ANALOGUE ELECTRONICS III

(EEC314)
Hybrid Parameters
In order to predict the behavior of a small-signal transistor amplifier, it is important to know its
operating characteristics e.g., input impedance, output impedance, voltage gain etc. In the text so
far, these characteristics were determined by using β and circuit resistance values. This method
of analysis has two principal advantages. Firstly, the values of circuit components are readily
available and secondly the procedure followed is easily understood. However, the major
drawback
of this method is that accurate results cannot be obtained. It is because the input and output
circuits
of a transistor amplifier are not completely independent. For example, output current is affected
by the value of load resistance rather than being constant at the value βIb. Similarly, output
voltage has an effect on the input circuit so that changes in the output cause changes in the input.

Every linear circuit having input and output terminals can be analyzed by four parameters (one
measured in ohm, one in mho and two dimensionless) called hybrid or h Parameters.

Hybrid means “mixed”. Since these parameters have mixed dimensions, they are called hybrid
parameters. Consider a linear circuit shown above. This circuit has input voltage and current
labelled v1 and i1. This circuit also has output voltage and current labelled v2 and i2. Note that
both input and output currents (i1 and i2) are assumed to flow into the box; input and output
voltages (v1 and v2) are assumed positive from the upper to the lower terminals. These are

1
standard conventions and do not necessarily correspond to the actual directions and polarities.
When we analyze circuits in which the voltages are of opposite polarity or where the currents
flow out of the box, we simply treat these voltages and currents as negative quantities. It can be
proved by advanced circuit theory that voltages and currents above can be related by the
following sets of equations:

In these equations, the hs are fixed constants for a given circuit and are called h parameters.
Once these parameters are known, we can use equations (i) and (ii) to find the voltages and
currents in the circuit. If we look at eq. (i), it is clear that h11 has the dimension of ohm and h12
is dimensionless. Similarly, from eq. (ii), h21 is dimensionless and h22 has the dimension of
mho. The following points may be noted about h parameters:
(i) Every linear circuit has four h parameters; one having dimension of ohm, one having
dimension of mho and two dimensionless.
(ii) The h parameters of a given circuit are constant. If we change the circuit, h parameters
would also change.
(iii) Suppose that in a particular linear circuit, voltages and currents are related as under:

v1 = 10i1 + 6v2
i2 = 4i1 + 3v2

Here we can say that the circuit has h parameters given by h11 = 10 Ω; h12 = 6; h21 = 4 and h22
= 3Ʊ.

Determination of h Parameters
The major reason for the use of h parameters is the relative ease with which they can be
measured. The h parameters of a circuit shown above can be found out as under :
(i) If we short-circuit the output terminals, we can say that output voltage v2 = 0.
Putting v2 = 0 in equations (i) and (ii), we get,

2
Let us now turn to the physical meaning of h11 and h21. Since h11 is a ratio of voltage and
current (i.e. v1/i1), it is an impedance and is called “input impedance with output shorted”.
Similarly, h21 is the ratio of output and input current (i.e., i2/i1), it will be dimensionless and is
called “current gain with output shorted”.

(ii) The other two h parameters (h12 and h22) can be found by making i1 = 0. Here, we drive the
output terminals with voltage v2, keeping the input terminals open. With this set up, i1 = 0 and
the equations become:

Since h12 is a ratio of input and output voltages (i.e. v1/v2), it is dimensionless and is called
“voltage feedback ratio with input terminals open”. Similarly, h22 is a ratio of output current
and output voltage (i.e. i2/v2), it will be admittance and is called “output admittance with input
terminals open”.

3
Example 1. Find the h parameters of the circuit shown below

Solution. The h parameters of the circuit can be found as under:

To find h11 and h21, short - circuit the output terminals. It is clear that input impedance of the
circuit is 10 Ω because 5 Ω resistance is shorted out.
∴ h11 = 10 Ω
Now current i1 flowing into the box will flow through 10 Ω resistor and then through the shorted
path as shown. It may be noted that in our discussion, i2 is the output current flowing into the
box. Since output current is actually flowing out of the box, i2 is negative i.e.

To find h12 and h22, make the arrangement as shown above. Here we are driving the output
terminals with a voltage v2. This sets up a current i2. Note that input terminals are open. Under
this condition, there will be no current in 10Ω resistor and, therefore, there can be no voltage
drop across it. Consequently, all the voltage appears across input terminals i.e.

Now the output impedance looking into the output terminals with input terminals open is simply
5 Ω. Then h22 will be the reciprocal of it because h22 is the output admittance with input terminals
open.

4
The h parameters of the circuit are:

It may be mentioned here that in practice, dimensions are not written with h parameters. It is
because it is understood that h11 is always in ohms, h12 and h21 are dimensionless and h22 is in
mhos.

Example 2. Find the h parameters of the circuit shown below.

Solution. First of all imagine that output terminals are short-circuited as shown in (ii).
The input impedance under this condition is the parameter h11.

Now the input current i1 in Fig (ii) will divide equally at the junction of 4 Ω resistors so that
output current is i1/2 i.e.

5
In order to find h12 and h22, imagine the arrangement as shown here. Here we are driving the
output terminals with voltage v2, keeping the input terminals open.
Under this condition, any voltage v2 applied to the output will divide by a factor 2 i.e.

Now the output impedance looking into the output terminals with input terminals open is simply
8 Ω. Then h22 will be the reciprocal of this i.e.

h Parameter Equivalent Circuit

Fig. (i) shows a linear circuit. It is required to draw the h parameter equivalent circuit of Fig. (i).
We know that voltages and currents of the circuit can be expressed in terms of h parameters as:

Fig. (ii) shows h parameter equivalent circuit of Fig. (i) and is derived from equations (i) and (ii).
The input circuit appears as a resistance h11 in series with a voltage generator h12v2. This circuit is
derived from equation (i). The output circuit involves two components; a current generator h21i1
and shunt resistance h22 and is derived from equation (ii). The following points are worth noting
about the h parameter equivalent circuit [See Fig. (ii)]:

6
(i) This circuit is called hybrid equivalent because its input portion is a Thevenin equivalent, or
voltage generator with series resistance, while output side is Norton equivalent, or current
generator with shunt resistance. Thus it is a mixture or a hybrid. The symbol ‘h’ is simply the
abbreviation of the word hybrid (hybrid means “mixed”).
(ii) The different hybrid parameters are distinguished by different number subscripts. The
notation shown in Fig. (ii) is used in general circuit analysis. The first number designates the
circuit in which the effect takes place and the second number designates the circuit from which
the effect comes. For instance, h21 is the “short-circuit forward current gain” or the ratio of the
current in the output (circuit 2) to the current in the input (circuit 1).
(iii) The equivalent circuit of Fig. (ii) is extremely useful for two main reasons. First, it isolates
the input and output circuits, their interaction being accounted for by the two controlled
sources. Thus, the effect of output upon input is represented by the equivalent voltage generator
h12v2 and its value depends upon output voltage. Similarly, the effect of input upon output is
represented by current generator h21i1 and its value depends upon input current. Secondly, the
two parts of the circuit are in a form which makes it simple to take into account source and load
circuits.

Performance of a Linear Circuit in h Parameters

We have already seen that any linear circuit with input and output has a set of h parameters. We
shall now develop formulas for input impedance, current gain, voltage gain and output
impedance of a linear circuit in terms of h parameters.

(i) Input impedance. Consider a linear circuit with a load resistance rL across its terminals as
shown in the Figure below. The input impedance Zin of this circuit is the ratio of input voltage to
input current i.e.

Now v1 = h11i1 + h12v2 in terms of h parameters. Substituting the value of v1 in the above
expression, we get,

7
Now, i2 = h21 i1 + h22 v2 in terms of h parameters. Further from the above Figure, it is clear
that i2 = – v2/rL. The minus sign is used here because the actual load current is opposite to the
direction of i2.

Substituting the value of v2/i1 from exp. (ii) into exp. (i), we get,

This is the expression for input impedance of a linear circuit in terms of h parameters and load
connected to the output terminals. If either h12 or rL is very small, the second term in exp. (iii)
can be neglected and input impedance becomes:

8
(ii) Current Gain. Referring to the same Figure, the current gain Ai of the circuit is given by:

(iii) Voltage gain. The voltage gain of the circuit is given by:

While developing expression for input impedance, we found that:

Substituting the value of v2/i1 in exp. (iv), we get,

9
(iv) Output impedance. In order to find the output impedance, remove the load rL, set the
signal voltage v1 to zero and connect a generator of voltage v2 at the output terminals. Then h
parameter equivalent circuit becomes as shown in the Figure below. By definition, the output
impedance Zout is

With v1 = 0 and applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the input circuit, we have,

10
Example 1. Find the (i) input impedance and (ii) voltage gain for the circuit shown below

Solution. The h parameters of the circuit inside the box are the same as those calculated in one
of the previous examples i.e.

By inspection, we can see that input impedance is equal to 10 Ω plus two 5 Ω resistances in
parallel i.e.

It means that output voltage is one-fifth of the input voltage. This can be readily established by
inspection of the Figure. The two 5 Ω resistors in parallel give a net resistance of 2.5 Ω.
Therefore, we have a voltage divider consisting of 10 Ω resistor in series with 2.5 Ω resistor.

11
The h Parameters of a Transistor.

It has been seen in the previous sections that every linear circuit is associated with h parameters.
When this linear circuit is terminated by load rL, we can find input impedance, current gain,
voltage gain, etc. in terms of h parameters. Fortunately, for small a.c. signals, the transistor
behaves as a linear device because the output a.c. signal is directly proportional to the input a.c.
signal. Under such circumstances, the a.c. operation of the transistor can be described in terms of
h parameters. The expressions derived for input impedance, voltage gain etc. in the previous
section shall hold good for transistor amplifier except that here rL is the a.c. load seen by the
transistor.

This Figure shows the transistor amplifier circuit. There are four quantities required to describe
the external behavior of the transistor amplifier. These are v1, i1, v2 and i2 shown on the
diagram. These voltages and currents can be related by the following sets of equations:

The following points are worth noting while considering the behavior of transistor in terms of h
parameters:

12
(i) For small a.c. signals, a transistor behaves as a linear circuit. Therefore, its a.c. operation
can be described in terms of h parameters.
(ii) The value of h parameters of a transistor will depend upon the transistor connection (i.e. CB,
CE or CC) used. For instance, a transistor used in CB arrangement may have h11 = 20 Ω. If we
use the same transistor in CE arrangement, h11 will have a different value. Same is the case with
other h parameters.
(iii) The expressions for input impedance, voltage gain etc. derived are also applicable to
transistor amplifier except that rL is the a.c. load seen by the transistor i.e.

(iv) The values of h parameters depend upon the operating point. If the operating point is
changed, parameter values are also changed.
(v) The notations v1, i1, v2 and i2 are used for general circuit analysis. In a transistor amplifier,
we use the notation depending upon the configuration in which transistor is used. Thus for CE
arrangement,

Nomenclature for Transistor h Parameters

The numerical subscript notation for h parameters (viz. h11, h21, h12 and h22) is used in general
circuit analysis. However, this nomenclature has been modified for a transistor to indicate the
nature of parameter and the transistor configuration used. The h parameters of a transistor are
represented by the following notation:

(i) The numerical subscripts are replaced by letter subscripts.

(ii) The first letter in the double subscript notation indicates the nature of parameter.
(iii) The second letter in the double subscript notation indicates the circuit arrangement (i.e.
CB, CE or CC) used.

13
Table below shows the h parameter nomenclature of a transistor:

Note that first letter i, r, f or o indicates the nature of parameter. Thus h11 indicates input
impedance and this parameter is designated by the subscript i. Similarly, letters r, f and o
respectively indicate reverse voltage feedback ratio, forward current transfer ratio and output
admittance. The second letters b, e and c respectively indicate CB, CE and CC arrangement.

Transistor Circuit Performance in h Parameters

The expressions for input impedance, voltage gain etc. in terms of h parameters derived for
general circuit analysis apply equally for transistor analysis. However, it is profitable to rewrite
them in standard transistor h parameter nomenclature.
(i) Input impedance. The general expression for input impedance is

Using standard h parameter nomenclature for transistor, its value for CE arrangement will be:

Similarly, expressions for input impedance in CB and CC arrangements can be written. It may be
noted that rL is the a.c. load seen by the transistor.
(ii) Current gain. The general expression for current gain is

14
Using standard transistor h parameter nomenclature, its value for CE arrangement is

(iii) Voltage gain. The general expression for voltage gain is

Using standard transistor h parameter nomenclature, its value for CE arrangement is

In the same way, expressions for voltage gain in CB and CC arrangement can be written.
(iv) Output impedance. The general expression for output impedance is

Using standard transistors h parameter nomenclature, its value for CE arrangement is

In the same way, expression for output impedance in CB and CC arrangements can be written.
The above expression for Zout is for the transistor. If the transistor is connected in a circuit to
form a single stage amplifier, then output impedance of the stage = Zout || rL where rL = RC ||
RL.

15
Example 1. A transistor used in CE arrangement has the following set of h parameters when
the d.c. operating point is VCE = 10 volts and IC = 1 mA:

Determine (i) input impedance (ii) current gain and (iii) voltage gain. The a.c. load seen by the
transistor is rL = 600 Ω. What will be approximate values using reasonable approximations?
Solution. (i) Input impedance is given by:

The second term in eq. (i) is quite small as compared to the first.

The negative sign indicates that there is 180° phase shift between input and output. The
magnitude of gain is 14.4. In other words, the output signal is 14.4 times greater than the input
and it is 180° out of phase with the input.

16
Example 2. A transistor used in CE connection has the following set of h parameters when
the d.c. operating point is VCE = 5 volts and IC = 1 mA:

If the a.c. load rL seen by the transistor is 2 kΩ, find (i) the input impedance (ii) current gain and
(iii) voltage gain.

Example 3. The Figure below shows the transistor amplifier in CE arrangement. The h
parameters of transistor are as under:

Find (i) the input impedance (ii) voltage gain and (iii)the output impedance.

17
Solution. The a.c. load rL seen by the transistor is equivalent of the parallel combination of RC
(= 10 kΩ) and RL (= 30 kΩ) i.e.

(i) The input impedance looking into the base of transistor is given by:

This is only the input impedance looking into the base of transistor. The a.c. input impedance
of the entire stage will be Zin in parallel with bias resistors i.e.

The negative sign indicates phase reversal. The magnitude of gain is 196.
(iii) Output impedance of transistor is

18
Approximate Hybrid Formulas for Transistor Amplifier
The h-parameter formulas (CE configuration) can be approximated to a form that is easier to
handle. While these approximate formulas will not give results that are as accurate as the
original formulas, they can be used for many applications.

19
Limitations of h Parameters
The h parameter approach provides accurate information regarding the current gain, voltage
gain, input impedance and output impedance of a transistor amplifier. However, there are two
major limitations on the use of these parameters.
(i) It is very difficult to get the exact values of h parameters for a particular transistor. It is
because these parameters are subject to considerable variation—unit to unit variation,
variation due to change in temperature and variation due to change in operating point. In
predicting an amplifier performance, care must be taken to use h parameter values that are
correct for the operating point being considered.
(ii) The h parameter approach gives correct answers for small a.c. signals only. It is because
a transistor behaves as a linear device for small signals only.

20
Thyristor

A thyristor is normally four layer three-terminal device. Four layers are formed by alternating
n–type and p–type semiconductor materials. Consequently there are three p–n junctions formed
in the device. It is a bistable device. The three terminals of this device are called anode (A),
cathode (K) and gate (G) respectively. The gate (G) terminal is control terminal of the device.
That means, the current flowing through the device is controlled by electrical signal applied to
the gate (G) terminal. The anode (A) and cathode (K) are the power terminals of the device, they
handle the large applied voltage and conduct the major current through the thyristor. For
example, when the device is connected in series with load circuit, the load current will flow
through the device from anode (A) to cathode (K) but this load current will be controlled by the
gate (G) signal applied to the device externally. A thyristor is on–off switch which is used to
control output power of an electrical circuit by switching on and off the load circuit periodically
in a preset interval. The main difference of thyristors with other digital and electronics
switches is that, a thyristor can handle large current and can withstand large voltage, whereas
other digital and electronic switches handle only tiny current and tiny voltage.

When positive potential is applied to the anode with respect to the cathode, ideally no current
will flow through the device and this condition is called forward – blocking state but when
appropriate gate signal is applied, a large forward anode current starts flowing, with a small
anode–cathode potential drop and the device acts in forward-conduction state. Although after
removing the gate signal, the device will remain in its forward-conduction mode until the
polarity of the load reverses. Some thyristors are also controllable in switching from forward-
conduction back to a forward-blocking state.

21
Applications of Thyristor

As we already said that a thyristor is designed to handle large current and voltage, it is used
mainly in electrical power circuit with system voltage more than 1 kV or currents more than 100
A. The main advantage of using thyristors as power control device is that as the power is
controlled by periodic on–off switching operation hence (ideally) there is no internal power loss
in the device for controlling power in output circuit. Thyristors are commonly used in some
alternating power circuits to control alternating output power of the circuit to optimize internal
power loss at the expense of switching speed.

In this case thyristors are turned from forward-blocking into forward-conducting state at some
predetermined phase angle of the input sinusoidal anode–cathode voltage waveform. Thyristors
are also very popularly used in inverter for converting direct power to alternating power of
specified frequency. These are also used in converter to convert an alternating power into
alternating power of different amplitude and frequency. This is the most common application of
thyristor.

Types of Thyristors

There are four major types of thyristors:

(i) Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR);
(ii) Gate Turn-off Thyristor (GTO) and Integrated Gate Commutated Thyristor (IGCT);
(iii) MOS-Controlled Thyristor (MCT)
(iv) Static Induction Thyristor (SITh).
Others include; Unijunction Transistors (UJT), Silicon Controlled Switch (SCS), TRIAC,
DIAC, Light Activated Thyristors (LASCR), etc.

In many ways the Silicon Controlled Rectifier, or the Thyristor as it is more commonly
known, is similar to the transistor. It is a multi-layer semiconductor device, hence the “silicon”
part of its name. It requires a gate signal to turn it “ON”, the “controlled” part of the name and
once “ON” it behaves like a rectifying diode, the “rectifier” part of the name. In fact the circuit
symbol for the thyristor suggests that this device acts like a controlled rectifying diode.

22
Thyristor Symbol where A is the Anode, K is the Cathode and G is the Gate.

However, unlike the diode which is a two layer ( P-N ) semiconductor device, or the transistor
which is a three layer ( P-N-P, or N-P-N ) device, the Thyristor is a four layer ( P-N-P-N )
semiconductor device that contains three PN junctions in series, and is represented by the symbol
as shown.

Like the diode, the Thyristor is a unidirectional device, that is it will only conduct current in one
direction only, but unlike a diode, the thyristor can be made to operate as either an open-circuit
switch or as a rectifying diode depending upon how the thyristors gate is triggered. In other
words, thyristors can operate only in the switching mode and cannot be used for amplification.

The silicon controlled rectifier SCR, is one of several power semiconductor devices along with
Triacs (Triode AC’s), Diacs (Diode AC’s) and UJT’s (Unijunction Transistor) that are all
capable of acting like very fast solid state AC switches for controlling large AC voltages and
currents. So for the Electronics student this makes these very handy solid state devices for
controlling AC motors, lamps and for phase control.

The thyristor is a three-terminal device labelled: “Anode”, “Cathode” and “Gate” and consisting
of three PN junctions which can be switched “ON” and “OFF” at an extremely fast rate, or it can
be switched “ON” for variable lengths of time during half cycles to deliver a selected amount of
power to a load. The operation of the thyristor can be best explained by assuming it to be made
up of two transistors connected back-to-back as a pair of complementary regenerative switches
as shown.

23
A Thyristor’s Two Transistor Analogy

The two transistor equivalent circuit shows that the collector current of the NPN transistor TR2
feeds directly into the base of the PNP transistor TR1, while the collector current of TR1 feeds
into the base of TR2. These two inter-connected transistors rely upon each other for conduction
as each transistor gets its base-emitter current from the other’s collector-emitter current. So until
one of the transistors is given some base current nothing can happen even if an Anode-to-
Cathode voltage is present.

When the thyristors Anode terminal is negative with respect to the Cathode, the centre N-P
junction is forward biased, but the two outer P-N junctions are reversed biased and it behaves
very much like an ordinary diode. Therefore a thyristor blocks the flow of reverse current until at
some high voltage level the breakdown voltage point of the two outer junctions is exceeded and
the thyristor conducts without the application of a Gate signal.

This is an important negative characteristic of the thyristor, as Thyristors can be unintentionally

triggered into conduction by a reverse over-voltage as well as high temperature or a rapidly
rising dv/dt voltage such as a spike.

If the Anode terminal is made positive with respect to the Cathode, the two outer P-N junctions
are now forward biased but the centre N-P junction is reverse biased. Therefore forward current
is also blocked. If a positive current is injected into the base of the NPN transistor TR2, the
resulting collector current flows in the base of transistor TR1. This in turn causes a collector
current to flow in the PNP transistor, TR1 which increases the base current of TR2 and so on.

24
Very rapidly the two transistors force each other to conduct to saturation as they are connected in
a regenerative feedback loop that cannot stop. Once triggered into conduction, the current
flowing through the device between the Anode and the Cathode is limited only by the resistance
of the external circuit as the forward resistance of the device when conducting can be very low at
less than 1Ω so the voltage drop across it and power loss is also low.

Then we can see that a thyristor blocks current in both directions of an AC supply in its “OFF”
state and can be turned “ON” and made to act like a normal rectifying diode by the application of
a positive current to the base of transistor, TR2 which for a silicon controlled rectifier is called
the “Gate” terminal.

Thyristor I-V Characteristics Curves

Once the thyristor has been turned “ON” and is passing current in the forward direction (anode
positive), the gate signal loses all control due to the regenerative latching action of the two
internal transistors. The application of any gate signals or pulses after regeneration is initiated
will have no effect at all because the thyristor is already conducting and fully-ON.

25
Unlike the transistor, the SCR cannot be biased to stay within some active region along a load
line between its blocking and saturation states. The magnitude and duration of the gate “turn-on”
pulse has little effect on the operation of the device since conduction is controlled internally.
Then applying a momentary gate pulse to the device is enough to cause it to conduct and will
remain permanently “ON” even if the gate signal is completely removed.

Therefore the thyristor can also be thought of as a Bistable Latch having two stable states “OFF”
or “ON”. This is because with no gate signal applied, a silicon controlled rectifier blocks current
in both directions of an AC waveform, and once it is triggered into conduction, the regenerative
latching action means that it cannot be turned “OFF” again just by using its Gate.

So how do we turn “OFF” the thyristor? Once the thyristor has self-latched into its “ON” state
and passing a current, it can only be turned “OFF” again by either removing the supply voltage
and therefore the Anode (IA) current completely, or by reducing its Anode to Cathode current
by some external means (the opening of a switch for example) to below a value commonly
called the “minimum holding current”, IH.

The Anode current must therefore be reduced below this minimum holding level long enough for
the thyristors internally latched PN-junctions to recover their blocking state before a forward
voltage is again applied to the device without it automatically self-conducting. Obviously then
for a thyristor to conduct in the first place, its Anode current, which is also its load current, IL
must be greater than its holding current value. That is IL > IH.

Since the thyristor has the ability to turn “OFF” whenever the Anode current is reduced below
this minimum holding value, it follows then that when used on a sinusoidal AC supply the SCR
will automatically turn itself “OFF” at some value near to the cross over point of each half cycle,
and as we now know, will remain “OFF” until the application of the next Gate trigger pulse.

Since an AC sinusoidal voltage continually reverses in polarity from positive to negative on

every half-cycle, this allows the thyristor to turn “OFF” at the 180 o zero point of the positive
waveform. This effect is known as “natural commutation” and is a very important characteristic
of the silicon controlled rectifier.

26
Thyristors used in circuits fed from DC supplies, this natural commutation condition cannot
occur as the DC supply voltage is continuous so some other way to turn “OFF” the thyristor must
be provided at the appropriate time because once triggered it will remain conducting.

However in AC sinusoidal circuits, natural commutation occurs every half cycle. Then during
the positive half cycle of an AC sinusoidal waveform, the thyristor is forward biased (anode
positive) and a can be triggered “ON” using a Gate signal or pulse. During the negative half
cycle, the Anode becomes negative while the Cathode is positive. The thyristor is reverse biased
by this voltage and cannot conduct even if a Gate signal is present.

So by applying a Gate signal at the appropriate time during the positive half of an AC waveform,
the thyristor can be triggered into conduction until the end of the positive half cycle. Thus phase
control (as it is called) can be used to trigger the thyristor at any point along the positive half of
the AC waveform and one of the many uses of a Silicon Controlled Rectifier is in the power
control of AC systems as shown.

Thyristor Phase Control

27
At the start of each positive half-cycle the SCR is “OFF”. On the application of the gate pulse
triggers the SCR into conduction and remains fully latched “ON” for the duration of the positive
cycle. If the thyristor is triggered at the beginning of the half-cycle ( θ = 0o ), the load (a lamp)
will be “ON” for the full positive cycle of the AC waveform (half-wave rectified AC) at a high
average voltage of 0.318 x Vp.

As the application of the gate trigger pulse increases along the half cycle ( θ = 0o to 90o ), the
lamp is illuminated for less time and the average voltage delivered to the lamp will also be
proportionally less reducing its brightness.

Then we can use a silicon controlled rectifier as an AC light dimmer as well as in a variety of
other AC power applications such as: AC motor-speed control, temperature control systems and
power regulator circuits, etc.

Thus far we have seen that a thyristor is essentially a half-wave device that conducts in only the
positive half of the cycle when the Anode is positive and blocks current flow like a diode when
the Anode is negative, irrespective of the Gate signal.

But there are more semiconductor devices available which come under the banner of “Thyristor”
that can conduct in both directions, full-wave devices, or can be turned “OFF” by the Gate
signal.

Such devices include “Gate Turn-OFF Thyristors” (GTO), “Static Induction Thyristors” (SITH),
“MOS Controlled Thyristors” (MCT), “Silicon Controlled Switch” (SCS), “Triode Thyristors”
(TRIAC) and “Light Activated Thyristors” (LASCR) to name a few, with all these devices
available in a variety of voltage and current ratings making them attractive for use in applications
at very high power levels.

28
Thyristor Summary

Silicon Controlled Rectifiers known commonly as Thyristors are three-junction PNPN

semiconductor devices which can be regarded as two inter-connected transistors that can be used
in the switching of heavy electrical loads. They can be latched-“ON” by a single pulse of
positive current applied to their Gate terminal and will remain “ON” indefinitely until the Anode
to Cathode current falls below their minimum latching level.

Static Characteristics of a Thyristor

 Thyristors are semiconductor devices that can operate only in the switching mode.
 Thyristors are current operated devices, a small Gate current controls a larger Anode
current.
 Thyristors conduct current only when forward biased and triggering current applied to the
Gate.
 The thyristor acts like a rectifying diode once it is triggered “ON”.
 Anode current must be greater than holding current to maintain conduction.
 Blocks current flow when reverse biased, no matter if Gate current is applied.
 Once triggered “ON”, will be latched “ON” conducting even when a gate current is no
longer applied provided Anode current is above latching current.

Thyristors are high speed switches that can be used to replace electromechanical relays in many
circuits as they have no moving parts, no contact arcing or suffer from corrosion or dirt. But in
addition to simply switching large currents “ON” and “OFF”, thyristors can be made to control
the mean value of an AC load current without dissipating large amounts of power. A good
example of thyristor power control is in the control of electric lighting, heaters and motor speed.

29
TRIAC

TRIAC, from triode for alternating current, is a genericized trade name for an electronic
component that can conduct current in either direction when it is triggered (turned on), and is
formally called a bidirectional triode thyristor or bilateral triode thyristor.

TRIACs are a subset of thyristors and are closely related to silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCR).
However, unlike SCRs, which are unidirectional devices (that is, they can conduct current only
in one direction), TRIACs are bidirectional and so allow current in either direction. Another
difference from SCRs is that TRIAC current can be enabled by either a positive or negative

30
current applied to its gate electrode, whereas SCRs can be triggered only by positive current into
the gate. To create a triggering current, a positive or negative voltage has to be applied to the
gate with respect to the MT1 terminal (otherwise known as A1).

Once triggered, the device continues to conduct until the current drops below a certain threshold
called the holding current.

The bidirectionality makes TRIACs very convenient switches for alternating current circuits,
also allowing them to control very large power flows with milliampere-scale gate currents. In
addition, applying a trigger pulse at a controlled phase angle in an A.C. cycle allows control of
the percentage of current that flows through the TRIAC to the load (phase control), which is
commonly used, for example, in controlling the speed of low-power induction motors, in
dimming lamps, and in controlling A.C. heating resistors.

Typical issues

There are some drawbacks one should know when using a TRIAC in a circuit. In this section, a
few are summarized.

Gate threshold current, latching current and holding current

A TRIAC starts conducting when a current flowing into or out of its gate is sufficient to turn on
the relevant junctions in the quadrant of operation. The minimum current able to do this is called
gate threshold current and is generally indicated by IGT. In a typical TRIAC, the gate threshold
current is generally a few milliamperes, but one has to take into account also that:

 IGT depends on the temperature: The higher the temperature, the higher the reverse
currents in the blocked junctions. This implies the presence of more free carriers in the
gate region, which lowers the gate current needed.
 IGT depends on the quadrant of operation, because a different quadrant implies a different
way of triggering. As a rule, the first quadrant is the most sensitive (i.e. requires the least
current to turn on), whereas the fourth quadrant is the least sensitive.

31
  When turning on from an off-state, IGT depends on the voltage applied on the two main
terminals MT1 and MT2. Higher voltage between MT1 and MT2 cause greater reverse
currents in the blocked junctions requiring less gate current similar to high temperature
operation. Generally, in datasheets, IGT is given for a specified voltage between MT1 and
MT2.

When the gate current is discontinued, if the current between the two main terminals is more
than what is called the latching current, the device keeps conducting, otherwise the device
might turn off. Latching current is the minimum that can make up for the missing gate current in
order to keep the device internal structure latched. The value of this parameter varies with:

 gate current pulse (amplitude, shape and width)

 temperature
 control circuit (resistors or capacitors between the gate and MT1 increase the latching
current because they steal some current from the gate before it can help the complete
turn-on of the device)
 quadrant of operation

In particular, if the pulse width of the gate current is sufficiently large (generally some tens of
microseconds), the TRIAC has completed the triggering process when the gate signal is
discontinued and the latching current reaches a minimum level called holding current. Holding
current is the minimum required current flowing between the two main terminals that keeps the
device ON after it has achieved commutation in every part of its internal structure.

In datasheets, the latching current is indicated as IL, while the holding current is indicated as IH.
They are typically in the order of some milliampères.

For higher-powered, more-demanding loads, two SCRs in inverse parallel may be used instead
of one TRIAC. Because each SCR will have an entire half-cycle of reverse polarity voltage
applied to it, turn-off of the SCRs is assured, no matter what the character of the load. However,
due to the separate gates, proper triggering of the SCRs is more complex than triggering a
TRIAC.

32
Applications

Low power TRIACs are used in many applications such as light dimmers, speed controls for
electric fans and other electric motors, and in the modern computerized control circuits of many
household small and major appliances.

DIAC

The DIAC is a diode that conducts electrical current only after its breakover voltage, VBO, has
been reached momentarily. The term is an acronym of diode for alternating current.

When breakdown occurs, the diode enters a region of negative dynamic resistance, leading to a
decrease in the voltage drop across the diode and, usually, a sharp increase in current through the
diode. The diode remains in conduction until the current through it drops below a value
characteristic for the device, called the holding current, IH. Below this value, the diode switches
back to its high-resistance, non-conducting state. This behavior is bidirectional, meaning
typically the same for both directions of current.

33
 I-V characteristics of a DIAC

Typical DIAC voltage and current relationships.

VBO is the breakover voltage.

Most DIACs have a three-layer structure with breakover voltage of approximately 30 V. Their
behavior is similar to that of a neon lamp, but it can be more precisely controlled and takes place
at a lower voltage.

DIACs have no gate electrode, unlike some other thyristors that they are commonly used to
trigger, such as TRIACs. Some TRIACs, like Quadrac, contain a built-in DIAC in series with the
TRIAC's gate terminal for this purpose.

34
DIACs are also called symmetrical trigger diodes due to the symmetry of their characteristic
curve. Because DIACs are bidirectional devices, their terminals are not labeled as anode and
cathode but as A1 and A2 or main terminal MT1 and MT2.

HIGH GAIN DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER

High gain differential amplifier compares the difference between two input voltages and uses it
to amplify the signal. It does not amplify the particular voltages.

Circuit notation

where:

 V+: non-inverting input

 V−: inverting input
 Vout: output
 VS+: positive power supply
 VS−: negative power supply

Types of differential amplifier

The op-amp is one type of differential amplifier. Other types of differential amplifier include the
fully differential amplifier (similar to the op-amp, but with two outputs), the instrumentation
amplifier (usually built from three op-amps), the isolation amplifier (similar to the
instrumentation amplifier, but with tolerance to common-mode voltages that would destroy an

35
ordinary op-amp), and negative feedback amplifier (usually built from one or more op-amps and
a resistive feedback network).

Operational amplifier (op-amp)

A Signetics μa741 operational amplifier, one of the most successful op-amps.

DIP pinout for 741-type operational amplifier

An operational amplifier (op-amp) is a DC-coupled high-gain electronic voltage amplifier with

a differential input and, usually, a single-ended output. In this configuration, an op-amp produces
an output potential (relative to circuit ground) that is typically hundreds of thousands of times
larger than the potential difference between its input terminals.

Operational amplifiers had their origins in analog computers, where they were used to do
mathematical operations in many linear, non-linear and frequency-dependent circuits.
Characteristics of a circuit using an op-amp are set by external components with little
dependence on temperature changes or manufacturing variations in the op-amp itself, which
makes op-amps popular building blocks for circuit design.

Op-amps are among the most widely used electronic devices today, being used in a vast array of
consumer, industrial, and scientific devices. Op-amps may be packaged as components, or used
as elements of more complex integrated circuits.

Operation

36
 An op-amp without negative feedback (a comparator)

The amplifier's differential inputs consist of a non-inverting input (+) with voltage V+ and an
inverting input (–) with voltage V−; ideally the op-amp amplifies only the difference in voltage
between the two, which is called the differential input voltage. The output voltage of the op-amp
Vout is given by the equation:

where AOL is the open-loop gain of the amplifier (the term "open-loop" refers to the absence of a
feedback loop from the output to the input).

Internal circuitry of 741-type op-amp

37
A component-level diagram of the common 741 op-amp.

Op-amp characteristics
Ideal op-amps

38
An equivalent circuit of an operational amplifier that models some resistive non-ideal
parameters.

An ideal op-amp is usually considered to have the following properties:

 Infinite open-loop gain. So as gain tends to infinity, (V+ - V-) tends to zero.

In an ideal op-amp, always ensure that (V+) is approximately equal to (V-)

 Infinite input impedance (Rin), and so zero/negligible input current

 Infinite voltage range available at the output
 Infinite bandwidth with zero phase shift
 Zero output impedance Rout which shows that any load can be connected to its output
 Zero noise
 Infinite Common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR)

These idealizations can be summarized by the two "golden rules":

I. The output attempts to do whatever is necessary to make the voltage difference between the
inputs zero.
II. The inputs draw no current. (This is true in the approximation that the Z in of the op-amp is
much larger than any other current path available to the inputs.)

When we assume ideal op-amp behavior, it means that we consider the golden rules to be exact.
We now use these rules to analyze the most common op-amp configurations.

Negative Feedback
As we mentioned above, the first of our Golden Rules for op-amps required the use of negative
feedback. We illustrated this with the two basic negative feedback configurations: the inverting
and the non-inverting configurations. In this section we will discuss negative feedback in a very
general way, followed by some examples illustrating how negative feedback can be used to
improve performance.

Gain

Consider the rather abstract schematic of a negative feedback amplifier system. The symbol ⊗ is
meant to indicate that negative feedback is being added to the input. The op-amp device itself

39
has intrinsic gain A. This is called the op-amp’s open-loop gain since this is the gain the op-amp
would have in the absence of the feedback loop. The quantity β is the fraction of the output
which is fed back to the input. For example, for the non-inverting amplifier this is simply given
by the feedback voltage divider: β = R1/ (R1 + R2). The gain of the device is, as usual,

G = Vout/Vin. G is often called the closed-loop gain. To complete the terminology, the product
Aβ is called the loop gain or the feedback factor.

General negative feedback configuration.

As a result of the negative feedback, the voltage at the point labelled “a” in the figure is

Va = Vin −βVout

The amplifier then applies its open-loop gain to this voltage to produce Vout:

Vout = AVa = AVin –AβVout

Now we can solve for the closed-loop gain:

vout/vin ≡ G = A/(1+Aβ)

Note that there is nothing in our derivation which precludes having β (or A) be a function of
frequency.

Non-inverting amplifier

40
An op-amp connected in the non-inverting amplifier configuration

In a non-inverting amplifier, the output voltage changes in the same direction as the input
voltage.

The gain equation for the op-amp is:

However, in this circuit V− is a function of Vout because of the negative feedback through the R1
R2 network. R1 and R2 form a voltage divider, and as V− is a high-impedance input, it does not
load it appreciably. Consequently:

where

Substituting this into the gain equation, we obtain:

Solving for :

If is very large, this simplifies to

41
 .

The non-inverting input of the operational amplifier needs a path for DC to ground; if the signal
source does not supply a DC path, or if that source requires a given load impedance, then the
circuit will require another resistor from the non-inverting input to ground. When the operational
amplifier's input bias currents are significant, then the DC source resistances driving the inputs
should be balanced. The ideal value for the feedback resistors (to give minimum offset voltage)
will be such that the two resistances in parallel roughly equal the resistance to ground at the non-
inverting input pin. That ideal value assumes the bias currents are well-matched, which may not
be true for all op-amps.

Inverting Amplifier
The basic circuit of the inverting amplifier is shown below

Inverting amplifier

The transfer function is derived as follows: Considering the arbitrary current directions we have:

i1 = (vi - vs)/Ri and i2 = (vs - vo)/Rf

The non-inverting input is connected directly to the circuit common (i.e. v+ = 0 V), therefore
(considering simplifying assumption #1) vs = v- = 0 V, therefore:

i1 = vi/Ri and i2 = - vo/Rf

Since there is no current flow to any input (simplifying assumption #2), it is

i1 = i2

Therefore, the transfer function of the inverting amplifier is

vo = -(Rf/Ri)vi

42
Thus, the closed loop gain of the inverting amplifier is equal to the ratio of R f (feedback
resistor) over Ri (input resistor). This transfer function describes accurately the output signal as
long as the closed loop gain is much smaller than the open loop gain A of the OA used (e.g. it
must not exceed 1000), and the expected values of v o are within the operational range of the
OA.

Summing Amplifier
The summing amplifier is a logical extension of the previously described circuit, with two or
more inputs. Its circuit is shown below

Summing amplifier

The transfer function of the summing amplifier (similarly derived) is:

vo = -(v1/R1 + v2/R2 + … + vn/Rn)Rf

Thus if all input resistors are equal, the output is a scaled sum of all inputs, whereas, if they are
different, the output is a weighted linear sum of all inputs.

The summing amplifier is used for combining several signals. The most common use of a
summing amplifier with two inputs is the amplification of a signal combined with a subtraction
of a constant amount from it (dc offset).

Difference/instrument amplifier
Difference amplifier precisely amplifies the difference of two input signals. Its typical circuit is
shown as;

43
 Difference amplifier

If Ri = Ri΄ and Rf = Rf΄, then the transfer function of the difference amplifier is:

vo = (v 2 - v1) Rf/Ri

The difference amplifier is useful for handling signals referring not to the circuit common, but to
other signals, known as floating signal sources. Its capability to reject a common signal makes
it particularly valuable for amplifying small voltage differences contaminated with the same
amount of noise (common signal).

In order for the difference amplifier to be able to reject a large common signal and to generate
at the same time an output precisely proportional to the two signals difference, the two ratios p
= Rf/Ri and q = R f΄/Ri΄ must be precisely equal, otherwise the signal output will be:

vo = [q(p+1)/(q+1)]v 2 - pv1

Differentiator
The differentiator generates an output signal proportional to the first derivative of the input with
respect to time. Its typical circuit is shown below

Differentiator

The transfer function of this circuit is

vo = -RC(dv i/dt)

44
Obviously, a constant input (regardless of its magnitude) generates a zero output signal. A
typical usage of the differentiator in the field of chemical instrumentation is obtaining the first
derivative of a potentiometric titration curve for the easier location of the titration final points
(points of maximum slope).

Integrator
The integrator generates an output signal proportional to the time integral of the input signal.
Its typical circuit is shown below

Integrator

vo = -(1/RC)∫v i(t)dt

The output remains zero as far as switch S remains closed. The integration starts (t = 0) when S
opens. The output is proportional to the charge accumulated in capacitor C, which serves as the
integrating device. A typical application of the (analog) integrator in chemical instrumentation
is the integration of chromatographic peaks, since its output will be proportional to the peak
area.

If the input signal is stable then the output from the integrator will be given by the equation

vo = -(vi/RC)dt

i.e. the output signal will be a voltage ramp. Voltage ramps are commonly used for generating
the linear potential sweep required in polarography and many other voltammetry techniques.

45
Electrical noise and mitigation - Part 1: Noise
definition, categories and measurement
8.1 Introduction
In this chapter, we will learn about noise in electrical circuits, the reasons for their generation,
types of noise and mitigation. We will cover shielding as a means
of noise control and the role played by grounding and how
properly designed grounding can reduce noise. We will learn
about zero signal reference grids for noise-prone installations. We
will briefly deal with the subject of harmonics and how they
affect power and electronic equipment and about ways of
controlling them.

8.2 Definition of electrical noise and measures for noise

reduction
Noise, or interference, can be defined as undesirable electrical
signals, which distort or interfere with an original (or desired)
signal. Noise could be transient (temporary) or constant.
Unpredictable transient noise is caused, for example, by
lightning. Constant noise can be due to the predictable 50 or 60
Hz AC 'hum' from power circuits or harmonic multiples of power
frequency close to the data communications cable. This
unpredictability makes the design of a data communications
system quite challenging.

Noise can be generated from within the system itself (internal noise) or from an outside source
(external noise). Examples of these types of noise are:

Internal noise

 Thermal noise (due to electron movement within the electrical circuits)

 Imperfections (in the electrical design).

External noise

 Natural origins (electrostatic interference and electrical storms)

 Electromagnetic interference (EMI) - from currents in cables
 Radio frequency interference (RFI) - from radio systems radiating signals
 Cross talk (from other cables separated by a small distance).

From a general point of view, there must be three contributing factors before an electrical noise
problem can exist. These are:

1. A source of electrical noise

46
 2. A mechanism coupling the source to the affected circuit
3. A circuit conveying the sensitive communication signals.

Typical sources of noise are devices, which produce quick changes (spikes) in voltage or current
or harmonics, such as:

 Large electrical motors being switched on

 Fluorescent lighting tubes
 Solid-state converters or drive systems
 Lightning strikes
 High-voltage surges due to electrical faults
 Welding equipment.

Figure 8.1 shows a typical noise waveform and how it looks when superimposed on the power
source voltage waveform.

Figure 8.1 Noise signal (top) and noise over AC power (bottom)

Electrical systems are prone to such noise due to various reasons. As discussed in the previous
chapter, lightning and switching surges are two of these. These surges produce high but very
short duration of distortions of the voltage wave. Another common example is 'notching', which
appears in circuits using silicon-controlled rectifiers (power thyristors). The switching of these
devices causes sharp inverted spikes during commutation (transfer of conduction from one phase
arm to the next). Figure 8.2 shows the typical waveform with this type of disturbance.

47
Figure 8.2 Waveform distorted by notching

Harmonics in supply system is yet another form of disturbance. This subject will be reviewed in
detail later in the chapter. A typical waveform with harmonic components is shown in Figure 8.3.

Figure 8.3 Waveform distorted by harmonics

Switching of large loads in power circuits to which automatic data processing (ADP) loads are
connected can also cause disturbances. Similarly, faults in power systems can cause voltage
disturbances. All these distortions and disturbances can find their way to sensitive electronic
equipment through the power supply mains connection and cause problems.

Apart from these directly communicated disturbances, sparks and arcing generated in power-
switching devices and high-frequency harmonic current components can produce
electromagnetic interference (EMI) in signal circuits, which will require to be properly shielded
or screened to avoid interference. Figure 8.4 shows diagrammatically the reasons for noise from
the equipment within a facility.

48
Figure 8.4 Noise emanating from electrical systems within a facility

The following general principles are applicable for reducing the effects of electrical noise:

 Physical segregation of noise sources from noise-sensitive equipment

 Electrical segregation
 Harmonic current control
 Avoiding ground loops which are a major cause of noise propagation (including measures
such as zero signal reference grid, explained later in this chapter)
 Shielding/screening of noise sources and noise-susceptible equipment including use of
shielded/twisted pair conductors.

49