
(22) causes of imprecision are related to the preparation and
where: installation of the test specimen. The specimen must be
r = density of air, kg/m3. precisely cut. The fit must not be too tight or too loose.
11.3.1 Because G has both amplitude and phase, the arith- Irregular, nonreproducible airspaces behind the specimen must
metic of Eq 22 can be carried out graphically or by purely be prevented.
analytical means. One relatively straightforward way to pro- 13.2 Measurements of microphone voltages should be made
ceed is as follows: Calculate the two numbers M and N per: to three significant figures. Measurements of scale distance
should be made to the nearest 1.0 mm or, if a vernier is used,
M 5 0.5[SWR~0! 1 1/SWR~0!# (23)
to the nearest 0.1 mm. Frequencies should be known to 61.0
Hz.
N 5 0.5[SWR~0! – 1/SWR~0!# (24)
13.3 Precision—The precision of the procedure in this test
Write the impedance ratio in the form: method for measuring the specific normal acoustic impedance
z/rc 5 r/rc 1 jx/rc (25) and normal incidence sound absorption coefficient is being
determined.
where: 13.4 Bias—Since there is presently no material available
rc = specific impedance of air, mks rayls, with accepted or known values of performance that can be used
r/rc = resistance ratio, mks rayl, and to determine the bias of this test method, no quantitative
x/rc = reactance ratio, mks rayl.
statement on bias can be made at this time.
Compute r/rc and x/rc as follows:
r/rc 5 1/~M 2 N cos u! (26) 14. Keywords
x/rc 5 ~r/rc!N sin u (27) 14.1 absorption; impedance; impedance ratio; impedance
When x1 is less than a quarter of a wavelength, u is a tube; normal incidence sound absorption coefficient; specific
negative angle and x/rc is negative. normal acoustic impedance

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 C 384 – 04
ANNEXES

(Mandatory Information)

A1. EVALUATION OF ANECHOIC WEDGES

A1.1 Scope the normal incidence sound absorption coefficients of wedges

A1.1.1 This annex covers the test method of determining are of value for determining whether or not they are suitable for
the normal incidence sound absorption coefficients and cutoff use in anechoic room construction and, if so, their useful
frequencies of anechoic wedges. frequency range.
A1.4.2 This annex is limited to a description of the mea-
A1.2 Terminology surement of the normal incidence sound absorption coefficient.
A1.2.1 Definitions—Except for the term described below,
the acoustical terms used in this annex are defined in Termi- A1.5 Apparatus
nology C 634. A1.5.1 The apparatus is generally a rectangular tube of fixed
A1.2.2 Description of Term Specific to This Standard: length with an anechoic wedge test specimen at one end and a
A1.2.2.1 cutoff frequency of an anechoic wedge or set of
loudspeaker driven by a pure tone signal generator at the
wedges—the lowest frequency above which the normal inci-
opposite end. A suggested arrangement of a tube for testing
dence sound absorption coefficient is at least 0.990.
anechoic wedges is shown in Fig. A1.1.
A1.3 Summary of Test Method A1.5.2 Tube:
A1.3.1 The standing wave inside the tube is explored with a A1.5.2.1 Construction—The following is in addition to the
movable probe microphone. The normal incidence sound recommendations of 6.1.1.1. It has been found that a smooth
absorption coefficient, an, is determined from the standing tube surface used for testing anechoic wedges can be obtained
wave ratio, SWR. by sealing the inside surface (masonry, wood, steel, and the
A1.3.2 This is the test method for testing wedges individu- like) with an epoxy or other sealer. Steel and wood surfaces
ally or in small groups using an impedance tube. randomly reinforced with steel angles or wood framing add
additional structural integrity. For added damping and trans-
A1.4 Significance and Use mission loss, cast concrete or gypsum board 50 mm (2 in.) or
A1.4.1 Anechoic wedges have the property of absorbing thicker can be applied to the outside of the tube. If gypsum
nearly all of the sound energy incident upon them. They are board is used, it should be applied with staggered seams in
used for lining the walls, ceiling, and floor of an anechoic room multiple layers using visco-elastic adhesive.
to reduce sound reflections to a minimum. Measurements of A1.5.3 Diameter—Refer to 6.1.1.2.

FIG. A1.1 Suggested Arrangement of Tube for Testing Anechoic Wedges

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 C 384 – 04
A1.5.3.1 Based on observation and experience, a square A1.5.7.2 The oscillator and loudspeaker shall generate pure
tube with side d equal to 610 mm (2 ft) is preferred. When tones of selectable frequency. The harmonic content of the
testing wedges, the upper frequency limit for a square tube is: signal shall be at least 20 dB below the fundamental tone.
f , 0.480 c/d or d , 0.480 l (A1.1)
A1.6 Test Specimen Mounting
where: A1.6.1 The anechoic wedge test specimen is placed at the
d = length of one side of square tube, m (ft).
end of the tube opposite the sound source. The base of the
A1.5.4 Length—The minimum length of square tube may
wedge specimen shall fill the inside cross-sectional area of the
be expressed as follows:
tube.
For one sound pressure minimum:
NOTE A1.1—The number of wedges is not specified; the cross section
l 5 WL 1 3l/4
of the tube must be filled with an integer number of wedges.
(A1.2)
or preferably for two sound pressure minimums: A1.6.2 The specimen shall be mounted in the tube the way
it will be installed in the anechoic room. If an air space is to be
WL 1 3l/4 , l 2 d (A1.3)
used behind the wedge in the anechoic room, then the system
where: shall also include the air space. If packing is placed between
l = length of tube, m (ft), adjacent wedge units, the same packing shall be provided in the
WL = length of wedge, m (ft), and tube.
d = length of one side of square tube, m (ft).
A1.5.5 Microphone and Acoustical Measuring Equipment: A1.7 Test Procedure
A1.5.5.1 The microphone shall be mounted on a movable A1.7.1 After mounting the test specimen in place and
carriage or on a pulley line system so that it can be moved sealing the tube, the sound source is excited by a pure tone. The
longitudinally inside the tube from the tip of the shortest wedge microphone is used to explore the standing wave pattern by
to be tested to the opposite end of the tube. The supporting moving it continuously along the axis from the tip of the wedge
mechanism shall be adequately vibration isolated from any part toward the source until one sound pressure maximum and at
of the tube or sound source. The position of the microphone least one, and preferably two, sound pressure minimum are
shall be maintained within 610 mm (0.4 in.) from the recorded.
longitudinal center line of the tube. The microphone and
support mechanism shall have a cross-sectional area less than NOTE A1.2—Empty tube absorption shall be tested and reported.
3 % of the tube area. A1.7.2 Tests shall be conducted over a frequency range
A1.5.5.2 Microphone output should be filtered to improve consistent with the dimensions of the tube. Paragraph A1.5.6.1
signal to noise ratio and to remove the harmonic components. specifies the range and test points within this frequency range.
A1.5.5.3 It is advisable to measure the frequency of the A1.7.3 To determine the cutoff frequency of a wedge
signal with an electronic counter rather than to rely on the configuration, at least two separate test specimens of identical
calibration of the oscillator. configuration shall be tested.
A1.5.5.4 Frequency response of the microphone and mea- A1.7.4 The normal incidence sound absorption coefficient,
suring equipment should be relatively smooth and not exhibit an, shall be determined to two significant figures.
erratic peaks and dips over the frequency range used in the
measurements. A1.8 Report
A1.5.6 Test Signal:
A1.5.6.1 The range of test frequencies shall be from 0.8 A1.8.1 Report the following information:
times the lowest frequency of interest (cutoff frequency) up to A1.8.2 A statement, if true in all respects, that the test
the highest frequency of interest but in no case higher than the method was performed in accordance with this annex and that
limit specified in 6.1.1.2, Eq 1 and in A1.5.3.1, Eq A1.1. The the data so obtained shall not be compared with data obtained
test frequencies in this range shall be spaced 10 Hz apart. Near by Test Method C 423 or similar test methods.
cutoff, or any other critical frequencies, the interval between A1.8.3 A description of the sample adequate to distinguish
test frequencies shall be 5 Hz. it from another sample of the same or other type material.
A1.5.7 Sound Source: A1.8.4 Photographs or sketches of the test specimen iden-
A1.5.7.1 The sound source may be a loudspeaker placed at tifying the mounting arrangement and protective covering
the end of the tube opposite the test specimen. The area of the used, if any.
loudspeaker cone should be at least 40 % of the cross-sectional
area of the tube. Precaution should be taken to avoid rigid A1.9 Precision and Bias
contact of the loudspeaker with the tube or microphone system A1.9.1 The statements made in Section 13 are applicable
to prevent the transmission of vibration. here.

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 C 384 – 04

A2. LABORATORY ACCREDITATION

A2.1 Scope A2.2.7 The laboratory shall maintain documentation to

A2.1.1 This annex covers procedures to be followed in show that tests are performed properly for the determination of
accrediting a testing laboratory to perform tests in accordance the normal incidence sound absorption coefficient or the
with this test method. impedance ratios, or both (see Sections 10 and 11), either by
calculations or by graphical means.
A2.2.8 The laboratory shall maintain documentation to
A2.2 Summary of Procedures
show that, during testing, the minima were or are more than 10
A2.2.1 The laboratory shall allow the accrediting agency to dB above the background noise level (see 10.4).
make an on-site inspection.
A2.3 Reference Tests
A2.2.2 The laboratory shall show that it satisfies the criteria
of Practice E 548. A2.3.1 The laboratory shall measure the normal incidence
sound absorption of the massive metal reflector at the frequen-
A2.2.3 The laboratory shall show that it is in compliance
cies of interest at least four times a year if testing is carried out
with the mandatory parts of this test method, that is, those parts
uniformly throughout the year. Results should be compared
that contain the words “shall” or “must.”
with results calculated, results obtained in round robins, or
A2.2.4 The laboratory shall show the construction and results reported in the literature.
geometry of the tube as described in 6.1.1.1. A2.3.2 The normal incidence sound absorption coefficients
A2.2.5 The laboratory shall show calculations verifying the measured and their standard deviations shall be analyzed by the
frequency limits in accordance with 6.1.1.2 and 6.1.1.3. control chart method described in Part 3 of STP 15D (6). The
A2.2.6 The laboratory shall show the procedure to verify the analysis shall be in accordance with the subsection titled
frequency of the pure tone test signal. “Control—No Standard Given.”

REFERENCES

(1) London, A., “The Determination of Reverberant Sound Absorption London, Vol 2, 1896, p. 161, paragraph 301.
Coefficients from Acoustic Impedance Measurements,” Journal of the (4) Lord Rayleigh, The Theory of Sound, Vol 2, pp. 323 ff, paragraph 350.
Acoustical Society of America, 22(2), March 1950.
(5) Beranek, L. L., Acoustic Measurements, pp. 72, 73.
(2) Mechel, F. P., “Design Charts for Sound Absorber Layers,” Journal of
the Acoustical Society of America, 83(3), March 1988. (6) Manual on Presentation of Data and Control Chart Analysis, ASTM
(3) Lord Rayleigh, The Theory of Sound, Macmillan and Co., Ltd., STP 15D, Part 3, ASTM International, 1976.

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