Designation: E 2373 04

Standard Practice for

Use of the Ultrasonic Time of Flight Diffraction (TOFD)
Technique1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation E 2373; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of
original adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A
superscript epsilon (e) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.

1. Scope for Detection , Location and Sizing of Flaws, British

1.1 This practice establishes the requirements for develop- Standards Institute, 19933
ing ultrasonic examination procedures using the ultrasonic Code Case 2235 ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code4
technique known as Time-of-Flight Diffraction (TOFD).
3. Terminology
1.2 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as
standard. Inch-pound units are provided for information. 3.1 DefinitionsRelated terminology is defined in Termi-
1.3 Consistent with ASTM Policy, TOFD may be regarded nology E 1316.
as an ultrasonic test method whereby the qualities and charac- 3.2 Definitions of Terms Specific to This Standard:
teristics of the item tested are evaluated, measured and in some 3.2.1 B-scan displaya sectional view of the plotted in-
cases identified. Measurements may be subject to precision and spection data formed by the stacking of A-scans. (Some users
bias that may be determined statistically or as a function of refer to stacked A-scans from non-parallel scans as D-scans
some parameter(s) such as wavelength. This practice may be and reserve those used with parallel scans as B-scans.)
used for applications that would be qualitative and properly 3.2.2 back-wall echoa specular reflection from the back-
addressed as examinations as well as quantitative and more wall of the component being examined (usually assumed to be
properly addressed as tests. a plate).
1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the 3.2.3 lateral wavea compression wave that travels by the
safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the most direct route from the transmitting probe to the receiving
responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro- probe in a TOFD configuration.
priate safety and health practices and determine the applica- 3.2.4 parallel scana scan whereby the probe pair motion
bility of regulatory limitations prior to use. is parallel to the ultrasonic beam axis. Also called a B-scan by
some users.
2. Referenced Documents 3.2.5 PCSabbreviation for probe center spacing. Refers to
2.1 ASTM Standards: 2 the distance between the marked exit points of a pair of TOFD
E 164 Practice for Ultrasonic Contact Examination of Weld- probes for a specific application.
ments 3.2.6 non-parallel or longitudinal scana scan whereby
E 1065 Guide for Evaluating Characteristics of Ultrasonic the probe pair motion is perpendicular to the ultrasonic beam
Search Units axis.
E 1316 Terminology for Nondestructive Examinations 3.2.7 RF waveformsthe non-rectified A-scan.
E 1324 Guide for Measuring Some Electronic Characteris-
4. Significance and Use
tics of Ultrasonic Examination Instruments
2.2 Other Documents: 4.1 This practice provides general principles for the appli-
BS 7706 (1993) Guide to Calibration and Setting-up of the cation of the Time-of-Flight Diffraction Technique as a tool for
Ultrasonic Time-of-Flight Diffraction (TOFD) Technique detection and sizing of discontinuities.
4.2 TOFD is a nondestructive ultrasonic examination tech-
nique that is not based on amplitude response. However,
1
sufficient sensitivity is required to identify indications for
This practice is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E07 on Nonde-
structive Testing and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee E07.06 on
evaluation.
Ultrasonic Method.
Current edition approved July 1, 2004. Published July 2004.
2 3
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contact ASTM Customer Service at [email protected]. For Annual Book of ASTM Reston VA 20190.
4
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 E 2373 04
4.3 Techniques used are typically applied to welded joints in
carbon steel but the principles may be applicable to other
applications including other materials with suitable validation
procedures agreeable to the contracting parties.
4.4 In addition to a stand-alone ultrasonic detection tech-
nique TOFD may be used in conjunction with weld examina-
tions such as those described in Practices E 164 and E 1961
where it may be used to improve sizing estimates of flaws
detected by the manual or mechanized pulse-echo techniques
and help discriminate between flaws and geometric reflectors.
4.5 The technique has proven effective on thicknesses from
9 to 300 mm [0.375 to 12 in.]. TOFD has been used on
thicknesses outside of this range but special considerations are
necessary. Techniques developed outside of this range of
thickness shall be demonstrated as capable of meeting the
required detection and sizing requirements of the specification
used.
FIG. 1
5. Procedures
5.1 Introduction:
5.1.1 TOFD is an ultrasonic examination technique that can refracted transverse shear mode in the examination piece.
provide improved detection and sizing capabilities of discon- When using a refracted compression mode in the examination
tinuities compared to standard ultrasonic pulse-echo tech- piece the direct shear and head waves also are generated;
niques. It uses forward scattered tip diffraction and reflection of however, due to their lower acoustic velocities, shear waves
transmitted ultrasonic pulses. This document describes the arrive later in time than the back-wall signal.
requirements for TOFD equipment and procedures on flat plate 5.1.6 Fig. 2 is a sketch of a typical presentation for a
surfaces. Guidance for more complex geometries is provided in non-parallel scan of a butt weld in a plate with an imbedded
the Appendix. General guidance on TOFD can also be found in flaw. The right side of Fig. 2 illustrates a waveform extracted
British Standards BS 7706. Acceptance criteria typical and from a B-scan display showing the lateral wave, upper tip
performance demonstration requirements that may be used diffracted, lower tip diffracted and the back-wall echo signals.
with TOFD techniques are found in ASME Code Case 22355. The left side of Fig. 2 indicates the probe placement with
5.1.2 Because phase inversions of signals play an important respect to the weld (upper left) and relative motion of the
role in the evaluation of TOFD results, all procedures devel- probes (a non-parallel scan is indicated).
oped using this practice shall require that the equipment 5.1.7 Fig. 3 illustrates an actual TOFD scan with five
presentation use and store RF waveforms. indications (identified on the left) and an extracted A-scan from
5.1.3 Whether motorized or manually-operated, probe mo- one of the indications.
tion must be encoded for position and probes held in a fixture 5.2 Written ProcedureA documented examination strat-
that maintains correct PCS during scanning. Time based egy or scan plan shall be provided showing probe placement,
sampling of data collection is not acceptable. movement, and component coverage that provides a standard-
5.1.4 Fig. 1 illustrates the typical probe configuration for a ized and repeatable methodology for component acceptance.
TOFD examination. The figure uses a weld for convenience of The scan plan shall also include ultrasonic beam angle(s) used,
references; however, TOFD need not be restricted to just weld beam directions with respect to some reference such as a weld
examinations. centerline, and volume examined.
5.1.5 The lateral wave and back-wall echo signals provide 5.3 Examination Materials and Surface Preparation:
convenient references. For most applications mode converted 5.3.1 TOFD technique can be applied to both metals and
signals from flaws are not used and therefore flaw indications nonmetals. Best results are had on fine-grained isotropic
are usually recognized as occurring between the lateral wave materials with low attenuation including some finer grained
and back-wall echo signals. Although it is more often the case austenitic alloys and aluminum. With suitable validation pro-
to use refracted compression mode in the examination piece, cedures, agreeable to the contracting parties, coarser-grained
some applications may produce better results when the incident and anisotropic materials may also be examined using TOFD.
angle is greater than the first critical angle, thereby providing a These usually require additional modifications to frequencies
and digital signal processing.
5.3.2 The scanning area shall be clear of weld spatter and
5
Reference to ASME CC2235 is made only as an example of an existing code other conditions which may interfere with the movement of the
where the mutually agreed upon acceptance criteria allows TOFD to be applied. This probes, the coupling liquid, or the transmission of acoustic
does not suggest that application of ASME CC2235 would be appropriate in all energy into the material. Any surface condition such as
cases. It should be recognized that the high sensitivity of the TOFD technique could
result in indications from reflectors in plate materials that meet all plate ultrasonic
geometry, coating, and so forth, impeding the ultrasonic
specification requirements. Such indications should not be considered unacceptable examination shall be noted for corrective action prior to
unless they fail to meet the acceptance criteria agreed upon in 7.1. scanning.

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 E 2373 04

FIG. 2

FIG. 3

5.3.3 The TOFD technique may be used with immersion, 5.4 Qualification and Certification of PersonnelIf speci-
contact or gap techniques. Single element or phased array fied in the contractual agreement, personnel performing exami-
piezoelectric probes may be used. EMAT or other non-standard nations to this practice shall be qualified in accordance with a
probes may also be used with suitable validation procedures nationally-recognized NDT personnel qualification standard
agreeable to the contracting parties. and certified by the employer or certifying agency as appli-
5.3.4 The acoustic coupling shall be obtained by using a cable. The practice or standard used and its applicable version
medium suitable for the purpose and compatible with the shall be identified in the contractual agreement between the
material being examined. Water, coupling gels or pastes, using parties and should include a requirement for training
greases and oils are typically used. Water additives such as specific to TOFD.
environmentally-safe wetting agent and corrosion inhibitors 5.5 Equipment RequirementsAn ultrasonic system for
may be used to enhance acoustic coupling and protect the TOFD shall provide a means of transmitting, receiving, stor-
examination piece. For examination where ambient tempera- ing, displaying and analyzing ultrasonic signals. As well, it
tures are below 0C [32F] methyl alcohol or similar media shall provide a fixed spacing between the transmitting and
may be used. For examination at elevated temperatures the receiving probes and ensure that probe motion is encoded and
examination surface or probes may require cool-down or its position maintained within prescribed tolerances with re-
specially designed high-temperature couplants. The coupling spect to a reference position such as the weld centerline.
medium selected shall provide uniform and reliable examina- 5.5.1 Electronics:
tion in the temperature range of intended use. Couplant and 5.5.1.1 The instrument shall provide a linear A scan
scanning conditions, including temperature, used for standard- presentation for both setting up scan parameters and for signal
ization shall be the same as that used in the examination. analysis. Instrument linearity may be determined in accordance
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 E 2373 04
with the procedures detailed in Guide E 1324, within six 5.5.2.3 Computer software for TOFD displays shall include
months of the intended end use date. For digital-based instru- algorithms to linearize cursors or the waveform time-base to
ments alternative calibration methods may be used to verify permit depth and vertical extent estimations.
amplitude and time-base output linearity. A copy of the 5.5.2.4 In addition to storage of waveform data including
calibration certificate shall be kept on file by the user of the amplitude and time-base details, the TOFD equipment shall
equipment. Instrument linearity shall be such that the accuracy also store positional information indicating the relative position
of indicated amplitude or time is within 65 % of the actual of the waveform with respect to the adjacent waveform(s); that
full-scale amplitude or time. is, encoded position.
5.5.1.2 The ultrasonic pulser may provide excitation voltage 5.5.3 ProbesUltrasonic probes used for TOFD techniques
by tone burst, uni-polar or bi-polar square wave. Pulse width shall conform to the following minimum requirements:
5.5.3.1 Two probes shall be used in a pitch-catch arrange-
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shall be tunable to allow optimization of pulse amplitude and

duration. ment (TOFD pair).
5.5.1.3 The bandwidth of the ultrasonic receiver shall be at 5.5.3.2 Each probe in the TOFD pair shall have the same
least equal to that of the nominal probe frequency and such that nominal frequency.
the 6 dB bandwidth of the probe does not fall outside of the 5.5.3.3 The TOFD pair shall have the same element dimen-
6 dB bandwidth of the receiver. sions.
5.5.3.4 The pulse duration of the probe shall not exceed two
5.5.1.4 Receiver gain control shall be available to adjust
cycles as measured to the 20 dB level below the peak response
signal amplitude in increments of 1 dB or less. Since diffracted
(Guide E 1065 may be used to evaluate characteristics of
signal amplitudes may be significantly lower than for pulse-
probes).
echo techniques it may be necessary to incorporate a pre-
5.5.3.5 Guide E 1065, Annex A1 may be used to determine
amplifier in the system.
the probe bandwidth. This should be used to assess the receiver
5.5.1.5 Analogue to digital conversion of waveforms shall bandwidth requirements as stated in 5.5.1.
have sampling rates at least four times that of the nominal 5.5.3.6 Probes may be focused or unfocused. Unfocused
frequency of the probe. When digital signal processing is to be probes are recommended for detection and focused probes are
carried out on the raw data this shall be increased to eight times recommended for improved resolution for sizing.
the nominal frequency of the probe.
5.5.3.7 Probes may be single element or phased array.
5.5.2 Data Display and Recording: EMAT probes may be used with suitable validation procedures
5.5.2.1 The data display used for TOFD shall allow the agreeable to the contracting parties.
operator to view the un-rectified A-scan and position the start 5.5.4 Mechanics:
and length of a gate that determines the extent of the A-scan 5.5.4.1 Mechanical holders shall be used to ensure that
time-base that is collected. probe spacing is maintained at a fixed distance (typically
5.5.2.2 Data collection equipment shall permit storage of all termed the probe center spacing or PCS in other literature).
gated A-scans to a magnetic or optical storage medium. The mechanical holders shall also ensure that alignment to the
Equipment used for TOFD shall require computer software that intended scan axis on the examination piece is maintained to a
provides a B-scan display of the collected waveforms (as tolerance agreed upon between contracting parties.
illustrated in Fig. 2). The B-scan display shall have a minimum 5.5.4.2 Probe motion may be achieved using motorized or
of 64 gray-scale or color levels. (Storage of just B-scan images manual means but in all cases, the mechanical holder for the
without the underlying A-scan waveforms is not an acceptable probes shall be equipped with a positional encoder that is
form of data recording.) synchronized with the sampling of A-scans.

FIG. 4 Schematic of Minimum TOFD Apparatus

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 E 2373 04
5.6 Apparatus Set-upFig. 4 provides a schematic of the of material having similar acoustic properties to the examina-
minimum equipment requirements for a TOFD examination. tion piece and the reference block shall be within 610 % of the
5.7 Probe Selection: nominal thickness of the piece to be examined for thicknesses
5.7.1 Probe selection shall be based on the application up to 100 mm. For thicknesses over 100 mm [4 in.] the
requirements. The following tables provide initial recom- reference blocks shall be within 610 mm [0.4 in]. Where the
mended probe parameters for specified thickness ranges in examination piece is curved the reference block diameter shall
ferritic steels. For austenitic or other attenuative materials, be within 0.9 to 1.5 of the diameter of the part to be examined
nominal frequencies normally need to be reduced and element for curvatures under 0.3 m [12 in.]. For curvatures greater than
sizes increased. 0.3 m [12 in.] diameter the reference block may be flat. Further
considerations to matching the reference block curvature to the
TABLE 1 For Steel Thickness Ranges up to 75 mm [3 in.] examination pieces curvature shall be made when the refract-
Nominal Wall Nominal
ing wedge is machined to match the examination pieces
Element Size Recommended
Thickness Frequency
mm [in.] Angles
curvature.
mm [in.] (MHz) 5.8.3 A minimum of two side-drilled holes shall be used to
<12 [0.375] 10 to 15 2 to 6 [0.08 to 0.25] 60 to 70 establish sensitivity settings and coverage. Table 3 suggests
12 to <35 [0.375 to 1.4] 5 to 10 2 to 6 [0.25 to 0.5] 50 to 70
35 to <75 [1.4 to 3] 2 to 5 6 to 12 [0.25 to 0.5] 45 to 65
hole diameters for various thicknesses. When only two side-
drilled holes are used, placement of the side-drilled holes shall
be at 25 % and 75 % of the nominal wall thickness for wall
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5.7.2 For thickness ranges in steel 75 to 300 mm, the beam thicknesses less than 35 mm [1.4 in.]. Where wall thicknesses
divergence from a single element is not likely to provide 75 mm [3 in.] and over are to be examined (as in Table 2),
sufficient intensity for good detection over the entire thickness. side-drilled holes shall be placed at the 25 % and 75 % depths
For thickness 75 mm [3 in.] and greater (in steel) the for each zone. Note that for thin sections the lateral wave may
examination piece shall be divided into multiple zones. For not permit the resolution of the target at 25 % wall thickness so
thickness 75 mm [3 in.] and greater (in steel) and when the sensitivity may be set using the response from the target at
required in smaller thickness, sensitivity targets shall be placed 75 % wall thickness.
in a reference block at least at 25 % and 75 % through 5.8.4 When using more than one TOFD pair for thicker
thickness in each zone to verify that there is adequate beam sections, multiple channel equipment may be used. If only
coverage for the multiple zone technique used. single channel capability is available, multiple scans may be
used with a separate scan for each TOFD pair.
5.8.5 When setting sensitivity by using side drilled holes in
TABLE 2 For Steel Thickness Ranges 75 mm [3 in.] to
300 mm [12 in.] the reference block the amplitude response from the weaker of
Wall Thickness Nominal
the two reference side-drilled holes shall be set to 80 % full
Element Size Nominal screen height. This shall be considered reference sensitivity.
Zone Frequency
mm [in.] Angle
mm [in.] (MHz) Scanning level sensitivity in dB above or below this level shall
<35 [0 to 1.4] 5 to 10 2 to 6 [0.08 to 0.25] 50 to 70 be established between the contracting parties. When multiple
35 to <100 [1.4 to 4] 2 to 7.5 6 to 12 [0.25 to 0.5] 45 to 65 zones are used for thicker sections, evidence of the volume
100 to <300 [4 to 12] 2 to 7.5 6 to 12 [0.25 to 0.5] 45 to 65
coverage should be established by detection of the nearest
side-drilled hole from the adjacent zone.
5.8.6 Sensitivity to weak signals or signals poorly defined in
5.7.3 On thick sections requiring more than one TOFD pair
coarse-grained materials may be enhanced using signal aver-
the lateral wave or back-wall signal may not always be visible.
aging or digital signal processing.
Therefore, provision in the linearizing algorithms must be
made to permit inputs of other parameters instead of the lateral 5.8.7 Sensitivity to near-surface indications may be en-
and back-wall signal positions. For wall thickness less than 75 hanced by using; higher-frequency probes, smaller PCS, lateral
mm [3 in.], technique qualifications may require they too be wave straightening and subtraction algorithms.
divided into smaller ranges with each range addressed by a 5.8.8 Signal enhancement using digital signal processing for
dedicated TOFD pair. straightening and signal subtraction may be used only after the
5.8 Sensitivity: raw data has been collected and stored. Signal averaging may
5.8.1 TOFD is a non-amplitude based detection and sizing be used during the collection of raw data. Digital signal
technique; however, sufficient sensitivity must be used to processing used to enhance detection and sizing capabilities
ensure flaw indications can be seen on the B-scan display. In may also be stored but shall not replace the raw data.
most cases where a single TOFD pair is used an adequate
sensitivity can be achieved by setting the lateral wave ampli-
tude to 40 to 90 % of the full screen height. TABLE 3 Suggested Diameters of Side-drilled Holes
5.8.2 Unless alternative sensitivity targets or techniques are Material Thickness Hole Diameter
mm [in.] mm [in.]
agreed upon by the contracting parties, sensitivity shall be
assessed using the response from side-drilled holes. Examples <10 [0.375] 1.5 [0.060]
10 to 35 [0.375 to 1.4] 3 [0.125]
of reference block design considerations are shown in Appen- >35 [1.4] 6 [0.250]
dix 1. Side-drilled holes should be placed in reference blocks

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5.9 Scan Width CoverageWhen performing weld exami- data-points. Missing lines in the B-scan display shall not
nations using non-parallel scans on narrow gap welds, the exceed 5 % of the scan lines to be collected, and no adjacent
depth error due to the diffractor not being at the centerline of lines shall be missed.
the weld will be small. However, for single-V butt welds or 5.11 Sizing and Positioning of IndicationsSizing algo-
double-V butt welds in heavy wall materials the distance that a rithms for estimating vertical extent by TOFD shall be based
flaw may occur from the weld centerline can be a significant on the sound paths and knowledge of critical parameters (PCS,
percentage of the PCS. These conditions may result in depth wall thickness, wedge delay, acoustic velocities of examination
estimation errors and a lack of information to correctly position and coupling materials). The operator shall use phase informa-
the flaw. Where concern exists for these uncertainties the tion from the A-scans extracted from the B-scan to assess flaw
techniques should incorporate options such as multiple non- vertical height and depth. Position along or across the weld or
parallel scans with the PCS offset from the weld centerline, and reference axis shall be determined using the encoded position-
a requirement for parallel scans wherever relevant flaws are ing system. When multiple probes are used simultaneously
detected or augmenting the TOFD scanning with pulse-echo (multiple channel instruments) for examination of thick sec-
techniques. tions or for improved sizing resolution, any lateral off-sets
5.10 Recording of Data: between probes shall be accommodate on the image recon-
5.10.1 Scanning using gap or contact techniques may result struction. This is intended to ensure that indications from the
in small variations in the arrival times of the lateral wave due same target can be aligned to the same reference (for example,
to slight surface irregularities or stuttering of the probe as it if a 50 mm [2 in.] separation is needed between two TOFD
is dragged along the surface. In order to allow for such pairs then one may be reference but the other must be corrected
variations in the arrival time of the lateral wave, the gate used for the 50 mm [2 in.] positional difference when reconstructing
to collect the A-Scan waveforms shall be started a minimum of the D-scan image on the screen). Assessing the flat portion of
1 s prior to lateral wave when setting signal positions in a an indications initial arrival time on the B-scan usually
static mode. The gated region shall be set long enough to see, improves flaw length determination. Hyperbolic curve fitting
as a minimum, all of the back-wall signal with allowance for algorithms or Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique (SAFT)
thickness and mismatch variations. Useful data can be had may be incorporated into the TOFD analysis software to aid in
from mode-converted signals therefore the interval from the flaw length determination. Curve fitting is limited to simple
back-wall to the mode-converted signals from the back-wall rectangular flaws but may underestimate lengths where edges
may also be included in data collection. are rounded or slope quickly (see Fig. 5).
5.10.2 A maximum sample spacing of 1 mm [0.040 in.] 5.11.1 Flaw Depth DeterminationDepth from the exami-
shall be used between A-scans collected for thicknesses under nation surface to the upper edge of a flaw is determined from
50 mm [2 in.] and a sample spacing of up to 2 mm [0.080 in.] knowledge of the indication arrival time and the set-up
may be used for thicker components. parameters. Fig. 6 shows the equation used to determine flaw
5.10.3 Scanning speed will be limited by mechanical ability depth d. Time t is the total time from the transmitter to the
to maintain acoustic coupling and by the systems electronic receiver of the flaw and t0 is the time in the wedge material.
ability to ensure full waveforms are captured without missing Acoustic velocity is indicated by c and S is half the PCS

FIG. 5 Image of Curve Fitting for Length Determination

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5.12.3 Midwall flaws, especially those in the lower half of
the wall thickness have the best chance of being assessed for
vertical extent by TOFD. However, in order for this assessment
the flaw must have a vertical extent that is significantly greater
than the equivalent time of the upper tip-diffracted pulse so that
the upper and lower tip-diffracted signals can be seen sepa-
rately ensuring that the correct phase portions are used for
sizing. In other words, the top and bottom signals should be
clearly separated.
5.12.4 Further scanning may be performed using different
probes (focused, higher frequency, higher damping, lower
angles, and so forth) as well as scanning from the opposite
surface, to try to overcome some of these limitations.

6. TOFD Analysis
6.1 Quality:
6.1.1 TOFD images shall be assessed for quality of data
collected prior to analysis of data. Image assessment shall be
FIG. 6 Depth to Flaw Determination
based on:
6.1.1.1 Amplitude of laterals wave being between 40 to
as measured along the examination surface. This example is 90 % or verification of sensitivity with respect to reference
applicable to flat-plate calculations only. sensitivity as verified in intervals of not greater than 4 h.
5.11.2 Flaw Height DeterminationTo determine flaw 6.1.1.2 Missing data lines being within allowed parameters
height or vertical extent the same equation is used for the lower defined in 5.10.
tip signal. This provides two depths. The greater depth sub- 6.1.1.3 Adequate overlap (for example, a length of weld
tracted from the lesser provides the flaw height. This is shown scanned as three separate acquisition scans or a girth weld
in Fig. 7. This example is applicable to flat-plate calculations where the stop position is made past the start position).
only. Minimum overlap shall be 25 mm [1 in.].
NOTE 1The time of arrival of the upper and lower tip signals must use 6.1.1.4 Adequate coupling flow as evidenced by no loss of
the appropriate phase relative to the lateral wave as indicated in Fig. 1. signal amplitude (lateral wave, back wall signal or grain noise
5.12 Limitations of the Technique: may be observed to ensure amplitude drop is not greater than
5.12.1 Due to the presence of the lateral wave and back-wall 6 dB).
echo signals, flaws occurring in these dead zones may not be 6.1.2 Scans with unacceptable quality shall be redone with
detected. Geometric conditions such as mismatch or plate deficiencies corrected.
curvature can exacerbate these dead-zone conditions. 6.2 Relevant Indications:
5.12.2 Even if a flaw is detected near one of the dead zones, 6.2.1 Relevant indications may be classified as either sur-
sizing ability may be limited if the upper or lower tip signal face or embedded.
cannot be separated from the lateral or back-wall signals 6.2.2 Embedded flaw indications can be further classified
respectively. In some cases small subsurface flaws near the as:
back-wall will not be possible to discriminate from surface- 6.2.2.1 Point-like (having no measurable length),

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connected flaws. 6.2.2.2 Elongated threadlike (having no measurable height),
and
6.2.2.3 Elongated with height (having a measurable height).
6.2.3 Surface flaws may be identified by the surface on
which they occur; scanning surface, far surface or through
wall. Through wall surface flaws have both surfaces affected as
evidenced by a reduction or elimination of the lateral and back
wall signals accompanied by diffracted signals from both ends.
6.3 Tolerances:
6.3.1 The degree to which the position of an indication in a
TOFD scan can accurately be defined is the precision of the
system. This will depend on the equipment used, the geometry
of the part tested and the accuracy of the timing of received
signals. When precision tolerance is required the contracting
parties should agree upon the methods used to define the
tolerance. For example, this may use a summation of uncer-
tainties, a statistical analysis of uncertainties or some form of
FIG. 7 Flaw Height Determination statistical analysis of positioning and sizing errors compared to

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destructive testing on qualification samples. For a detailed 7.3.6 Surface conditions and temperature (if outside 0 to
description of uncertainties BS 7706 may be used. 40C),
7.3.7 Ultrasonic and scanning equipment used,
7. Reporting and Acceptance Criteria 7.3.8 Reference block details,
7.1 Details of reporting results and acceptance criteria shall 7.3.9 Couplant details,
be agreed upon by the contracting parties. 7.3.10 Sensitivity level and range settings,
7.2 Where flaw aspect ratio is used as part of the acceptance 7.3.11 Scan resolution and digitizing frequency,
criteria, a policy for length and height assessment shall be 7.3.12 Scanning restrictions, and
established between the contracting parties. Where indications 7.3.13 Status of the examination (accept or reject in accor-
do not allow a clearly defined upper and lower tip diffracted dance with the acceptance criteria stipulated including loca-
signal to be discerned, a minimum vertical extent may be used tion, size, and classification of any relevant indications).
based on the ring time of the indication. Where upper and 7.4 Additionally, when required by contracting parties, files
lower tip signals cannot be observed rescans may be recom- containing raw data pertinent to the results shall be put onto a
mended using higher frequency and higher bandwidth probes, suitable storage medium and presented as part of the report.
focused probes, different angles and parallel scans to optimize Arrangements may be made for a viewer software to be made
signal responses. available.
7.3 As a minimum the report shall include the following: 7.5 A hardcopy of the scan results need not be presented
7.3.1 Part description (including thickness, geometry and unless required by agreement between the contracting parties.
material), Contracting parties shall decide if a hardcopy of all scanning
7.3.2 Date of examination, results is required or if only areas identified as containing
7.3.3 Name of operator, relevant flaw indications should be included on hardcopies.
7.3.4 Name of data storage files and a description of their
contents, 8. Keywords
7.3.5 A sketch of the scan on the part showing the reference 8.1 flaw-height sizing; flaw sizing; nondestructive testing;
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point and scan direction, time-of-flight-diffraction; TOFD; ultrasonic

APPENDIXES

(Nonmandatory Information)

X1. SAMPLE REFERENCE SENSITIVITY BLOCKS

X1.1 For Steel Thickness Ranges up to 75 mm [3 in.]: 110 to 120 at the 23 thickness is recommended as an initial starting point.
But other factors including examination piece geometry and specific
X1.1.1 TOFD examinations on thickness ranges up to 75
area(s) of interest within the volume may result in other or extra probes,
mm [3 in.] may be done using a single reference block. Fig. probe angles or probe separations being used as well as the need for
X1.1 illustrates how such a reference block may be designed. multiple zone techniques or additional off-set or parallel scans.
NOTE X1.1In addition to the side-drilled hole locations in the
X1.1.2 The reference block must have sufficient dimensions
reference block, Fig. X1.1 illustrates a typical probe placement for initial
detection scanning for a TOFD technique. Rays indicating the center of to allow the probes to be moved over the examination surface
beam axes for the transmitting and receiving probes are usually set to in the direction to be scanned on the examination piece. For the
cross at a depth of approximately 23 thickness. An included angle of about example shown in Fig. X1.1 the longitudinal scan (that is,

FIG. X1.1 Reference Block for Single TOFD Pair

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 E 2373 04
parallel to the long axes of the side-drilled holes) would require designs may be used to help determine parameters of concern.
sufficient depth into the plane of the page to permit the Examples of other designs are provided here.
scanning fixture and the encoder to advance sufficiently to X1.3.2 Fig. X1.3 shows a representation of five flat-bottom
collect at least 25 to 30 mm [1 to 1.25 in.] of sample distance. holes arranged in a line. The holes should be the same
If a parallel scan was to be performed on the reference block in diameter, typically 1.5 to 3 mm [0.6 to 0.12 in.] and drilled to
Fig. X1.1 the block dimension in the plane of the page would varying depths. Varying depths allows assessment of energy
need to be approximately 2 PCS lengths. distribution and, resolution capabilities. Surface resolution for
indications surface breaking or near-surface indications may be
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X1.2 For Steel Thickness Ranges from 75 mm [3 in.] to 300 assessed by placement of the maximum and minimum hole-
mm [12 in.]: depths. This arrangement of targets allows for assessment of
X1.2.1 As noted in 5.7, thick sections examined by TOFD sensitivity to offset from the centerline. By performing several
require that the examination piece be divided into multiple non-parallel scans each with increasing distance of the PCS
zones. Sensitivity targets are placed at 25 % and 75 % through midpoint from the line connecting the holes, the limits of
thickness in each zone to verify that there is adequate beam sensitivity to off-axis can be determined. This may be useful
coverage for the multiple zone technique used. Fig. X1.2 when determining if multiple off-set scans are required to
illustrates typically suggested hole and probe placement for a ensure coverage of wide areas such as welds with wide heat
wall thickness requiring more than one TOFD pair to ensure affected zones. The block may also be scanned from the
full coverage. Hole placement is based on a wall thickness machined surface and the lower tip signals used.
sufficient to require that the section be divided into two zones. X1.3.3 Fig. X1.4 shows a block with a similar layout to that
Each section is then provided with a side-drilled hole at 25 % in Fig. X1.3 but instead of flat-bottom holes diffractor notches
and 75 % wall thickness of the zone thickness. are used. Notch width would be typically 2 to 5 mm [0.08 to
X1.2.2 Fig. X1.2 also indicates that the probe angles and 0.2 in.] and 10 to 20 mm [0.4 to 0.8 in.] long. These are made
separations need not be identical for each zone. Although using electro-discharge machining (EDM). Sensitivity may be
convenient to do so, zones in thick sections need not be equal. set using the diffracted signals from the Vee-notch tips. This
NOTE X1.2The actual placement of targets is not too critical but this configuration of target more accurately indicates the diffracted
technique will allow some similarities with pulse-echo requirements using signals that might be associated with elongated flaws.
side-drilled holes and a method that ensures a uniform and repeatable
X1.3.4 Fig. X1.5 above indicates a block that can be used to
sensitivity setting. The artificial reflectors used should provide a method of
verification of energy distribution in the specimen, a means of reproducing establish sensitivity and resolution capabilities. Side-drilled
examination sensitivities and a method of demonstrating examination holes 3 mm [0.12 in.] diameter would be placed at quarter, half
resolution. and three-quarter thickness depths. A 2 mm [0.08 in.] side-
drilled hole is placed so that the upper portion is 3 mm [0.12
X1.3 Other Targets and Block Configurations: in.] below the scan surface. A notch typically 1 to 2 mm [0.04
X1.3.1 Requirements to assess parameters such as scan to 0.08 in.] high and 10 to 20 mm [0.4 to 0.8 in.] long can be
surface or opposite surface resolution, phase of flaw indica- used to assess opposite surface resolution. The notch should be
tions, volume coverage of beam from a weld centerline, effect as narrow as is reasonably possible; that is, less than 1 mm
of flaw size on detection, and so forth, may not be adequately [0.04 in.]. Overall block dimensions shall be adequate to
addressed using just two side drilled hole targets. Other block ensure that the probes are fully on the block when the PCS is

FIG. X1.2 Reference Block for Multiple TOFD Pair

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FIG. X1.3 Reference Block Using Flat-bottom Holes

FIG. X1.4 Reference Block Using Tip Diffractors

correctly set for the application. The step difference between

the side-drilled holes should be adequate to allow independent
signals from subsequent holes and increasing depths.

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FIG. X1.5 Reference Block Using Stepped and Different Diameter Side-Drilled Holes and Notch

X2. CURVED PLATE

X2.1 This Appendix provides examples of TOFD configu- X2.2 Scanning from a Concave SurfaceThis configura-
rations for examinations of curved plate. Equipment and tion introduces the concept of the lateral wave as a creeping
recording requirements for such configurations must meet the wave (see Fig. X2.1). This applies for the condition where the
requirements set out in this practice. However, for examination refracted beam is in compression mode.
of components other than flat plate, detection and coverage
must be qualified to the satisfaction of the contracting parties. X2.3 Scanning from a Convex SurfaceThis configurations
Principles described above for flat plate TOFD configurations introduces the lateral wave as a combined compression and
can be used for examination of other geometries. However, creeping wave due to the potential for a direct and a surface
sizing and interpretation of results may be more difficult. Phase creeping path along the examination surface (when the
inversion considerations may play a part in the way signals are refracted mode is compression). See Fig. X2.2.
assessed for sizing and depth estimates.

FIG. X2.1 TOFD Pair Placement for Examination from Concave Surfaces

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FIG. X2.2 TOFD Pair Placement for Examination from Convex Surfaces

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