E 7 Â " 01 RTCTMDE

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Designation:E7– 01
Standard Terminology Relating to

Metallography1
This standard is issued under the fixed designation E 7; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year of original
adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. A superscript
epsilon (e) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.
This standard has been approved for use by agencies of the Department of Defense.
1. Scope practices, and guides developed to ensure proper and uniform

1.1 This standard covers the definition of terms, acronyms, testing in the field of metallography. In order for one to
and symbols used in ASTM documents related to the field of properly use and interpret these standards, the terminology
metallography and metallographic testing. Terms that are only used in these standards must be understood.
relevant to a particular standard or that are adequately defined 3.2 The terms used in the field of metallography have
in a general dictionary are not defined in this terminology precise definitions. The terminology and its proper usage must
standard. be completely understood in order to adequately communicate
1.2 This standard includes terminology used in metallo- in this field. In this respect, this standard is also a general
graphic areas, such as, but not limited to: light microscopy, source of terminology relating to the field of metallography
microindentation hardness testing, specimen preparation, x-ray facilitating the transfer of information within the field.
and electron metallography, quantitative metallography, pho-
4. Terminology
tomicrography, and determination of grain size and inclusion
content. absorption—the decrease in intensity which radiation under-
1.3 This standard may be of use to individuals utilizing goes during its passage through matter when the ratio of
standards of Committee E-4 as well as by those in need of a transmitted or reflected luminous flux to incident is less than
general reference source for terminology in the field of 1.
metallography. absorption coefficient—specific factor characteristic of a
substance on which its absorption radiation depends. The
2. Referenced Documents rate of decrease of the natural logarithm of the intensity of a
2.1 ASTM Standards: parallel beam per unit distance traversed in a substance. For
E 14 Practice for Thermal Analysis of Metals and Alloys2 X-rays, the linear absorption coefficient is the natural loga-
E 45 Test Methods for Determining the Inclusion Content rithm of the ratio of the incident intensity of an X-ray beam
of Steel3 incident on unit thickness of an absorbing material to the
E 80 Practice for Dilatometric Analysis of Metallic Materi- intensity of the beam transmitted. If Ieis the incident inten-
als4 sity of a beam of X-rays, Itthe transmitted intensity, and X
E 92 Test Method for Vickers Hardness of Metallic Mate- the thickness of the absorbing material, then:
rials3 It 5 Ieexp~2µX! (1)
E 112 Test Methods for Determining Average Grain Size3
Here µ is the linear absorption coefficient. The mass absorption
E 1122 Practice for Obtaining JK Inclusion Ratings Using
coefficient is given by µ/r where r is the density.
Automatic Image Analysis3
absorption edge—an abrupt change in absorption coefficient
3. Significance and Use at a particular wavelength. The absorption coefficient is
always larger on the short wavelength side of the absorption
3.1 Standards of Committee E-4 consist of test methods,
edge.
absorption limit—See absorption edge.
1
This terminology is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E04 on accelerating potential—a relatively high voltage applied be-
Metallography and are the direct responsibility of Subcommittee E04.02 on tween the cathode and anode of an electron gun to accelerate
Metallographic Terminology and Nomenclature of Phase Diagrams. electrons.
Current edition approved Dec. 10, 2001. Published January 2002. Originally
published as E7– 26 T. Last previous edition E7– 00. achromatic—literally, color-free. A lens or prism is said to be
2
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 04.01. achromatic when corrected for two colors. The remaining
3
4
Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 03.01. color seen in an image formed by such a lens is said to be
Discontinued; see 1984 Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 14.02. Replaced
by E228.
Copyright © ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United States.
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secondary chromatic aberration. See apochromatic objec- angular aperture—See aperture, optical.
tive anisotropic (replaces anisotropy)—having different values for
achromatic objective—an objective that is corrected chro- a property, in different directions.
matically for two colors, and spherically for one, usually in annealing-twin bands— See twin bands.
the yellow-green part of the spectrum. anode aperture—See aperture.
achromatic objective lens—an objective lens with longitudi- anvil—the base on which objects for hardness test are placed.
nal chromatic correction for green and blue, and spherical anvil effect—the effect caused by use of too high a load or
chromatic correction for green. Note—Lens should be used when testing the hardness of too thin a specimen, resulting in
with a green filter. a bulge or shiny spot on the under side of the specimen.
acid extraction—See extraction. aperture, electron:
air-lock—an intermediate enclosed chamber of a vacuum or anode aperture— the opening in the accelerating voltage
pressure system through which an object may be passed anode shield of the electron gun through which the electrons
without materially changing the vacuum or pressure of the must pass to illuminate or irradiate the specimen.
system. condenser aperture—an opening in the condenser lens
alignment—a mechanical or electrical adjustment of the controlling the number of electrons entering the lens and the
components of an optical device in such a way that the path angular aperture of the illuminating beam. The angular
of the radiating beam coincides with the optical axis or other aperture can also be controlled by the condenser lens current.
predetermined path in the system. In electron optics there are physical objective aperture—a metal diaphragm, centrally
three general types: pierced with a small hole, used to limit the cone of electrons
(1) magnetic alignment—an alignment of the electron accepted by the objective lens. This improves image contrast
optical axis of the electron microscope such that the image since highly scattered electrons are prevented from arriving
rotates about a point in the center of the viewing screen when at the Gaussian image plane and therefore can not contribute
the current flowing through a lens is varied. to background fog.
(2) mechanical alignment—a method of aligning the aperture, optical—the working diameter of a lens or a mirror.
geometrical axis of the electron microscope by relative angular aperture— the angle between the most divergent
physical movement of the components, usually as a step rays which can pass through a lens to form the image of an
preceding either magnetic or voltage alignment. object.
(3) voltage alignment—a condition of alignment of an aperture diaphragm—a device to define the aperture.
electron microscope such that the image expands or con- apochromatic objective—an objective with longitudinal chro-
tracts symmetrically about the center of the viewing screen matic correction for red, green and blue, and spherical
when the accelerating voltage is changed. chromatic correction for green and blue. This is the best
allotriomorphic crystal—a crystal whose lattice structure is choice for high resolution or color photomicrography.
normal, but whose outward shape is imperfect since it is arcing—in electron diffraction, the production of segments of
determined to some extent by the surroundings; the grains in circular patterns, indicating a departure from completely
a metallic aggregate are allotriomorphic crystals. random orientation of the crystals of the specimen.
alloy system—a complete series of compositions produced by arrest—that portion of a cooling curve in which temperature is
mixing in all proportions any group of two, or more, invariant with time (for example, thermal or eutectic arrest).
components, at least one of which is a metal. artifact—a false microstructural feature that is not an actual
alpha brass—a solid solution phase of one or more alloying characteristic of the specimen; it may be present as a result
elements in copper and having the same crystal lattice as of improper or inadequate preparation, handling methods, or
copper. optical conditions for viewing.
alpha iron (Fe)—solid phase of pure iron which is stable at ascending fork point—in a ternary phase diagram, the con-
temperatures below 910°C and possesses the body-centered figuration at the convergence of the three bivariant curves
cubic lattice. It is ferro-magnetic below 768°C. upon each of the four phases associated in Class II univariant
amplifier—a negative lens, used in lieu of an eyepiece, to equilibrium; for example, the union of two ascending liqui-
project under magnification the image formed by an objec- dus surface valleys to form one ascending liquidus surface
tive. The amplifier is especially designed for flatness of field valley.
and should be used with an apochromatic objective. aspect ratio—the length-to-width ratio of a microstructural
ampliphan eyepiece— See amplifier. feature in a two-dimensional plane.
analyzer—an optical device, capable of producing plane asterism—a lengthening of diffraction spots usually in the
polarized light, used for detecting the state of polarization. radial direction.
angle of reflection: ( 1) reflection—the angle between the astigmatism—a defect in a lens or optical system which
reflected beam and the normal to the reflecting surface. causes rays in one plane parallel to the optical axis to focus
(2) diffraction—the angle between the diffracted beam and at a distance different from those in the plane at right angles
the diffracting planes. to it.
Angstrom unit (abbreviation) = A,Å , or A. U—a unit of ASTM grain size number— See grain size.
length equal to 10−8 cm. This is the standard unit of athermal—not isothermal, with changing rather than constant
measurement in X-ray crystallography. temperature conditions.
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atomic replica—See replica. formed on continuous (slow) cooling if the transformation
atomic scattering factor—the ratio of the amplitude of the rate of austenite to pearlite is much slower than that of
wave scattered by an atom to that scattered by a single austenite to bainite. Ordinarily, these structures may be
electron. Symbol = f. formed isothermally at temperatures within the above range
austenite—a face-centered cubic solid solution of carbon or by quenching austenite to a desired temperature and holding
other elements in gamma iron. for a period of time necessary for transformation to occur. If
austenite grain size—the grain size which exists or existed in the transformation temperature is just below that at which
austenite at a given temperature. See Test Methods E 112. the finest pearlite is formed, the bainite (upper bainite) has a
autographic dilatometer—a dilatometer that automatically feathery appearance. If the transformation temperature is just
records instantaneous and continuous changes in dimensions above that at which martensite is produced, the bainite
and some other controlled variable such as temperature or (lower bainite) is acicular, resembling slightly tempered
time. martensite. At the higher resolution of the electron micro-
autographic pyrometer— See pyrometer. scope, upper bainite is observed to consist of plates of
automatic image analysis—the separation and quantitative cementite in a matrix of ferrite. These discontinuous carbide
evaluation of an image into its elements with or without plates tend to have parallel orientation in the direction of the
operator interaction. It includes the enhancement, detection, longer dimension of the bainite areas. Lower bainite consists
and quantification of the features contained in an image of ferrite needles containing carbide platelets in parallel
through the use of optical, geometrical, and stereological array cross-striating each needle axis at an angle of about
parameters and a computer program. Image analysis data 60°. Intermediate bainite resembles upper bainite; however,
output can provide individual measurements on each sepa- the carbides are smaller and more randomly oriented.
rate feature (feature specific) or totals for all features of a balanced filters (X-rays)—a pair of filters used to eliminate
particular type in the field (field specific). all but a narrow range of wavelengths. The filter materials
automatic image analyzer—a device which can be pro- and thicknesses are chosen so that their absorption edges lie
grammed to detect and measure features of interest in an very close together and so that they have the same absorption
image. It may include accessories such as automatic focus except for wavelengths lying in the range between their
and an automatic traversing stage to permit unattended absorption edges. When these filters are used alternately, the
operation. difference in effect, if any, is due to X-rays that have
average coefficient of cubical expansion— average change in wavelengths in this range. Balanced filters thus can be made
unit volume of a substance per unit change in temperature to serve as a crude monochromator.
over a specified range of temperature. band—in electron diffraction, a broad intensity maximum with
average coefficient of linear expansion— average change in sharp edges.
unit length of a body per unit change in temperature over a banded structure (banding)—alternate bands parallel with
specified range of temperature. the direction of working resulting from the elongation of
average coefficient of thermal expansion— general term. segregated areas.
(See also average coefficient of cubical expansion and barrel distortion— See distortion.
average coefficient of linear expansion.) basal plane—that plane of a hexagonal or tetragonal crystal
average grain diameter— See grain size. which is perpendicular to the axis of highest symmetry. Its
axial ratio—the ratio of the length of one axis to that of Miller indices are (0001) or (001), respectively.
another (for example, c/a) or the continued ratio of three bellows length—the distance from the eyepiece to the photo-
axes (for example, a:b:c). sensitive material or viewing screen in a photomicrographic
axis (crystal)—the edge of the unit cell of a space lattice. Any apparatus.
one axis of any one lattice is defined, in length and direction, Bertrand lens—an auxiliary removable lens in the body of a
with respect to the other axes of that lattice. microscope, used to examine images in the back focal plane
Babo’s law—the vapor pressure over a liquid solvent is of the objective, for example, interference figures with
lowered approximately in proportion to the quantity of a polarized light.
nonvolatile solute dissolved in the liquid. beta structure—structurally analogous body-centered cubic
backing film—a film used as auxiliary support for the thin phases (similar to beta brass), or electron compounds, that
replica or specimen-supporting film. have ratios of 3 valence electrons to 2 atoms.
back reflection—the diffraction of X-rays at a Bragg angle biased gun—an electron gun in which there is a bias voltage
approaching 90°. on the cathode cap. (See also self-biased gun.)
background blackening—a continuous, slowly varying bifilar eyepiece—a Filar eyepiece with motion in two mutually
blackening of photographic film which has been exposed to perpendicular directions.
diffracted X-rays, on which the blackening due to diffracted binary alloy—any specific composition in a binary system.
spots or lines is superimposed. binary system—the complete series of compositions produced
bainite—upper, lower, intermediate— metastable micro- by mixing a pair of components in all proportions.
structure or microstructures resulting from the transforma- binodal curve—in a two-dimensional phase diagram, a con-
tion of austenite at temperatures between those which tinuous line consisting of both of the pair of conjugate
produce pearlite and martensite. These structures may be boundaries of a two-phase equilibrium and which join,
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without inflection, at a critical point. See miscibility gap. temperature close to or within the melting range. This results
birefringent—having more than one refractive index. Such in a structure exhibiting incipient melting or intergranular
materials exhibit alternately bright and dark reflections at oxidation.
45° intervals during a 360° rotation with plane-polarized calibration—1) the act or process of determining the relation-
light. (See also anisotropic.) ship between a set of standard units of measure and the
bivariant equilibrium—a stable state among a number of output of an instrument or test procedure,
phases equal to the number of components in a system and 2) the graphical or mathematical relationship relating the
in which any two of the external variables (temperature, desired property (expressed in a standard unit of measure
pressure, or concentrations) may be varied, at will, without such as micrometers or Kg/mm2) to the instrument output
necessarily causing a change in the number of phases; (instrument units such as filar divisions or pixels).
sometimes called divariant equilibrium. caliper diameter (Feret’s diameter)—the length of a line
blowholes—a hole produced in a casting by gas which was normal to two parallel lines, tangent to opposite edges of a
trapped during solidification. phase or object.
body-centered—having an atom (or group of atoms) separated carbide—a compound of carbon with one or more elements,
by a translation of 1⁄2, 1⁄2, 1⁄2 from a similar atom (or group which, in customary formulation, are considered as being
of atoms). The number of atoms in a body-centered cell must more positive than carbon.
be a multiple of two. case—in a ferrous alloy, the outer portion that has been made
boiling pressure—at a specified temperature, the pressure at harder than the inner portion (see core) as a result of altered
which a liquid and its vapor are in equilibrium. composition, or structure, or both, from treatments such as
boiling temperature—at a specified pressure, the temperature carburizing, nitriding, and induction hardening.
at which a liquid and its vapor are in equilibrium. cassette—a light-tight film or plate holder.
bonded abrasive disk—a rigid support surface with an abra- cast replica—See replica.
sive, typically diamond, bonded to the surface by a ceramic, cast structure—the structure, on a macroscopic or micro-
resin, or metal based material. scopic scale, of a casting.
boundary grain—in the Jeffries’ method for grain size mea-
cathode lens—a lens field terminated on one side by a surface
surement, a grain that is intersected by the boundary of the at zero potential (cathode) normal to the optic axis. A
standard area and is, therefore, counted only as one-half cathode lens occurs in any system in which a cathode is
grain. (See also Jeffries’ Method.) imaged by its own electron emission, be it thermionic,
Bragg angle—the angle between the incident beam and the photoelectric, secondary, or field emission.
lattice planes considered.
cementite—a very hard and brittle compound of iron and
Bragg equation:—
carbon corresponding to the empirical formula Fe3C. It is
nl5 2d sin u (2) commonly known as iron carbide and possesses an orthor-
hombic lattice. In “plain-carbon steels” some of the iron
where: atoms in the cementite lattice are replaced by manganese,
n = order of reflection, and in “alloy steels” by other elements such as chromium or
l = wavelength of X-rays, tungsten. Cementite will often appear as distinct lamellae or
d = distance between lattice planes, and as spheroids or globules of varying size in hypo-eutectoid
u = Bragg angle. steels. Cementite is in metastable equilibrium and has a
Bragg method—a method of X-ray diffraction in which a tendency to decompose into iron and graphite, although the
single crystal is mounted on a spectrometer with a crystal reaction rate is very slow.
face parallel to the axis of the instrument. central pencil—a bundle of rays originating in the axis with an
Braun’s law—the ratio of the solubility change with pressure, angular aperture equal to the effective aperture of the lens.
temperature being constant, (d X/dP)T, to the solubility These rays pass through the lens aperture and contribute to
change with temperature, pressure being constant, (d the formation of the image.
X/dT)P, is equal to the negative of the product of the certified reference material—a reference material, the com-
absolute temperature, T, and the (fictitious) volume change position or properties of which are certified by a recognized
(Dv) which accompanies the solution of 1 g·molecular standardizing agency or group. Typically such a material is
weight of the solute in an infinitely large quantity of the accompanied by documentation (certificate).
saturated solution at T degrees, divided by the amount of characteristic curve—the curve showing the relationship
heat, Q, developed in the process: between exposure and resulting density in a photographic
~dX/dP!T/~dX dT!P 5 2T·Dv/Q (3) image. It is usually plotted as the density against the log
brightfield illumination— for reflected light, the illumination exposure. Called also the “H and D curve” and the “sensi-
which causes specularly reflected surfaces normal to the axis tometric curve.”
of a microscope to appear bright. For transmission electron characteristic radiation—X-radiation of a particular set of
microscopy, the illumination of an object so that it appears wavelengths, produced by and characteristic of a particular
on a bright background. element used as a target whenever its excitation potential is
burning (burnt, burned)—a term applied to metal which has exceeded.
been permanently damaged by having been heated to a charge neutralizer gun—an electron gun used to dissipate the
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charges which tend to build up on specimen surfaces, within other two phases occur in all three of the associated bivariant
an electron-diffraction camera, which would introduce un- equilibria below; for example, L + a + b = g + d.
desired electrostatic fields. Class III quinary equilibrium—in a five-component system,
chemical potential—(µ i or Ḡ i) the partial molar free energy the stable univariant coexistence of six phases, three of
of component i, that is, the change in free energy of a which appear in all three of the associated bivariant equilib-
solution upon adding one mole of component i to an infinite ria at temperatures and pressures above, while the other three
amount of solution of given composition, occur in all three of the associated bivariant equilibria below;
for example, L+ a + b = g + d + e.
~dG/dni!T,P,n 1·· 5 Ḡi 5 µ i (4)
· Class III ternary equilibrium—in a three-component system,
where: the stable univariant coexistence of four phases, one of
G = Gibbs free energy, and which must disappear at higher temperature or pressure; for
ni = number of moles of the i thcomponent. example, the ternary peritectic equilibrium, L + a + b = g.
Chinese script eutectic—a configuration of eutectic constitu- Class IV quaternary equilibrium—in a four-component
ents, found particularly in some cast alloys of aluminum system, the stable univariant coexistence of five phases, one
containing iron and silicon and in magnesium alloys con- of which must disappear at higher temperature or pressure;
taining silicon, which resembles in appearance the characters for example, the quaternary peritectic equilibrium,
in Chinese script. L+ a + b + g = d.
chlorine or volatile halide extraction—See extraction. Class IV quinary equilibrium—in a five-component system,
chromatic aberration—a defect in a lens or lens system as a the stable univariant coexistence of six phases, four of which
result of which the lens possesses different focal lengths for appear in both associated bivariant equilibria at temperatures
radiation of different wavelengths. and pressures above, while the other two occur in all four
Class I quaternary equilibrium—in a four-component sys- associated bivariant equilibria below; for example,
tem, the stable univariant coexistence of five phases, one of L + a + b + g = d + e.
which must disappear upon lowering the temperature or Class V quinary equilibrium—in a five-component system,
pressure; for example, the quaternary eutectic equilibrium, the stable univariant coexistence of six phases, one of which
L= a + b + g + d. must disappear upon increasing the temperature or pressure;
Class I quinary equilibrium—in a five-component system, for example, the quinary peritectic equilibrium,
the stable univariant coexistence of six phases, one of which L + a + b + g + d = e.
must disappear upon lowering the temperature or pressure; Clausius-Clapeyron equation—the rate of change of the
for example, the quinary eutectic equilibrium, pressure of a heterogeneous equilibrium with change of
L = a + b + g + s + e. temperature dP/dT is equal to the heat of transformation
Class I ternary equilibrium—in a three-component system, from the low to the high temperature state D Hv divided by
the stable univariant coexistence of four phases, one of the product of the absolute temperature of the equilibrium
which must disappear upon lowering the temperature or and the volume change of the transformation TDV:
pressure; for example, the ternary eutectic equilibrium, dP/dT 5 DHv/TDV (5)
L = a + b + d.
or,
Class II quaternary equilibrium—in a four-component sys-
tem, the stable univariant coexistence of five phases, two of d ln P/dT ' Hv/RT (6)
which appear in each of the three associated bivariant where R is the gas constant and the equilibrium is not near
equilibria at temperatures and pressures above, while the a critical point.
other three phases all occur in both of the associated clear cross test—an experimental method for determining
bivariant equilibria below; for example, L + a = b + g + d. which of two conceivable two-phase equilibria is real; at that
Class II quinary equilibrium—in a five-component system, composition at which the two conceivable two-phase fields
the stable univariant coexistence of six phases, two of which cross, an alloy is brought to equilibrium and the phases
appear in each of the four associated bivariant equilibria at identified; the same principle may be applied to higher-order
temperatures and pressures above, while the other four equilibria in higher-order systems.
phases occur in both of the associated bivariant equilibria clear glass focusing screen—a glass screen polished on both
below; for example, L+ a = b + g + d + e. sides and mounted for use in a camera, in lieu of photo-
Class II ternary equilibrium—in a three-component system, sensitive material, for the purpose of establishing a plane on
the stable univariant coexistence of four phases, two of which to focus an image prior to recording it.
which appear in both of the associated bivariant equilibria at cleavage planes—that family of planes of a crystal along
higher temperature and pressure, while the other two phases which the crystal is easily split.
occur in both bivariant equilibria below; for example, close packed—a geometric arrangement whereby a collection
L + a = b + g. of equally sized spheres (atoms) may be packed together in
Class III quaternary equilibrium—in a four-component a minimum total volume.
system, the stable univariant coexistence of five phases, coefficient of thermal expansion—change in unit of length (or
three of which appear in both of the associated bivariant volume) accompanying a unit change of temperature, at a
equilibria at temperatures and pressures above, while the specified temperature.
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coalescence—growth of grains at the expense of the remainder usually an element, or a compound that remains undissoci-
by absorption or the growth of a phase or particle at the ated throughout the range of temperature and pressure
expense of the remainder by absorption or by reprecipitation. concerned.
coarse grains—grains either larger than normal for the par- composition—the quantity of each of the components of a
ticular wrought metal or alloy, or grains of such a size that a mixture; usually expressed in terms of the weight percent-
surface roughening, popularly known as “orange peel” or“ age, or the atomic percentage of each of the components in
alligator skin,” is produced. the mixture.
coherent precipitate—a precipitated particle of a second Compton scattering—X-ray scattering by atoms in which the
phase, the lattice of which still maintains registry with the scattered beam has, relative to the incident beam, a longer
matrix lattice. Because the lattice spacings are usually wavelength and a random phase relationship. Also called
different, strains usually exist at the interface. incoherent or modified scattering.
coherent scattering—a kind of X-ray electron scattering in condensed system—a pure substance, or mixture, at a pressure
which the phase of the scattered beam has a definite (not and temperature such that the vapor phase does not exist.
random) relation to the phase of the incident beam. Also condenser—a term applied to lenses or mirrors designed to
called unmodified scattering. collect, control, and concentrate radiation in an illumination
cold-cathode gun—an electron gun in which electrons pro- system.
duced in a gas discharge are accelerated through a small condenser aperture— See aperture.
aperture in the anode. condenser lens—a device used to focus radiation in or near the
cold junction—See reference junction. plane of the object.
cold junction correction— See reference junction correction. congruent transformation—an isothermal, or isobaric, phase
cold worked structure—a microstructure resulting from plas- change in which both of the phases concerned have the same
tic deformation of a metal or alloy below its recrystallization composition throughout the process; the order of a system
temperature. becomes unary at a composition of congruency.
collimation—the operation of controlling a beam of radiation conjugate phases—those states of matter of unique composi-
so that its rays are as nearly parallel as possible. tion which coexist at equilibrium at a single point in
collodion replica— See replica. temperature and pressure; for example, the two coexisting
color film—a photographic film consisting of several emulsion phases of a two-phase equilibrium.
layers, where the individual layers selectively record various conjugate planes—two planes of an optical system such that
wavelengths of light. one is the image of the other.
color temperature—the temperature of a blackbody in de- constituent—a phase, or combination of phases, which occurs
grees Kelvin (K). In photography, the apparent temperature in a characteristic configuration in an alloy micro-structure.
in K of a luminous source which may be measured by its constitutional diagram—graphical representation of the com-
emission ratio of blue to red light. positions, temperatures, pressures or combinations thereof at
column, electron microscope—the assembly of gun, lenses, which the heterogeneous equilibria of an alloy system occur;
and specimen, viewing and plate chambers. also called “phase diagram,” or “equilibrium diagram.”
columnar structure—a macro- or microstructure character- continuous phase—the phase forming the matrix or back-
ized by elongated grains whose long axes are parallel, for ground in which other phases may be dispersed as isolated
example, to solidification direction, electroplated direction, units.
etc. continuous spectrum (X-rays)—the polychromatic radiation
comparison standard—a standard micrograph or a series of given off by the target of an X-ray tube, containing all
micrographs, usually taken at 75 or 100 diameters, or a wavelengths above a certain minimum value called the short
suitable equivalent built into the eyepiece and used to wave length limit.
determine grain size by direct comparison with the image. contrast enhancement (electron optics)— an improvement in
compensating eyepiece—one designed for use with objectives electron image contrast by the use of an objective aperture
such as apochromats, the lateral chromatic aberration of diaphragm, shadow casting, or other means.
which is undercorrected. contrast perception—the ability to differentiate various com-
compensating lead wires—wires leading from a thermo- ponents of the object structure by different intensity levels in
couple to the voltage-measuring instrument. These wires the image.
must be of such compositions that they will generate an emf contrast, photographic—the word contrast has been used in
equivalent to the emf generated by the reference junction of many different senses in connection with various photo-
the couple. graphic characteristics; there are different types of photo-
complex silicate inclusions—a general term describing sili- graphic contrast and different methods of measuring it. It is
cate inclusions containing visible constituents besides the frequently used to designate the magnitude of the density
silicate matrix. An example would be corundum or spinel difference resulting from a given exposure difference. (For
crystals occurring in a silicate matrix in steel. another use, see gamma.)
component—one of the independently variable substances by conversion, hardness—the exchange of a hardness number
means of which the composition of each phase of a system determined by one method for an equivalent hardness
of heterogeneous equilibrium may be described completely; number of a different scale.
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cooling curve—graphical representation of the course of agonal, rhombohedral, tetragonal, and cubic.
temperature fall of a chemical mixture as a function of time cube texture—a texture found in wrought metals in the cubic
commonly exhibiting more or less abrupt changes of rate at, system, in which nearly all the crystal grains have a plane of
or near, those temperatures at which phase changes begin; the type (100) parallel or nearly parallel to the plane of
used in finding the temperatures at which phase changes working and a direction of the type [001] parallel or nearly
occur. Occasionally, some property or function other than parallel to the direction of elongation.
time may be used; for example, thermal expansion. cubic—having three mutually perpendicular axes of equal
cooling rate—the average slope of the time-temperature curve length.
taken over a specified time and temperature interval. cupping—the condition sometimes occurring in heavily cold
core—(1) case hardening—interior portion of unaltered com- worked rods and wires, in which the outside fibers are still
position, or microstructure, or both, of a case-hardened steel intact and the central zone has failed in a series of cup-and-
article. cone fractures.
( 2) clad products—the central portion of a multilayer Curie point—that temperature above which a substance be-
composite metallic material. comes paramagnetic.
coring—a variable composition between the center and outside curvature of field—a property of a lens that causes the image
of a unit of structure, (such as a dendrite, grain, carbide of a plane to be focused into a curved surface instead of a
particle) resulting from non-equilibrium growth which oc- plane.
curs over a range of temperatures or compositions. darkfield illumination—the illumination of an object such
corona shield—a smooth, rounded metal covering placed that it appears illuminated with the surrounding field dark.
around exposed high-voltage components to prevent electri- This results from illuminating the object with rays of
cal discharge. sufficient obliquity so that none can enter the objective
counter—a device for the measurement of radiation intensity directly. As applied to electron microscopy, the image is
by means of an electrical triggering principle (Geiger- formed using only electrons scattered by the object.
Müller). dashpot—a hydraulic cylinder device with a controlled leak
coupler, color—a substance capable of reacting with the designed to eliminate impact loading of mechanisms. Hard-
oxidation product of a color-forming developer to produce a ness testers may employ a dashpot to bring an indenter into
colored dye image. contact with a specimen without impact or other disturbance.
critical curve—in a binary, or higher order, phase diagram, a dead-weight loading—a method of loading in which a weight
line along which the phases of a heterogeneous equilibrium is supported solely by the specimen and has no other
become identical. mechanical connection to the testing machine. In hardness
critical point—in a phase diagram, that specific value of testing, the weight is supported by the indenter.
composition, temperature, pressure or combinations thereof Debye ring—a continuous circle, concentric about the unde-
at which the phases of a heterogeneous equilibrium become viated beam, produced by monochromatic X-ray diffraction
identical. (See also transformation temperature.) from a randomly oriented crystalline powder. An analogous
critical pressure—that pressure above which the liquid and effect is obtained with electron diffraction.
vapor states are no longer distinguishable. Debye-Scherrer method—a method of X-ray diffraction em-
critical surface—in a ternary, or higher order, phase diagram, ploying monochromatic radiation and a polycrystalline
the area upon which the phases in equilibrium become specimen mounted on the axis of a cylindrical strip of film.
identical. (See powder method.)
critical temperature—that temperature above which the va- decarburization—loss of carbon from the surface of a carbon
por phase cannot be condensed to liquid by an increase in containing alloy due to a reaction with one or more chemical
pressure. substances in a medium that contacts the surface. Decarbur-
cross direction—one of three mutually perpendicular direc- ization may be either (1) partial, that is, where carbon
tions used to define a worked material, specifically that content is less than the unaffected interior but greater than
direction in the plane of working which is at right angles to the room temperature solubility limit of carbon in ferrite or
the direction of maximum elongation. (2) complete, that is, where carbon content is less than the
cross grating—a two-dimensional diffraction grating, patterns solubility limit of carbon in ferrite so that only ferrite is
from which are similar in the effects produced by diffracted present.
electrons from thin flakes and films, and whose theory may deep etching—macroetching; etching preliminary to macro-
therefore be used to explain the latter. examination, intended to develop gross features such as
crystal—a solid composed of atoms, ions, or molecules segregation, grain flow, cracks or porosity.
arranged in a pattern which is periodic in three dimensions. define (X-rays)—limit a beam of X-rays by passage through
crystal analysis—a method for determining crystal structure, apertures in order to obtain a parallel, divergent, or conver-
for example, the size and shape of the unit cell and the gent beam.
location of all atoms within the unit cell. definition—the clarity or sharpness of a microscopical image.
crystallite—a crystalline grain not bounded by habit planes. deformation bands—bands produced within individual grains
crystal system—one of seven groups into which all crystals during cold working which differ variably in orientation
may be divided; triclinic, monoclinic, orthorhombic, hex- from the matrix.
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deformation lines—thin bands or lines produced in grains of the threshold setting to its particular range of gray level.
some metals, particularly those of face-centered cubic struc- deviation (X-ray)—the angle between the diffracted beam and
ture, by cold working; they are not removed by repolishing the transmitted incident beam. It is equal to twice the Bragg
and re-etching. angle u.
degree of freedom—in heterogeneous equilibrium, an external devitrification—crystallization of an amorphous substance.
variable that may be adjusted independently without causing dezincification—a type of corrosion found with some copper-
a change of state; the external variables usually considered zinc alloys which occurs by solution of a small region and
are: temperature, pressure, and concentration parameters immediate redeposition of the copper in a spongy porous
numbering one less than the order of the system. form, thus giving the impression of selective removal of zinc
delta ferrite—designation commonly assigned to delta iron from the alloy.
containing alloying elements in solid solution. Small
diagonal—in hardness testing, a line joining two opposite
amounts of carbon and large amounts of other alloying corners of a diamond pyramid indentation.
elements markedly affect the high-and-low-temperature limit
differential curve: ( 1) in thermal analysis——a curve result-
of equilibrium.
ing from the differential method of thermal analysis when
delta iron (d Fe)—solid phase of pure iron which is stable at
the difference in temperature (u − u8) between a specimen
temperatures between 1400 and 1539°C and possesses the
and a neutral body is plotted against the temperature of the
body-centered cubic lattice. Strictly, there is no difference
latter.
between delta and alpha iron.
(2) in dilatometry—a curve produced by plotting against
denatured alcohol—ethyl alcohol containing an addition of a
the temperature the difference in changes of length or
poisonous substance, making it unfit for human consump-
volume between a body of known expansivity and a body
tion.
(specimen) of unknown expansivity.
dendrites—crystals, usually formed during solidification or
differential interference contrast illumination—a micro-
sublimation, which are characterized by a tree-like pattern
scopical technique employing a beam-splitting double-
composed of many branches; pine-tree or fir-tree crystals.
quartz prism; that is a modified Wollaston prism placed
densitometer—an instrument which measures the relationship
ahead of the objective with a polarizer and analyzer in the
between incident light and transmitted or reflected light and,
90° crossed positions. The two light beams are made to
using a logarithmic scale, gives a numerical measurement
coincide at the focal plane of the objective, thus rendering
that corresponds to a material’s opacity or a film’s photo-
height differences visible as variations in color. The prism
graphic density.
can be moved, shifting the interference image through the
density (film)—transmission density is the common logarithm range of Newtonian colors.
of the ratio of the radiant flux incident on the sample to the
differential thermocouple—two thermocouples placed in se-
radiant flux transmitted by the sample, assuming no reflec-
ries opposition (bucking).
tion.
deoxidation products—a term specifically applied to those diffraction:—(1) a modification which radiation undergoes, as
non-metallic inclusions formed as a result of the addition of in passing by the edge of opaque bodies or through narrow
deoxidizing agents to molten metal. slits, in which the rays appear to be deflected.
depletion—selective removal of one component of an alloy, (2) coherent scattering of X-radiation by the atoms of a
crystal which necessarily results in beams in characteristic
usually from the surface or preferentially from grain bound-
ary regions. directions. Sometimes called reflection.
(3) the scattering of electrons, by any crystalline material,
depth of field—the depth or thickness of the object space that
through discrete angles depending only on the lattice spac-
is simultaneously in acceptable focus.
ings of the material and the velocity of the electrons.
depth of focus—the depth or thickness of the image space that
is simultaneously in acceptable focus. diffraction grating—an artificially produced periodic array of
scattering centers capable of producing a pattern of dif-
derived differential curve—the curve derived from the data
fracted energy, such as accurately ruled lines on a plane
obtained by the use of the differential method of thermal
surface.
analysis. The changes in the temperature difference D(u –
u8), between a specimen and a neutral body, for a constant diffraction pattern (X-rays)—the spatial arrangement and
interval of temperature Du are plotted against the tempera- relative intensities of diffracted beams.
ture. An arithmetic treatment of the differential data resulting diffraction ring—the diffraction pattern produced by a given
in a plot of D(u – u8)/Du versus u. (See differential curve.) set of planes from randomly oriented crystalline material.
descending fork point—in a ternary phase diagram, the (See also Debye ring.)
configuration at the convergence of the three divariant diffusion-transfer process—a rapid photographic process in
curves upon each of the three high-temperature phases which a negative image is produced at one location, with
associated in Class III univariant equilibrium; for example, unused imaging materials then diffusing across a thin fluid
the division of a descending liquidus surface valley into two layer to produce a positive image on a receptor sheet.
descending liquidus-surface valleys. diffusion zone—the zone of viable composition at the junction
detected feature—in image analysis, an object or constituent between two different materials, such as in welds or between
of interest that is isolated for measurement by adjustment of the surface layer and the core of clad materials or bearings,
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in which interdiffusion between the various components has duplex microstructure—a two-phase structure.
taken place. duplex grain size—the simultaneous presence of two grain
dilatometer—the instrument used in dilatometry for measur- sizes, in substantial amounts, with one grain size appreciably
ing lengths or volume changes. larger than the other. (Synonymous with mixed grain size.)
dilatometry—the measurement of length or volume changes dynamical theory—the explanation of diffraction phenomena
of a substance undergoing a change in temperature, pressure, in terms of dynamical interaction between the incident beam,
or state. See Practice E 80.4 all scattered waves and the crystal lattice, where the latter is
direct print—a photographic print of an original negative. treated as a triply periodic field of potential.
discontinuous stringer—three or more Type B or C inclusions dystetic equilibrium—synonymous with eutectoid equilib-
aligned in a plane parallel to the hot working axis and offset rium.
by no more than 15 µm with a separation of less than 40 µm Eberbach—See micro penetration tester.
(0.0016 in.) between the two nearest neighbor inclusions edge angle—the included angle between two opposite edges of
(see Practices E 45 and E 1122). a hardness indenter.
disordered structure—the crystal structure of a solid solution elastic electron scatter—the scatter of electrons by an object
in which the atoms of different elements are randomly without loss of energy, usually an interaction between
distributed with respect to the available lattice sites. electrons and atoms.
dispersoid—in metallography, finely divided particles of rela- elastic recovery—in hardness testing, the shortening of the
tively insoluble constituents which can be seen in the original dimensions of the indentation upon release of the
microstructure of certain alloys. applied load.
dissociation—as applied to heterogeneous equilibria, the electrolytic extraction— See extraction.
transformation of one phase into two, or more, new phases, electrolytic polishing—a metallographic preparation proce-
all of different composition. dure where metal is preferentially dissolved from high points
dissociation pressure—at a designated temperature, the pres- on an anodic surface by passage of an electric current
sure at which a phase will transform into two, or more new through a conductive bath, to produce a specular reflecting
phases, of different composition. surface. Used as an alternative to mechanical polishing.
distortion—an aberration of lens systems where axial and electromagnetic focusing device—See focusing device.
marginal magnifications are unequal. electromagnetic lens—an electromagnet designed to produce
( 1)barrel distortion—the distortion in the image which a suitably shaped magnetic field for the focusing and
occurs when the magnification of the image in the center of deflection of electrons or other charged particles in electron-
the field is greater than in the edge of the field. This is also optical instrumentation.
called negative distortion. electron—a subatomic particle having a negative charge of
(2) pincushion distortion—the distortion in the image 4.8025 3 10−10 esu, and a charge-to-mass ratio or specific
which results when the magnification in the center of the charge of 5.2737 6 0.0015 3 10 17 esu/g.
field is less than it is at the edge of the field. This is also electron beam—a stream of electrons in an electron optical
called positive distortion. system.
divorced eutectic—a structure in which the components of an electron diffraction—the phenomenon, or the technique of
eutectic appear to be entirely separate. producing diffraction patterns through the incidence of
double boiling system—a series of mixtures characterized by electrons upon matter.
the vaporization of a liquid phase in one temperature (or electron gun—a device for producing and accelerating a beam
pressure) range and the vaporization of another liquid phase of electrons.
within another temperature (or pressure) range; for example, electron image—a representation of an object formed by a
a salt and water mixture which boils with the expulsion of beam of electrons focused by an electron optical system (See
water at moderately elevated temperature and then at higher image.)
temperature the molten salt itself boils to produce salt vapor. electron lens—a device for focusing an electron beam to
double melting system—a series of mixtures which, with produce an image of an object.
rising temperature, first develops a liquid phase that is totally electron micrograph—a reproduction of an image formed by
converted to vapor before a second liquid phase appears; for the action of an electron beam on a photographic emulsion.
example, a salt and water mixture which, upon heating, first electron microscopy—the study of materials by means of the
melts to an aqueous solution of the salt, the water then boils electron microscope.
away and the salt residue itself melts. electron microscopy impression—See impression.
doublet (in characteristic X-ray spectra)— a separation of electron optical axis—the path of an electron through an
characteristic radiation into subspecies of slightly different electron optical system along which it suffers no deflection
wavelength. due to lens fields. This axis does not necessarily coincide
drift—in electron optics, motion of the electron beam or image with the mechanical axis of the system.
due to current, voltage or specimen instabilities or charging electron optical system—a combination of parts capable of
of a projection such as dirt in or near the electron beam. producing and controlling a beam of electrons to produce an
dry objective—any microscopical objective designed for use image of an object.
without immersion liquids. electron optics—the science that deals with the propagation of
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electrons, as light optics deals with that of light and its like structure of the eutectic carbide.
phenomena. eutectic colony, grain—a two-phase region which solidified
electron probe—a narrow beam of electrons used to scan or progressively from a simple center and, therefore, has some
illuminate an object or screen. uniformity of structural relationship.
electron trajectory—the path of an electron. eutectic equilibrium—a reversible univariant transformation
electron velocity—the rate of motion of an electron. in which a liquid, that is stable only at superior temperature,
electron wavelength—the wavelength necessary to account decomposes into two or more conjugate solid phases; for
for the deviation of electron rays in crystals by wave example, L= a + b, L = a + b + g, etc.
diffraction theory. It is numerically equal to the quotient of eutectic point—the composition of a liquid phase that is in
Planck’s constant divided by the electron momentum. This is univariant equilibrium with two or more solid phases; the
approximately l = (12.3/V) A., where V = the accelerating lowest melting alloy of a composition series.
potential in volts. eutectic structure—the structure resulting when an alloy has
electrostatic focusing device—See focusing device. passed through a eutectic equilibrium upon freezing.
electrostatic immersion lens—See immersion objective eutectoid equilibrium—a reversible univariant transformation
electrostatic lens—a lens producing a potential field capable in which one solid phase, that is stable only at superior
of deflecting electron rays to form an image of an object. temperature, decomposes into two or more conjugate solid
elongated grain—a grain with one principal axis significantly phases; for example, a = b + g, a = b + g + d, etc.
longer than either of the other two. eutectoid point—the composition of a solid phase which,
emission microscope—a type of electron microscope in which upon cooling, undergoes univariant transformation into two,
the specimen is the cathode source of the electrons. Some- or more, other solid phases.
times used synonymously with shadow microscope. eutectoid reaction— See eutectoid equilibrium.
enantiotropic transformation—a reversible metastable phase
eutectoid structure—the microstructure resulting when an
change; for example, the freezing of sulfur directly to the
alloy has passed through an eutectoid equilibrium upon
rhombic phase, or the direct melting of the latter, without
cooling.
passing through the stable intermediate monoclinic phase.
evaporation—the vaporization of a material by heating it,
end-centered—having an atom (or group of atoms) separated
usually in a vacuum. In electron microscopy this process is
by a translation of the type 1⁄2, 1⁄2, 0 from a similar atom (or
used for shadowing or to produce thin support films by
group of atoms). The number of atoms in an end-centered
condensation of the vapors of metals or salts.
cell must be a multiple of two.
epsilon (e)—designation generally assigned to intermetallic, Ewald sphere—a geometric construction, of radius equal to
metal-metalloid, and metal-nonmetallic compounds found in the reciprocal of the wavelength of the incident radiation,
ferrous alloy systems (for example, Fe3Mo 2, FeSi, Fe 3P). with its surface at the origin of the reciprocal lattice. Any
epsilon carbide—carbide with hexagonal close-packed lattice crystal plane will reflect if the corresponding reciprocal
which precipitates during the first stage of tempering of lattice point lies on the surface of this sphere.
primary martensite. Its composition corresponds to the excitation potential—the applied potential on an X-ray tube
empirical formula Fe2.4C. required to produce characteristic radiation from the target.
epsilon structure—structurally analogous close-packed exogenous inclusion—a nonmetallic constituent produced by
phases (similar to epsilon brass), or electron compounds, that entrapment of foreign material in the melt. (See inclusions.)
have ratios of 7 valence electrons to 4 atoms. expansion curve, thermal—the curve produced by plotting a
equiaxed grain—a polygonal crystallite, in an aggregate, dimension or the volume of a substance versus the tempera-
whose dimensions are approximately the same in all direc- ture.
tions. exposure:—(1) The act of submitting material to radiation to
equilibrium—a state of dynamic balance between the oppos- which it is sensitive.
ing actions, reactions, or velocities of a reversible process. (2) the quantitative measure of exposure as a function of
equilibrium diagram— See constitutional diagram. intensity and time of the radiation (often the product of I 3
etch figures—markings formed on a crystal surface by etching t) falling on a sensitive material.
or chemical solution and usually related geometrically to the (3) X-ray—the product of X-ray intensity and time.
crystal structure. exposure index—the rating of a film for use in connection
etching—controlled preferential attack on a metal surface for with exposure tables, exposure computers, and exposure
the purpose of revealing structural details. meters. (See also sensitivity.)
eutectic alloy—the alloy which has the composition of the exposure scale—in a photographic process, the range of
eutectic point. exposure over which substantially correct reproduction is
eutectic arrest—in a cooling curve (or heating curve) an obtained. This is measured by the ratio of the exposure
approximately isothermal segment, corresponding to the corresponding to the minimum useful gradient at the high
time interval during which the heat of transformation from exposure end of the scale to that corresponding to the
the liquid phase to two or more conjugate solid phases is minimum useful gradient at the low exposure end.
being evolved, (or conversely). extension lead wires—wires leading from a thermocouple to
eutectic carbides—in hypereutectic tool steels, the skeleton- the voltage-measuring instrument. These wires should have
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the same temperature-emf relationship as the thermocouple filament—an electrically heated wire used as a source of a
wires. radiation, such as electrons, or as a source of heat, such as in
extinction—a decrease in the intensity of the diffracted beam the vaporization of a metal.
caused by perfection or near perfection of crystal structure. filar micrometer or filar eyepiece—an eyepiece equipped
(See also primary extinction and secondary extinction.) with a fiducial line in its focal plane, which is movable by
extinction coefficient—the ratio of the diffracted beam inten- means of a calibrated micrometer screw, in order to make
sity when extinction is present to the diffracted beam accurate measurements of length.
intensity when extinction is absent. It is applicable to either film cassette—See cassette.
primary or secondary extinction. filter—a device which modifies the light coming from the light
extraction—a general term concerning chemical methods of source either chromatically or with regard to intensity.
isolating phases from the metal matrix. (1) color—a device which transmits principally a prede-
( 1)acid extraction—removal of phases by dissolution of termined range of wavelengths.
the matrix metal in an acid. (2) contrast—a color filter, usually with strong absorption,
( 2)chlorine extraction—removal by formation of a vola- whose function is to utilize the spectral absorption bands of
tile chloride. the subject to control the contrast of the image by exagger-
(3) electrolytic extraction—removal by using an electro- ating or diminishing the brightness difference between areas
lytic cell containing an electrolyte which preferentially of different color. Maximum contrast is obtained when the
dissolves the metal matrix. transmission of the filter is entirely within the absorption
eye clearance—the distance from the back lens of an eyepiece band of an area but not of its surroundings.
to the proper location of the viewer’s eye, typically about 8 (3) interference—a combination of several thin optical
mm (about 20 mm for high eyepoint eyepieces which permit films to form a layered coating for transmitting or reflecting
the use of eyeglasses). a narrow band of wavelengths by virtue of interference
eye lens—the lens in an eyepiece nearest to the eye. effects.
eyepiece—the lens system used in an optical instrument for (4) neutral—(a) a color filter that reduces the intensity of
magnification of the image formed by the objective. the transmitted illumination without affecting its hue.
eyepiece micrometer— See ocular micrometer. ( b) a color filter having identical transmission at all
face angle—the included dihedral angle between two opposite wavelengths throughout the spectrum. Such an ideal filter
faces of an indenter. does not exist in practice.
face-centered—having atoms (or groups of atoms) separated (5) orthochromatic—a color filter whose function is to
by translations of 1⁄2, 1⁄2, 0; 1⁄2, 0, 1⁄2; and 0, 1⁄2, 1⁄2from a modify the illumination quality reaching the film so that the
similar atom (or group of atoms). The number of atoms in a brightness of colored objects will be relatively the same in
face-centered cell must be a multiple of four. the resultant black-and-white positive.
face (crystal)—an idiomorphic plane surface on a crystal. (6) photometric—a color filter whose function is to
family (of crystal planes)—the planes in any one crystal that convert the quality of illumination from that of one source to
have common Miller indices, regardless of sign. that of another. Most frequently the term is used for a filter
feature-specific measurement, n—an individual measurement altering the illumination quality from that of one color
of each detected feature in the field of view. temperature to that of another.
Feret’s diameter—See caliper diameter. ferrite— ( 7) X-Ray—a material that preferentially absorbs certain
designation commonly assigned to alpha iron contain- wavelengths.
ing alloying elements in solid solution. Increasing carbon fire crack—cracking, frequently intergranular in nature, that
content markedly decreases the high-temperature limit of occurs in some metallic materials when too rapidly heated or
equilibrium. when stressed and heated rapidly. Not to be confused with
ferrite grain size—the grain size of the ferrite in predomi- “quench crack.”
nantly ferritic steels. See Test Methods E 112. fire scale—copper oxide subscale formed just under the
ferritizing anneal—the process of producing a predominantly surface of silver-copper alloys when they are annealed in air.
ferritic matrix in a ferrous alloy through an appropriate heat flakes—in wrought ferrous products, flakes appear as short
treatment. discontinuous internal cracks attributed to stresses produced
fiber (fibre)—a structural feature of wrought metal revealed by by localized transformation and hydrogen solubility effects
directional properties, manifested by the appearance of an during cooling after hot working. They appear in a fracture
etched longitudinal section, by the appearance of a fracture, surface as bright silvery areas with a coarse texture. In deep
or by an X-ray pattern of crystal orientations. acid-etched transverse section they appear as discontinuities
fiber-axis—the preferred direction of fiber texture. which are usually located in the midway to center location of
fiber texture—a texture characterized by having only one the section. Known also as shatter cracks and hairline cracks.
preferred crystallographic direction. flatness of field—a qualitative term describing how well the
field—the portion of the object in view. image of a planar specimen is reproduced as a plane in the
field lens—the lens nearest the field diaphragm in an eyepiece. image field. (See curvature of field.)
field measurement, in image analysis—the aggregate mea- flexure plate pivot—a type of pivot or hinge in which the
surement of the detected features in a field of view. motion occurs through the bending of a thin elastic plate.
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flicker method, in image analysis —the procedure of alternat- metal sample to determine such things as discontinuities,
ing between the live video image and the detected image grain size, and composition.
while altering the gray-level threshold range to establish the (2) steel—a test which utilizes a hardened steel disk
optimum discrimination and detection. section prepared from billet or bar stock which is fractured
flow lines—a fiber pattern, frequently observed in wrought parallel to the grain flow so that, among other things,
metal, which indicates the manner in which the metal flowed discontinuities due to inclusion segregates can be detected
during deformation. visually.
fluorescent screen—a sheet of material which emits visible free-energy diagram—a graphical representation of the varia-
light when exposed to invisible radiation. tion with concentration of the Gibbs Free Energy, at constant
fluorescent X-rays (fluorescent analysis)— characteristic X- pressure and temperature.
rays excited by radiation of wavelength shorter than the free-energy surface—in a ternary, or higher order, free energy
corresponding absorption edge. diagram, the locus of points representing the Gibbs Free
focal length—the distance from the second principal point to Energy as a function of concentration, with pressure and
the point on the axis where parallel rays entering the lens temperature constant.
will converge or focus. freezing point—See melting point.
focal spot—that area on the target of an X-ray tube which is frequency factor—See multiplicity factor.
bombarded by electrons. frequency (X-ray)—the number of alternations per second of
focus—a point at which rays originating from a point in the the electric vector of the X-ray beam. It is equal to the
object converge or from which they diverge or appear to velocity divided by the wavelength.
diverge under the influence of a lens or diffracting system. Fresnel fringes—a class of diffraction fringes formed when
focusing (X-rays)—the operation of producing a convergent the source of illumination and the viewing screen are at a
beam in which all rays meet in a point or line. finite distance from a diffracting edge. In the electron
focusing camera (X-rays)—a diffraction camera in which the microscope these fringes are best seen when the object is
X-ray source of a divergent X-ray beam, specimen (poly- slightly out of focus.
crystalline) and film all lie on one circle, which results in the gamma (photography)—the tangent of the angle which the
diffracted beams all being focused on the film. straight-line part of the characteristic curve makes with the
focusing device (electrons)—a device which effectively in- log exposure axis and in a photographic film or plate is a
creases the angular aperture of the electron beam illuminat- measure of the extent of development.
ing the object, rendering the focusing more critical. gamma iron (g Fe)—solid nonmagnetic phase of pure iron
focusing magnifier: ( 1)—a low-power microscope, telescope which is stable at temperatures between 910 and 1400°C and
or simple lens used to observe the electron image formed on possesses the face-centered cubic lattice.
a fluorescent screen. gas holes—blow holes, channels, or porosity produced by gas
(2) a magnifying lens mounted so that its focal plane is evolution, usually during solidification.
coincident with its base, used to obtain a sharp focus in the gate—a valve placed in a vacuum system to facilitate the
plane of the sensitive material in a camera. isolation of a selected section of the system.
foil—a thin sheet of a material, usually a metal, not exceeding Geiger-Müller counter—See counter.
0.005 in. in thickness. gelatin replica—See replica.
folds—defects in metal, usually on or near the surface, caused general precipitate—a precipitate which is dispersed through-
by continued fabrication of overlapping surfaces. out the matrix.
forged structure—the macrostructure through a suitable sec- Gibbs free energy—the maximum useful work that can be
tion of a forging which reveals direction of working. obtained from a chemical system without net change in
form—a set of equivalent planes in a crystal. In general, they temperature or pressure; DF= DH− TDS.
will have the same spacing but different Miller indices. For Gibbs triangle—an equilateral triangle, used for plotting
example, in the cubic system, the planes (101), (110), (011), composition in a ternary system.
etc. are planes of the form (110). In the tetragonal system, glancing angle—the angle (usually small) between an incident
however, the planes (101) and (110) belong to different X-ray beam and the surface of the specimen.
forms. Equivalent directions are also spoken of as directions gnomonic projection—a projection in which the orientation of
of a form. a crystal plane at the center of the unit sphere is represented
Formvar—a plastic material used for the preparation of by the point where the plane normal intersects the plane of
replicas, or specimen supporting membranes. Trade name projection which is tangent to the unit sphere at the zenith.
for poly(vinyl formal) 15/95. goniometer—an instrument devised for measuring the angle
Formvar replica—See replica. through which a specimen is rotated.
fracture grain size—grain size determined by comparing a gradient furnace—a furnace within which a known tempera-
fracture of a specimen with a set of standard fractures. For ture gradient is maintained between the two ends. Some-
steel, a fully martensitic specimen is generally used and the times known as a Rosenhain Furnace.
depth of hardening as well as the prior austenitic grain size grain—an individual crystallite in metals.
is determined. grain boundary—an interface separating two grains, where
fracture test: (1) —generalthe production of a fracture in a the orientation of the lattice changes from that of one grain
12
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to that of the other. When the orientation change is very pattern from a single crystal which first appears during age
small the boundary is sometimes referred to as a subbound- hardening.
ary. Guinier-Preston zones—those regions of a crystal which give
grain growth—an increase in the grain size of a metal usually rise to Guinier-Preston streaks.
as a result of heating at an elevated temperature. H and D curve—See characteristic curve.
grain size—the dimensions of the grains or crystals in a habit plane—crystallographic plane in a parent phase along
polycrystalline metal exclusive of twinned regions and which a new phase (or phases) is (are) generated.
subgrains when present. Grain size is usually estimated or hard (X-rays)—of short wavelength.
measured on the cross section of an aggregate of grains. hardness impression—See impression.
Common units are: (1) average diameter, (2) average area, heating curve—graphical representation of the course of
(3) number of grains per linear unit, (4) number of grains per temperature rise of a sample or body as a function of time.
unit area, and (5) number of grains per unit volume. See Test heterogeneous—non-uniform in microstructure or composi-
Methods E 112. tion.
(1) ASTM grain size number—a grain size designation heterogeneous equilibrium—in a chemical system, a state of
bearing a relationship to average intercept distance at 100 dynamic balance amongst two or more homogeneous phases
diameters magnification according to the equation: G which are capable of stable coexistence in mutual or
= ASTM grain size number = 10.0 − 2 log2 L̄, where L̄ is the sequential contact.
average intercept distance in millimetres at 100 magnifica- hexagonal (concerning lattices for crystals)—Having two
tion. equal coplanar axes, a1 and a2, at 120 deg to each other and
(2) average grain diameter—the mean diameter of an a third axis, c, at right angles to the other two; c may or may
equiaxed grain section whose size is representative of all the not be equal to a1 and a2.
grain sections in the aggregate being measured. hexagonal close packed:—(1) a structure containing two
grain size comparison eyepiece—an eyepiece provided with atoms per unit cell located at (0, 0, 0) and ( 1⁄3, 2⁄3, 1⁄2) (or 2⁄3,
calibrated patterns representing a series of standard sizes of 1⁄3, 1⁄2).
grains. The eyepiece must be used at a total magnification (2) one of the two ways in which spherical objects can be
for which the patterns have been calibrated. most closely packed together, such that the close-packed
graphite, flake—an irregularly shaped body, usually appearing planes are alternately staggered in the order A-B-A-B-A-B.
as long curved plates of graphitic carbon such as found in Heyn method—an intercept method for determining grain
gray cast irons. size. See Test Methods E 112.
graticule—a scale on glass or other transparent material placed Homal eyepiece—See amplifier.
in the eyepiece or at an intermediate plane on the optic axis homogeneous (radiation) (monochromatic)—of the same
of a light microscope for the location and measurement of wavelength.
objects (a graticule is different than a reticle, see reticle). hot cathode—a heated element of a vacuum enclosed electri-
gray level, in image analysis—a specific neutral color value cal system emitting electrons thermionically. It is maintained
existing within the range from black to white. at a potential negative with respect to a second element to
grinding—the removal of material from the surface of a accelerate the emitted electrons.
specimen by abrasion through the use of randomly oriented hot junction—See measuring junction.
hard-abrasive particles bonded to a suitable substrate, such hot worked structure—the structure of a material worked at a
as paper or cloth, where the abrasive particle size is temperature higher than the recrystallization temperature.
generally in the range of 60 to 600 grit (approximately 150 Hull-Davey charts—charts for indexing the lines of powder
to 15 µm) but may be finer. patterns on which a function of the interplanar spacing of the
ground-glass focusing screen—a glass screen, one side of Bragg angle is plotted against the axial ratio for a number of
which is ground or made diffusing and mounted for use in a different lattice planes.
camera, in place of photosensitive material, for the purpose Hull method ( for X-ray crystal analysis)—See Debye-
of intercepting, viewing, and focusing a real image formed Scherrer method.
on it. Huygens eyepiece—an achromatic eyepiece invented by Huy-
guard frame—in video-based automatic image analysis, an gens and consisting of a plano-convex eyelens and a plano-
internal border, smaller than the monitor image frame, used convex collective, between which is a field diaphragm.
to restrict the measurement area and thus eliminate errors in hypereutectic alloy—any composition between the eutectic
sizing features that interesect the measurement area border point and the composition of that solid phase, of the pair into
when used in conjunction with specific feature selection which the eutectic liquid decomposes, which is considered
rules (also called the active frame). the less important; thus, the identification of the hypereutec-
guard region—in video based automatic image analysis, that tic range, as distinguished from the hypoeutectic range, is a
portion of the imaged area between the guard (active) frame matter either of personal preference, or a common usage for
and the image frame which is employed in a variety of ways each alloy system.
to eliminate sizing errors of features that intersect the guard hypereutectoid alloy—any composition between the eutectoid
frame. point and the composition of that solid phase, of the pair into
Guinier-Preston streak—an elongated spot on the Laue
13
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which the eutectoid solid phase decomposes, which is inclusions—foreign material held mechanically, usually refer-
considered the less important; for the meaning of “impor- ring to non-metallic particles, such as oxides, sulfides,
tant,” see hypereutectic alloy. silicates, etc.
hypereutectoid structure—the microstructure of a hypereu- incoherent electron scatter—the deflection of electrons by
tectoid alloy. For example, microstructural aggregate found either electrons or atoms which results in a loss of kinetic
in iron-carbon alloys which consist of primary crystals of energy by the incident electron.
cementite together with nodules of pearlite. incongruent transformation—a nonisothermal, or noniso-
hypoeutectic alloy—any composition between the eutectic baric, phase change in which one, or both, of the phases
point and the composition of that solid phase, of the pair into involved undergo composition change during the process.
which the eutectic liquid decomposes, which is considered indent—See impression.
the more important; for the meaning of “important,” see indentation—See impression.
hypereutectic alloy. indenter—in hardness testing, a tool, usually of diamond and
hypoeutectoid alloy—any composition between the eutectoid having a definite geometrical shape, which is forced into the
point and the composition of that solid phase, of the pair into surface of the specimen.
which the eutectoid solid phase decomposes, which is indenter constant—in hardness testing, a numerical constant
considered the more important; for the meaning of “impor- relating the area of the indentation to the square of the
tant,” see hypereutectic alloy. measured diagonal.
hypoeutectoid structure—the microstructure of a hypoeutec- indifferent point—in a phase diagram, a maximum point, or
toid alloy. For example, the microstructural aggregate found minimum point, that is, a composition and temperature, or
in iron-carbon alloys which consist of primary crystals of pressure, at which congruent transformation occurs.
ferrite together with nodules of pearlite. indigenous (endogenous) inclusion—a nonmetallic material
identity period—the distance between equivalent points in that precipitates from the melt. (See inclusions.)
adjacent unit cells, usually measured in a direction parallel to inertial loading—See impact loading.
a crystal axis. inflection point—position on a curved line, such as a phase
idiomorphic crystal—single crystals that have grown without boundary, where the direction of curvature is reversed.
restraint so that the habit planes are clearly developed. infrared—invisible light and heat radiation, adjacent to the red
illumination—See brightfield, conical, darkfield, polarized end of the visible spectrum, with wavelengths from 700 to
light. about 3000 nm (nanometres).
image—a representation of an object produced by means of ingot—cast metal in a form intended for subsequent fabrica-
radiation, usually with a lens or mirror system. tion.
image processing, in image analysis—the computer modifi- ingot scum—slag, dross, or oxidation appearing on the top
cation of a digitized image on a pixel-by-pixel basis to surface of ingots during pouring, which, when entrapped, is
emphasize or de-emphasize certain aspects of the image. a source of inclusions.
image rotation—in electron optics, the angular shift of the indices—See Miller indices.
electron image of an object about the optic axis induced by indigenous inclusions—See deoxidation products.
the tangential component of force exerted on the electrons inelastic electron scatter—See incoherent electron scatter.
perpendicular to the direction of motion in the field of a instantaneous coeffıcient of thermal expansion—See coeffi-
magnetic lens. cient of thermal expansion.
immersion lens—See immersion objective. integral tripack—See color film: monopack.
immersion objective—an objective in which a medium of integrating camera—A diffraction camera in which the speci-
high refractive index is used in the object space to increase men is moved relative to the incident beam in order to cause
the numerical aperture and hence the resolving power of the diffraction to occur from an extended area of the specimen
lens. surface.
immersion objective (electron optics)—a lens system in intensifying screen—a sheet of a substance which emits
which the object space is at a potential (or in a medium of visible light or X-rays or photoelectrons, or combinations of
index of refraction) different from that of the image space. these, under the action of X-rays, thus enhancing the
impact loading—in hardness testing, a phenomenon in which darkening of a film placed in contact with it.
a momentary overload is inadvertently applied to the in- intensity (X-rays)—the energy per unit of time of a beam per
denter by the inertia of parts of the tester subjected to large unit area perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
accelerations. intensity of scattering—the energy per unit time per unit area
impression: (1) electron microscopy—the reproduction of the of the general radiation which is diffracted by matter. Its
surface contours of a specimen formed in a plastic material value depends upon the scattering power of the individual
after the application of pressure and heat, or both. atoms of the material, upon the scattering angle, and upon
(2) hardness—the imprint or dent made in the specimen the wavelength of the radiation.
by the indenter of a hardness-measuring device. intercept method—See Heyn method.
impression replica—See replica. interception count—the number of particles (or clusters of
inclusion count—determination of the number, kind, size, and particles) of a phase or constituent of interest that are crossed
distribution of non-metallic inclusions. See Practice E 45. by the lines of a test grid.
14
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intercrystalline cracks—cracks or fractures that occur be- ionization method—a method of X-ray diffraction in which
tween the grains or crystals in a polycrystalline aggregate. the intensity of the diffracted beam is measured by means of
interdendritic—located within the branches of a dendrite or an ionization chamber.
between the boundaries of two or more dendrites. ionization vacuum gage—an indicating device used in
interdendritic porosity—voids occurring between the den- vacuum systems to determine the pressure of the residual gas
drites in cast metal. in a system by measuring the positive ion current produced
interference—the effect of a combination of wave trains of in the process of ionization in an electrical field.
various phases and amplitudes. isobar—section, at constant pressure through a phase diagram.
intergranular corrosion—a preferential attack at the grain isochor—in a phase diagram, a section, or contour, at constant
boundaries. volume.
intermediary plane—any plane in a microscope where a real isometric—a crystal form in which the unit dimension on all
image of a specimen is formed. Reticles can be inserted at three axes is the same.
intermediary planes for superposition on the image. isomorphous—having the same crystal structure; usually re-
intermediate image—any image of an object formed by a lens ferring to intermediate phases which form a continuous
other than the final projector lens. series of solid solutions.
intermediate phase—in a chemical system, a distinguishable isomorphous system—a complete series of mixtures in all
homogeneous substance whose composition range of exist- proportions of two, or more, components, wherein unlimited
ence does not extend to any of the pure components of the mutual solubility exists in both the liquid and solid states.
system. isopleth—in a ternary, or higher order, temperature-
intermetallic phases—compounds, or intermediate solid solu- concentration, or pressure-concentration, phase diagram, a
tions, containing two or more metals, which usually have (vertical) two-dimensional section, having a linear compo-
characteristic properties and crystal structures different from sition series along one axis and temperature, or pressure,
those of the pure metals or the terminal solid solutions. along the other axis.
internal oxidation—preferential oxidation of certain compo- isotherm—section, at constant temperature, through a phase
nents or phases within the bulk of a solid metal. diagram.
internal seam—See stepdown test. isotropic—having the same value for a property in all direc-
interplanar distance—the perpendicular distance between tions.
adjacent parallel lattice planes. isotropy—the condition of having the same values of proper-
interpupillary distance—spacing between the pupils of the ties in all directions.
eyes; eyepieces on binocular microscopes should be set at Jeffries’ method—a method for determining grain size based
this distance for comfortable and accurate viewing. on counting grains in a prescribed area. See Test Methods
intersection count—the number of boundaries between the E 112.
matrix phase and the phase or constituent of interest that are Jeffries’ multiplier—a factor used in the Jeffries’ method for
crossed by the lines of a test grid. For isolated particles in a grain size determinations. See Test Methods E 112.
matrix, the number of feature intersections will equal twice K radiation—characteristic X-rays produced by an atom when
the number of feature interceptions. a vacancy in the K shell is filled by one of the outer
intracrystalline cracking—See transcrystalline cracking. electrons.
invariant equilibrium—a stable state amongst a number of K series—the set of X-ray wavelengths making up K radiation.
phases exceeding by two the number of components in the Kellner eyepiece—a positive eyepiece consisting of an achro-
system and in which more of the external variables (pres- matic eyelens and a single collective, in which the image plane
sure, temperature, or concentrations) may be varied without and field diaphragm is external and near the collective.
causing a decrease in the number of phases present. Kikuchi lines—light and dark lines superimposed on the
invariant point—a point defined by the unique values of background of a single crystal electron diffraction pattern
temperature, pressure, and concentrations in a system with caused by diffraction of diffusely scattered electrons within
the maximum number phases which can coexist in equilib- the crystal.
rium. knife edge pivot—a type of pivot or hinge in which the motion
inverse rate curve—in thermal analysis, the curve that is occurs through the rotation of a knife edge resting on a plane
obtained when the length of time required by the specimen or a vee notch.
to pass through successive and constant intervals of tem- Knoop—See micro penetration tester. In a more restricted
perature is plotted against the temperature. sense, a type of diamond hardness indenter having edge
inverse segregation—a concentration of low melting constitu- angles of 172° 30 min, and 130°.
ents in those regions in which solidification first occurs. Knudsen vacuum gage—an absolute manometer based on the
inverted microscope—a microscope so arranged that the line principle of the transfer of momentum from a hot to a cold
of sight is directed upwards through the objective to the surface by gas molecules as in a radiometer.
object. Koehler illumination—a specular illumination system. In
ionization chamber—a device for the measurement of radia- reflected-light microscopy, used directly for the brightfield
tion intensity by means of determining the degree to which mode, and as a preliminary setup for all other modes except
the radiation ionizes a gas. darkfield. The image of the field diaphragm is focused on the
15
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specimen surface and the image of an undiffused lamp into ferrite and cementite (pearlite) as a result of the
source is focused in the plane of the aperture diaphragm. eutectoid reaction.
Konowalow’s law—the vapor of a binary mixture contains the lever principle—in a phase diagram, the relative proportions
larger proportion of that component, which, upon addition to of the conjugate phases, at a stated value of temperature and
the liquid, will raise its vapor pressure. pressure, or both, is such that a state of mechanical balance
lamination—imperfection in flat products resulting from the would obtain, if the corresponding weight of each phase
presence of voids or inclusions aligned approximately par- were placed upon its composition point upon the tie-element
allel to the worked surface. (tie-line, tie-triangle, etc.) and the fulcrum were located at
lap—(1) a surface imperfection on worked metal caused by the gross composition point of the mixture.
folding over a fin overfill, or similar surface condition and lightfield illumination—See brightfield illumination.
then impressing this into the surface by subsequent working light filter—See color filter.
without welding it. limited solid solution—a crystalline miscibility series whose
(2) A flat surface which holds an abrasive for polishing composition range does not extend all the way between the
operations. components of the system, that is, the system is not
lapping—the abrasive removal of material using graded abra- isomorphous.
sive particles in a loose form as in a liquid slurry on a platen. line (in X-ray diffraction patterns)—an array of small
latitude—when the photographic process is represented by an diffraction spots so arranged that they appear to form a
continuous line on the film.
H and D curve, the latitude is the projection on the exposure
lineage structure—orientation deviations, of the order of
axis of that part of the curve which approximates a straight
minutes or a few degrees at most, from perfect alignment of
line within the tolerance permitted for the purpose at hand.
the crystal axes of parallel arms of a dendrite.
lattice—(1) a space lattice is a set of equal and adjoining
linear magnification—See magnification.
parallelopipeds formed by dividing up space by three sets of
line focus (in X-ray tubes)—a long-narrow focal spot.
parallel planes, the planes in any one set being equally
line indices—the Miller indices of the set of planes producing
spaced. There are seven ways of so dividing space, corre-
a diffraction line.
sponding to the seven crystal systems. The unit paral-
liquidus—the locus of points in a phase diagram, representing
lelopiped is usually chosen as the unit cell of the system.
the temperature, under equilibrium conditions, at which each
(2) a point lattice is a set of points in space so located that
composition in the system begins to freeze during cooling, or
each point has identical surroundings. There are fourteen
completes melting during heating.
ways of so arranging points in space, corresponding to the 14
Bravais lattices. live field—in video-based automatic image analysis, the vis-
ible, real-time gray level image from the television camera.
lattice parameter—the term is used for the fractional coordi-
longitudinal direction—that direction which is parallel to the
nates x, y, z of lattice points when these are variable. Also
direction of maximum elongation in a worked material. (See
used to indicate the lengths of the axes a, b, c, and their
also cross direction).
included angles a, b, g.
lot—a unit of material processed at one time and subjected to
Laue equations—the three simultaneous equations which
similar processing variables.
state the conditions which must be met for diffraction from
lower critical point—in a phase diagram, a specified value of
a three-dimensional network of diffraction centers.
composition, temperature and pressure or combinations
Laue method (for crystal analysis)—a method of X-ray thereof occurring as a minimum in temperature, or pressure,
diffraction employing a beam of white radiation, a fixed for the coexistence of two, or more, conjugate phases and at
single crystal specimen and a flat photographic film usually which the conjugate phases become identical.
normal to the incident beam. If the film is located on the low reflecting coating—a dielectric coating applied to an air-
same side of the specimen as the X-ray source, the method glass surface to reduce light reflection to a minimum.
is known as the back reflection Laue method, if on the other L-radiation—characteristic X-rays produced by an atom when
side as the transmission Laue method. a vacancy in the L-shell is filled by one of the outer
layer lattice—a type of structure found in crystals which tend electrons.
to form in thin sheets. L-series—the set of X-ray wavelengths making up L-radiation.
leaded—characteristic of a metallic body containing metallic Lüder’s lines—markings which appear on the surface of
lead in dispersed form. metals stretched past the yield point. The markings are
Le Chatelier’s theorem—if a system in equilibrium is sub- approximately parallel to the direction of maximum shear
jected to a constraint by which the equilibrium is altered, a stress and essentially independent of crystal orientation; also
reaction takes place which opposes the constraint, that is, called stretcher strains, flow figures, Hartmann lines.
one by which its effect is partially annulled. macroetch—controlled etching of the surface of a metallic
ledeburite—intimate mixture of austenite and cementite in specimen, intended to reveal a structure which is visible at
metastable equilibrium, formed on rapid cooling during the low magnifications (not usually greater than 10 times).
eutectic reaction in alloys of iron and carbon containing macrograph—a graphic reproduction of an object, slightly
greater than 2 percent but less than 6.67 percent carbon. reduced in size, unmagnified, or magnified ten diameters or
Further slow cooling causes decomposition of the austenite less (photomacrograph).
16
E7
magnetic alignment—See alignment. ing random, systematic, and calculational (modeling) uncer-
magnetic lens—a device for focussing an electron beam by tainties.
means of a magnetic field. measuring junction—the junction of a thermocouple placed at
magnetic shielding—in electron microscopy, shielding for the a location where an unknown temperature is to be measured
purpose of preventing extraneous magnetic fields from or where an established temperature is to be maintained.
affecting the electron beam in the microscope. When the measuring junction is at a higher temperature than
magnetic transformation—an intensive property change the reference junction it is commonly called the hot junction.
from a ferromagnetic to a paramagnetic state, or the reverse, mechanical alignment— See alignment.
which occurs in certain solid materials under applied pres- mechanical stage—a device provided for adjusting the posi-
sure and temperature, or both. (See also Curie point.) tion of a specimen, usually by translation in two directions at
magnification—a ratio of the size of an image to its corre- right angles to each other.
sponding object. This is usually determined by linear mea- mechanical twins—See twin bands.
surement. melting point—in a phase diagram, the temperature at which
the liquidus and solidus coincide at an invariant point.
martensite—metastable phase resulting from the diffusionless
athermal decomposition of austenite below a certain tem- melting pressure—at a stated temperature, the pressure at
perature known as the Ms temperature (martensite start which the solid phases of an element, or congruently melting
compound, may coexist at equilibrium with liquid of the
temperature). It is produced during quenching when the
same composition.
cooling rate of a steel, in the austenitic condition, is such that
the pearlite and bainite, or both, transformation is sup- melting temperature—at a stated pressure, the temperature at
pressed. The composition of the martensite is identical with which a solid phase of an element, or congruently melting
that of the austenite from which it transformed. Hence, compound, may coexist at equilibrium with liquid of the
martensite is a super-saturated solid solution of carbon in same composition.
alpha iron (ferrite) having a body-centered tetragonal lattice. membrane—any thin sheet or layer.
It is a magnetic plate-like constituent formed by a diffusion- metallography—that branch of science which relates to the
less shear type of transformation. These plates may appear constitution and structure, and their relation to the proper-
needle-like or veriform in cross-section. ties, of metals and alloys.
martensitic—a plate-like constituent having a similar appear- metal shadowing—See shadowing.
ance and mechanisms of formation to that of martensite. metastable—a state of apparent equilibrium which has a
higher free energy than has the true equilibrium state;
mass-absorption coeffıcient—See absorption coefficient.
usually applied to a phase existing outside its temperature
mass scattering coefficient—that part of the mass absorption and pressure span of equilibrium existence, by reason of a
coefficient due to scattering. greatly delayed transformation.
matrix—the continuous phase. metatectic equilibrium— See peritectoid equilibrium.
maximum curve—in a phase diagram, a univariant line, microcharacter—See micro penetration tester.
tracing the meetings of a pair of bivariant surfaces at microcut—the scratch made by a microcharacter test.
intermediate composition and coinciding with their highest micrograph—a graphic reproduction of an object as seen
temperature at each pressure level, or their highest pressure through the microscope or equivalent optical instrument, at
at each temperature level; congruent transformation occurs magnifications greater than ten diameters. (photomicro-
everywhere along a maximum curve. graph).
maximum point—that composition and temperature, or pres- microindent—See indentation.
sure, at which a heterogeneous equilibrium occurs at its micrometer eyepiece—an eyepiece that has a scale perma-
highest temperature, or pressure, when this does not coincide nently positioned in its focal plane, thus, in effect, superim-
with one of the composition limits of the equilibrium, that is, posing the scale on the image of the field being observed.
when it occurs at an intermediate composition; the equilib- micro penetration hardness—the hardness number obtained
rium becomes congruent (univariant) at the maximum point. by use of a low load tester whose indentation is usually
maximum sublimation point—in a PT phase diagram, the measured with a high power microscope.
highest pressure and temperature at which a solid species of micro penetration tester—a testing machine capable of ap-
intermediate composition may exist in equilibrium with plying low loads, usually in the range from 1 g to 5 kg to
vapor of identical composition. form an indentation or a scratch or both, as a basis for
McQuaid-Ehn grain size—the austenitic grain size developed measuring hardness. Typical names associated with commer-
in steels by carburizing at 1700°F (927°C) followed by slow cial testers are Bergsman, Eberbach, Knoop, Microcharacter,
cooling. See Test Methods E 112. Tukon, Vickers, etc.
measurement uncertainty—an estimate of potential inaccu- microphotograph—a microscopically small photograph.
racies in a measured or derived quantity based on explicit microporosity—extremely fine porosity in castings.
evaluation and combination of all sources of errors. Note - microscope—an instrument capable of producing a magnified
Quantitative uncertainty estimates are typically given in the image of a small object.
form of variances (or standard deviations) and covariances microstructure—the structure of a suitably prepared specimen
(or correlations) derived from statistical procedures combin- as revealed by a microscope.
17
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Miller-Bravais indices—indices used for the hexagonal sys- regions each very slightly disoriented with respect to its
tem which involve the use of a fourth axis a3, coplanar with neighbor.
and at 120° to a1 and a2. mosaic structure—the structure of a material containing
Miller indices (for lattice planes)—the reciprocals of the mosaic crystals.
fractional intercepts which a plane makes on the three axes. multicomponent system—the complete series of composi-
The symbols are (hkl). tions produced by mixing, in all proportions, two or more
minimum curve—in a phase diagram, a univariant line tracing components.
the meeting of a pair of bivariant surfaces at intermediate multiplicity factor—a factor used in calculating the intensity
composition and coinciding with their lowest temperature at of diffraction from a polycrystalline specimen. It is equal to
each pressure level, or their lowest pressure at each tempera- the number of sets of planes of the same family.
ture level; congruent transformation occurs everywhere multivariant—having two or more degrees of freedom.
along a minimum curve. mythical image—the assumed intersections of the extended
minimum point—that composition and temperature, or pres- sides of a microindentation which is established in order that
sure, at which a heterogeneous equilibrium occurs at its lowest a true diagonal can be approximated.
temperature, or pressure, when this does not coincide with one negative distortion— See distortion.
of the composition limits of the equilibrium, that is, when it negative eyepiece—an eyepiece in which the real image of the
occurs at an intermediate composition; the equilibrium object is formed between the lens elements of the eyepiece.
becomes congruent (univariant) at the minimum point. mirror negative, photographic—a sensitized plate or film which has
illuminator—a thin, half-round opaque mirror interposed in been exposed in a camera and which upon development has
a microscope for the purpose of directing an intense oblique the lights and shades inverse to those of the original subject.
beam of light to the object. The light incident on the The plate or film does not become a negative until it is
object passes through one half the aperture of the objective exposed, after which it may be an undeveloped or a
and the light reflected from the object passes through the developed negative.
other half aperture of the objective. negative print—a photograph having approximately the op-
miscibility gap—a region of multi-phase equilibrium; composite rendition of light and shade as the original subject.
monly applied to the specific case in which an otherwise negative replica—See replica.
continuous series of liquid, or solid, solutions is broken, over network structure—a structure in which one constituent
a limited temperature range, by the intrusion of a two phase occurs primarily at the grain boundaries, thus partially or
field that terminates at a critical point. See binodal curve. completely enveloping the grains of the other constituents;
mixed grain size—See duplex grain size. on a two-dimensional section cut through such a structure,
molecular replica— See replica. the grain boundary constituent will appear as a network.
monochromatic (homogeneous)—of the same wavelength. Neumann bands—See twin bands.
monochromatic objective—an objective, usually made of neutral body—a comparison piece used in the differential
fused quartz, which has been corrected for use only with method of thermal analysis, which has nearly the same
monochromatic light. thermal properties as the test specimen, and which produces
no heat effects within the temperature range through which
monochromator (X-rays)—a device for producing mono-
the specimen is being tested. See Practice E 14.
chromatic radiation from heterochromatic radiation. It usu-
ally consists of a crystal so arranged as to diffract one Nicol prism—a prism, used for polarizing or analyzing light,
wavelength of particularly high intensity, such as the char- made by cementing together, with Canada balsam, two
acteristic, out of a beam of mixed white and characteristic pieces of calcite in such a way that the extraordinary ray
from the first piece passes through the second piece while the
radiation.
ordinary ray is reflected to the side into an absorbing layer of
monoclinic—having three axes of any length with two in-
black print. When two Nicol prisms are crossed, therefore,
cluded angles equal to 90° and one included angle not equal
no light passes through.
to 90°.
nitride-carbide inclusion types—a compound with the gen-
monopack—See color film. eral formula M x(C, N)y observed generally as colored
monotectic equilibrium—a reversible binary univariant trans- idiomorphic cubic crystals, where M includes Ti, Cb, Ta, Zr.
formation in which a liquid phase, that is stable only at nonmetallic inclusions—particles of impurities (usually ox-
higher temperatures, decomposes, with lowering tempera- ides, sulfides, silicates and such) that are held mechanically or
ture, into a new liquid phase and a solid phase, for example: are formed during solidification or by subsequent reaction
L1 = L2 + a. within the solid metal (See exogenous inclusions).
monotectic point—the composition and temperature in a normal direction—that direction which is perpendicular to the
binary system at which exists a liquid that is capable of plane of working in a worked material. (See cross direc-
univariant decomposition, with lowering temperature, into tion).
another liquid phase and a solid phase. normal segregation—a concentration of alloying components
monotropic transformation—a nonreversible metastable or constituents that have lower melting points in those
phase change. regions which are the last to solidify.
mosaic crystal—an imperfect single crystal composed of numerical aperture (NA)—the sine of half the angular
18
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aperture of an objective lens multiplied by the refractive oxidation and etched afterwards.
index of the medium between the lens and the sample. (2) refers to the method involving heating of polished steel
objective aperture—See aperture. specimen to a specified temperature, followed by quenching
object evaporation—See shadowing. and repolishing. The grain boundaries are sharply defined by
oblique illumination—nonspecular illumination under which the presence of iron oxide. Grain size is expressed as an
the light impinges at an oblique angle to the optical axis. ASTM Number.
(See conical illumination; diffuse illumination; darkfield oxide film replica—See replica.
illumination.) oxide type inclusions—oxide compounds occurring as non-
ocular micrometer—a glass disk, of a diameter which permits metallic inclusions in metals usually as a result of deoxidiz-
introducing it into standard oculars, upon one surface of ing additions. In wrought products, that is, steel, they may
which a fine scale is engraved accurately. occur as a “stinger” formation composed of distinct granular
optical pyrometer—an instrument with the temperature of an or crystalline appearing particles.
object is determined by comparing its brightness at some panchromatic—sensitive, as a film or plate, to light of all
fixed wavelength with that of a standardized source. hues.
order (in X-ray reflection)—the factor n in the Bragg equa- parallax factor (used in electron stereomicroscopy)—
tion (see Bragg equation). In X-ray reflection from a parallax factor (f) is the rate of change of elevation with
crystal, the order is an integral number which is the path respect to parallax:
difference measured in wavelengths between reflections
from adjacent planes. f = dx/dy = csc s/2M3 10 3µm/mm
order-disorder transformation—a phase change among two x = elevation
solid solutions having the same crystal structure but in which y = parallax, the apparent lateral displacement of an image
the atoms of one phase, the disordered one, are randomly point.
distributed and in the other, the different kinds of atoms
occur in a regular sequence upon the crystal lattice, that is, where s is the stereo angle and M is the final magnification
in an ordered arrangement. of the image.
ordered structure—that crystal structure of a solid solution in parameter (in crystals)—See lattice parameter.
which the atoms of different elements seek preferred lattice partial pressure—the contribution of one component of a
positions. system to the total pressure of its vapor at a specified
order of a system—the number of components; for example, temperature and gross composition.
a system of binary order is made up of two components. partition coefficient—when, to a polyphase mixture there is
orientation—the angular position of a crystal described by the added a definite quantity of a new component that is
angles which certain crystallographic axes make with the insufficient to bring about a phase change, the proportioning
frame of reference. In hardness measurements, the relation- of the new component among the several phases at equilib-
ship between the direction of the axes of the indenter of a rium may be expressed by means of a ratio known as a
hardness tester and the direction of non-homogeneous prop- partition coefficient; since the ratio often changes very little
erties of the specimen. over small ranges of variation in the amount of the added
orthochromatic—(1) of, pertaining to, or producing tone component, it is customary simply to refer to the partition
values (of light or shade) in a photograph, corresponding to coefficient of the added component without reference to the
the tones of nature. quantity of the addition, provided the latter is small.
(2) photographic use; designating a film made sensitive to pattern—See diffraction pattern.
green and blue, but not red, light. pearlite—a metastable microstructure formed, when local
orthorhombic—having three mutually perpendicular axes of austenite areas attain the eutectoid composition, in alloys of
unequal lengths. iron and carbon containing greater than 0.025 percent but
overdrawn structure—a condition, sometimes found to exist less than 6.67 percent carbon. The structure is an aggregate
in very heavily cold-worked rods or wires. (cupping). consisting of alternate lamellae of ferrite and cementite
Cupping is overdrawn material, but the converse is not true. formed on slow cooling during the eutectoid reaction. In an
overheating—(1) in ferrous alloys, heating to an excessively alloy of given composition, pearlite may be formed isother-
high temperature such that the properties/structure undergo mally at temperatures below the eutectoid temperature by
modification. The resulting structure is very coarse-grained. quenching austenite to a desired temperature (generally
Unlike burning, it may be possible to restore the original above 550°C) and holding for a period of time necessary for
properties/structure by further heat treatment or mechanical transformation to occur. The interlamellar spacing varies
working, or a combination thereof. directly with the transformation temperature; that is, the
(2) in aluminum alloys, overheating produces structures higher the temperature the greater the spacing.
that show areas of resolidified eutectic or other evidence that pearlite colony—a circumscribed aggregate within which
indicates the metal has been heated within the melting range. lamellae of corresponding phases have the same orientation.
oxidation grain size—(1) grain size determined by holding a pearlite nodule—cluster of wedge-shaped pearlite colonies.
specimen at a suitably elevated temperature in a mildly pearlitic structure—a microstructure resembling that of the
oxidizing atmosphere. The specimen is polished before pearlite constituent in steel, therefore, a lamellar type of
19
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structure of varying degrees of coarseness. small circular aperture.
pellicle mirror—a thin transparent membrane used in place of pinhole eyepiece—an eyepiece, or a cap to place over an
a transparent flat glass disk of a “plane glass illuminator.” eyepiece, which has a small central aperture instead of an
penetrator—See indenter. eye lens. Used in adjusting or aligning microscopes.
peritectic equilibrium—a reversible univariant transforma- pinhole ocular—See pinhole eyepiece.
tion in which a solid phase, that is stable only at lower pinhole system—a group of two or more pinholes arranged to
temperature, decomposes into a liquid and a solid phase that define a beam.
are conjugate at higher temperature, or the reverse; for pirani vacuum gage—a thermal conductivity or hot-wire gage
example: a + L = b, a + b + L = g, etc. in which the temperature of an electrically heated fine wire
peritectoid equilibrium—a reversible univariant transforma- varies as the thermal conductivity of the residual gas. The
tion in which a solid phase, that is stable only at low wire has a high temperature coefficient of electrical resis-
temperature, decomposes with rising temperature into two or tance and the change in resistance is usually measured in a
more conjugate solid phases; for example: a + b = g, bridge circuit. (See thermocouple vacuum gage.)
a + b + g = d, etc. pixel (picture element)—smallest spatial unit of an image.
permanent magnet lens—an electron lens consisting of per- planar grinding—the first step in a preparation procedure
manent magnets. used to bring all specimens into the same plane of polish. It
petrographic examination—methods of examining nonmetal- is unique to semi or fully automatic preparation equipment
lic matter under suitable microscopes to determine structural that utilize specimen holders.
relationships and to identify the phases or minerals present. plane (crystal)—an idiomorphic face of a crystal. Any atom-
With transparent materials, the determination of the optical containing plane in a crystal.
properties, such as the indices of refraction and the behavior plane glass illuminator—a thin transparent flat glass disk
in transmitted polarized light, serve as means of identifica- interposed in a microscope or a lens imaging system for the
tion. With opaque materials, the color, hardness, reflectivity, purpose of directing light to the object without causing a
shape and etching behavior in polished sections serve as reduction of the useful aperture of the lens system.
means of identification. Metallographic applications include plane of working—the plane of maximum area extension.
examination of particles mechanically or chemically sepa- planimetric method— See Jeffries’ method.
rated from the metal by these methods. plastic replica—See replica.
phase—a physically homogeneous, mechanically separable plate cassette—See cassette.
portion of a material system. plate chamber—the chamber within the vacuum system of an
phase contrast microscopy—a special method of controlled electron microscope in which is placed the plate cassette.
illumination, ideally suited for observing thin, transparent polarized light illumination—a method of illumination in
objects whose structural details vary only slightly in thick- which the incident light is plane polarized before it impinges
ness or refractive index. This can also be applied to the on the specimen.
examination of opaque materials to determine surface eleva- polarizer—a Nicol prism, polarizing film, or similar device
tion changes. into which normal light passes and from which polarized
phase diagram—See constitutional diagram. light emerges.
phase rule—the maximum number of phases (P) that may pole figure (for crystalline aggregates)— a graphical repre-
coexist at equilibrium is equal to 2, plus the number of sentation of the crystal orientations present in an aggregate.
components (C) in the mixture, minus the number of degrees pole piece—a part of a magnetic electron lens made of a
of freedom (F); P + F = C + 2. magnetically permeable material for the purpose of concen-
Philips (Penning) vacuum gage—a sensitive cold cathode trating and shaping the magnetic field within the lens.
ionization gage in which the electron path length, and pole piece spacer—the central part of a magnetic electron lens
therefore the number of ionizing collisions, is increased by pole piece assembly made of nonmagnetic material for the
means of a magnetic field. Also known as a cold-cathode purpose of rigidly defining the separation of the pole pieces
discharge gage. of a lens. The length of the spacer affects the strength and
photographic density—See density. shape of the magnetic field in the lens.
photomacrograph—a macrograph made by photographic polishing—a mechanical, chemical, or electrolytic process or
means. combination thereof used to prepare a smooth reflective
photomicrograph—a micrograph made by photographic surface suitable for microstructure examination, free of
means. artifacts or damage introduced during prior sectioning or
Phragmen method—See focusing camera. grinding.
physical objective aperture—See aperture, electron. polycrystalline—characteristic of an aggregate composed of
pincushion distortion—See distortion. more than one, and usually of a large number, of crystals.
pinholes—very small holes; sometimes found as a type of polymorphic substance—an element, or compound, capable
porosity in a casting because of microshrinkage or of gas of stable existence in different temperature and pressure
evolution during solidification; or, in wrought products, due ranges in two, or more, different crystalline states.
to removal of inclusions or microconstituents during mac- polynary system—See multicomponent system. porosity—
roetching of transverse sections. In photography, a very holes in a solid, not necessarily connected.
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positive distortion— See distortion. projection distance—distance from the eyepiece to the image
positive eyepiece—an eyepiece in which the focal plane is screen.
external to its lenses. projection lens—the final lens in the electron microscope
positive, photographic—a photograph having approximately corresponding to an ocular or projector in a compound light
the same rendition of light and shade as the original subject. microscope. This lens forms a real image on the viewing
positive replica—See replica. screen or photographic film.
positive transparency—a photographic print made on a trans- protection tube—a tube made of a specially selected material
parent base from a negative. In electron microscopy this is which can be used to protect a thermocouple from adverse
used as an intermediate step to prepare a negative print. effects of the environment.
potentiometer—an instrument for the measurement of elec- pseudobinary—a term of indefinite meaning, sometimes used
tromotive force by balancing against it an equal and opposite synonymously with “quasibinary,” sometimes used to des-
electromotive force across a calibrated resistance carrying a ignate an “isopleth.”
definite current. Potentiometers can be made manual or with pseudomonotropy—an irreversible solid state transformation
automatic self-balancing features. which occurs below the melting points of both the stable and
powder method—any method of X-ray diffraction involving a metastable solid states.
polycrystalline and preferably randomly oriented powder pseudoreplica—See replica.
specimen and a narrow beam of monochromatic radiation. P-T diagram—a two-dimensional, graphical representation of
precipitation—separation of a new phase from solid, liquid, phase relationships in a system of any order, by means of the
orgaseous solutions, usually with changing conditions of pressure and temperature variables.
temperature or pressure, or both. P-T-X diagram—a three-dimensional, graphical representa-
preferred orientation—a condition of polycrystalline aggre- tion of the phase relationships in a binary system, by means
gate in which the crystal orientations are not distributed at of the pressure, temperature and concentration variables.
random. pull–out, n—void existing on the plane of polish of a metal-
preshadowed replica— See replica. lographic specimen caused by the dislodging of a particle or
primary (X-ray)—the beam incident on the sample. constituent during the grinding or polishing operation.
primary crystals—the first type of crystals that separates from P-V diagram—a graphical representation of the variation of
a melt on cooling. the specific volume of a substance, with change in pressure.
primary extinction—a decrease in intensity of a diffracted X- P-V-T diagram—a three-dimensional, graphical representa-
ray beam caused by perfection of crystal structure extend- tion of a surface, describing the variation of the specific
ing over such a distance (about 10−4 cm or greater) that volume of a substance, with independent change of pressure
interference between multiply reflected beams inside the and temperature.
crystal causes a decrease in the intensity of the externally P-X diagram—a two-dimensional, graphical representation of
diffracted beam. the isothermal phase relationships in a binary system; the
principal point—a point on the axis of symmetry of a lens or coordinates of the graph are pressure and concentration.
lens system from which any ray entering the lens or lens P-X projection—a two-dimensional, graphical representation
system will emerge in a parallel direction. of the phase relationships in a binary system produced by
prism illuminator—a 45 to 90° prism interposed in a micro- making an orthographic projection of the phase boundaries
scope for the purpose of directing an intense oblique beam of of a P-T-X diagram upon a pressure-concentration plane.
light to the object. The prism illuminator utilizes only one pyrometer—an instrument for measuring temperatures (see
half the aperture of the microscope as does the mirror pyrometry). An autographic or recording pyrometer auto-
illuminator with an attending loss of resolution over that matically measures and records temperatures.
obtainable with either a plane glass illuminator or a pellicle pyrometry—the measurement of temperatures: for example,
mirror. by measuring the electrical resistance of wire, the thermo-
process anneal—a heat treatment used to soften metal for electric force of a couple, the expansion of solids, liquids or
further cold working; in ferrous sheet and wire industries, gases, the specific heat of solids, or the intensity of radiant
heating to a temperature close to but below the lower limit of energy per unit area.
the transformation range and subsequently cooling for work- quadrivariant equilibrium—a stable state among a number
ing; in the nonferrous industries, heating above the recrys- of conjugate phases equal to two less than the number of
tallization temperatures at a time and temperature sufficient components, that is, having four degrees of freedom.
to permit the desired subsequent cold working. quadruple curve—in a P-T diagram, a line representing the
proeutectoid carbide—primary crystals of cementite formed sequence of pressure and temperature values along which
directly from the decomposition of austenite exclusive of three conjugate phases occur in univariant equilibrium.
that cementite which results from the eutectoid reaction. quadruple point—in a P-T diagram the pressure and tempera-
proeutectoid ferrite—primary crystals of ferrite formed di- ture at which four conjugate phases occur in invariant
rectly from the decomposition of austenite exclusive of that equilibrium.
ferrite which results from the eutectoid reaction. quarter wave plate—a device used with a polarizer and
program controller—a device which can automatically ex- analyzer designed to produce circularly polarized light.
ecute a pre-determined schedule of control. quasi-binary system—in a ternary or higher order system, a
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linear composition series between two congruent substances, assigning values to materials.
wherein all equilibria, at all temperatures or pressures, reference standard—a material or device whose properties
involve only phases having compositions occurring in the are determined by comparison to another standard, such as a
linear series, so that the series may be represented as binary certified reference material.
on a phase diagram. reflection (X-ray)—See diffraction.
quasi-isotropic—See isotropic.
reflection method—the technique of producing a diffraction
quasi-ternary system—in a quaternary or higher order sys-
pattern by X-rays or electrons which have been reflected
tem, a planar composition series among three congruent
from a specimen surface.
substances, wherein all equilibria, at all temperatures and
pressures, involve only phases having compositions occur- refractive index (electrons)—the ratio of electron wavelength
ring upon the plane, so that they may be represented in free space to its wavelength in a material medium.
completely upon a ternary phase diagram. replica—a reproduction of a surface in a material, for example,
quaternary system—the complete series of compositions a plastic.
produced by mixing four components in all proportions. (1) atomic—a thin replica devoid of structure on the
quenching crack—a crack formed as a result of thermal molecular level, prepared by the vacuum or hydrolytic
stresses produced by rapid cooling from a high deposition of metals or simple compounds of low molecular
temperature—not to be confused with fire crack. weight.
radiation pyrometer—an instrument for determining tem- ( 2) cast—a reproduction of a surface in plastic made by
peratures by measuring the radiance (radiant energy per unit the evaporation of the solvent from a solution of the plastic
area) from an object. or by polymerization of a monomer on the surface.
random orientation—a condition of a polycrystalline aggre- ( 3) collodion—a replica of a surface cast in nitro-
gate in which the constituent crystals have orientations cellulose.
completely random with respect to one another. (4) Formvar—a reproduction of a surface in a plastic
range, exposure—See exposure scale. Formvar film.
reaction isotherm—in a temperature-concentration phase dia- (5) gelatin—a reproduction of a surface prepared in a film
gram, a tie-element at constant temperature, representing composed of gelatin.
univariant equilibrium among three or more phases. ( 6) impression—a surface replica which is made by
recalescence—the increase in temperature which occurs after impression. The results of making an impression.
undercooling because the rate of liberation of heat during (7) molecular—the reproduction of a surface in a high
transformation of a material exceeds the rate of dissipation polymer such as collodion and other plastics.
of heat. (8) negative—that replica which is obtained by the direct
reciprocal lattice—a lattice of points each of which represents contact of the replicating material with the specimen. In it,
a set of planes in the crystal lattice, such that a vector from the contour of the replica surface is reversed with respect to
the origin of the reciprocal lattice to any point is normal to that of the original.
the crystal planes represented by that point and has a length (9) oxide film—a thin film of an oxide of the specimen to
which is the reciprocal of the plane spacing. be examined. The replica is prepared by air, oxygen,
recrystallized grain size—( 1) the grain by heating following chemical, or electrochemical oxidation of the parent metal
cold work where the time and temperature are so chosen and is subsequently freed either mechanically or chemically
that, while recrystallization is complete, essentially no grain for purposes of examination.
growth has occurred. (10) plastic—a reproduction in plastic of the surface to be
(2) in aluminum and magnesium alloys, the grain size studied, prepared by evaporation of the solvent from a
after recrystallization, without regard to grain growth or the solution of plastic, by polymerization of a monomer, or
recrystallization conditions. solidification of a plastic on the surface.
recrystallization—the formation of a new grain structure (11) positive—a replica, the contours of which correspond
through nucleation and growth commonly produced by directly to the surface being replicated; that is, elevations on
subjecting a metal, that may be strained, to suitable condi- the surface are elevations on the replica.
tions of time and temperature. (12) preshadowed—a replica formed by the application of
reference junction—that junction of a thermocouple which is the shadowing material to a surface to be replicated, before
held at a known temperature. the thin replica film is cast or otherwise deposited on the
reference junction correction—a correction in terms of surface.
electromotive force (millivolts) to be applied to the electro- (13) pseudo—a replica which has portions of the material
motive force generated by a thermocouple to compensate for being replicated embedded in it.
the difference between the actual temperature of the refer- (14) tape replica method (faxfilm)—a method of produc-
ence junction and that used as the basic reference junction ing a replica by pressing the softened surface of a tape or
temperature in standard conversion tables. sheet of a plastic material on the surface to be replicated.
reference material—a material or substance, one or more (15) vapor deposited—a replica formed of a metal or a salt
properties of which are sufficiently well established to be by the condensation of the vapors of the material onto the
used for the assessment of a measurement method or for surface to be replicated.
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replicate—in electron microscopy, to reproduce by means of a rolling direction (in rolled metals)—See longitudinal direc-
replica. tion.
resistance thermometer—an instrument for determining tem- saddle curve—in a phase diagram, the locus of a series of
perature by measuring the electrical resistance of a standard- maximum points which itself passes through a minimum
ized material exposed to that temperature. value.
resolution—the fineness of detail in an object which is saddle point—the minimum point on a saddle curve, which is
revealed by an optical device. Resolution is usually specified a univariant point, a composition of congruent melting.
as the minimum distance by which two lines or points in the saturated gun—a self-biased electron gun in which electron
object must be separated before they can be revealed as emission is limited by space charge rather than filament
separate lines or points in the image (see resolving power temperature.
and shape resolution). The theoretical limit of resolution is scanning microscope—an electron microscope in which the
determined from the equation: image is formed by a beam operating in synchronism with an
d 5 0.61 l/~n sin A.A./2 ! (7) electron probe scanning the object. The intensity of the
image forming beam is proportional to the scattering or
where: secondary emission of the specimen where the probe strikes
d = minimum distance between object points observed it.
as distinct points in the image. scattering (X-ray)—a general term which includes both
l = wavelength of the radiation employed. Compton and coherent scattering.
n = the minimum refractive index of the media be- scratch—in micro-indentation hardness testing, a mark or
tween the object and the objective lens. groove cut in the specimen by moving a loaded indenter
A.A. = the angular aperture.
across the surface.
resolving power—the ability of a given lens system to reveal
screen lens—an electrostatic electron lens consisting of a
fine detail in an object. (See also Resolution.)
combination of screens or foils at different potentials.
retardation plate—a plate placed in the path of a beam of
screen plate or film— See color film.
polarized light for the purpose of introducing a difference in
phase. Usually quarter-wave or half-wave plates are used, screw stock—metal in the form of wire or rod, usually a free-
but if the light passes through them twice the phase machining alloy used for automatic screw machine work.
difference is doubled. seam—an unwelded fold or lap on the surface of a metal which
reticle—a system of lines, circles, dots, cross hairs or wires, or appears as a crack, usually the result of defects in casting or
some other pattern, placed in the eyepiece or at an interme- working which have not welded shut.
diate plane on the optic axis which is used as a measuring secondary (concerning X-rays)—the X-rays emitted by a
reference, focusing target, or to define a camera field of view specimen irradiated by a primary beam.
(a reticle is different than a graticule, see graticule). secondary extinction—a decrease in the intensity of a dif-
retrograde condensation—where the critical point of multi- fracted X-ray beam caused by parallelism or near-
component liquid-vapor equilibrium occurs below the maxi- parallelism of mosaic blocks in a mosaic crystal; the lower
mum in temperature and pressure of the two-phase region, a blocks are partially screened from the incident radiation by
sequence of increasing pressure change, at a temperature the upper blocks, which have reflected some of it.
between the temperature maximum and the critical point, section—in a phase diagram, a planar cut through a space
will cause a partial condensation of the vapor to liquid and diagram; sections are commonly isotherms, isobars or isop-
then a full return to the vapor state, called retrograde leths.
condensation. segregation—concentration of alloying elements in specific
retrograde vaporization—the inverse of retrograde conden- regions in a metallic object.
sation. selenide-type inclusions— See sulfide-type inclusions.
reversal plate, film, or paper—a photographic material self-balancing potentiometer—See potentiometer.
which, after exposure to a subject, is processed to give a self-biased gun—an electron gun in which the cathode cap is
positive reproduction without transfer of the image to biased with respect to the filament by means of a bias resistor
another sheet material. through which the emission current flows between the
reversed print—a print prepared from a positive transparency. filament and cap. This type of gun provides high intensity at
(See also negative print.) low angular apertures. (See biased gun, unbiased gun,
reversed transparency— See positive transparency. saturated gun.)
rhombohedral—having three equal axes, with the included semiapochromatic objective—a compromise, in the correc-
angles equal to each other but not equal to 90°. tion for chromatic and spherical aberration, between achro-
rigid grinding disk—a non-fabric support surface, such as a matic and apochromatic objectives; frequently called fluorite
composite of metal/ceramic or metal/polymer, charged dur- objectives.
ing use with an abrasive (usually 6 to 15 micrometer semiapochromatic objective lens—an objective lens with
diamond particles) and used for grinding operations in a both longitudinal and spherical chromatic correction for
metallographic preparation. green and blue. Should be used with green or blue filters.
ridging indentation—a hardness indentation around which semiautomatic image analyzer—a device which can detect
metal has been piled up above the plane of the specimen.
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and measure features of interest in an image but requires the time during which light is allowed to act on a light sensitive
operator to perform feature discrimination. medium.
sensitive tint plate—a gypsum plate (better known as a red I side centered—equivalent to end centered with a different
or full wave plate), used with cross polarized light producing choice of axes. (See end centered.)
circularly polarized light. For anisotropic materials, colors sigma (s)—solid phase found originally in binary iron-
are enhanced, for isotropic materials, a magenta hue is chromium alloys which is in stable equilibrium at tempera-
produced. tures below 820°C. Now used to identify any structure which
sensitivity, photographic—the degree to which a photo- possesses the same complex body-centered crystal structure.
graphic material responds by a change in its chemical or silicate type inclusions—inclusions composed essentially of
physical state to the action of both light and chemical silicate glass, normally plastic at foraging and hot-rolling
development. The sensitivity of a given photographic mate- temperatures, which appear in steel in the wrought condition
rial varies with wavelength of the incident radiation. The as small elongated inclusions usually dark in color under
average degree of response is commonly referred to as reflected light as normally observed.
speed. simple (concerning lattices)—having similar atoms or groups
sensitometric curve— See characteristic curve. of atoms separated by integral translations only.
series (in x-ray spectra)—the group of characteristic X-ray sinking indentation—a hardness indentation around which
lines which results when a vacancy in one particular electron the metal has been depressed below the plane of the
level is filled from outside levels. Thus, the K series lines are specimen.
emitted when a K level vacancy is filled. slip—translation of a portion of a crystal relative to the
adjacent portion.
shadow angle—the angle between the line of motion of the
slip bands—See slip lines.
evaporated atoms and the surface being shadowed. The
angle is analogous to the angle of incidence in optics. May slip lines (slip bands)—traces of slip planes observed at low
be specified as an arc tangent “a” so that “a” is in the ratio magnifications on the polished surface of a crystal which has
between the height of the object casting the shadow over the been deformed after polishing; since no differences in
length of the shadow (see shadowing). orientation exist, repolishing will remove the traces. With
increasing resolving power and magnification, an individual
shadow cast replica—a replica which has been shadowed.
line may be revealed as a series of parallel lines. The “line”
(See also shadowing.)
which is visible at low magnifications is then described as a
shadowing—a process by which a metal or salt is deposited on slip band.
a specimen at an angle (see shadow angle) from a heated slip planes—in a given metal, slip occurs most easily along
filament in a vacuum to enhance image contrast by inhibiting certain crystallographic planes. Hence, these planes are
the deposition of the shadowing material behind projections. termed slip planes.
(1) metal shadowing—the enhancement of contrast in a slit—a narrow aperture, usually rectangular in shape.
microscope specimen by the vacuum deposition of a dense slit system—a group of two or more slits arranged to define a
metal at an angle generally not perpendicular to the surface beam.
of the object.
soft (X-rays)—of long wavelength.
(2) oblique evaporation—the condensation of evaporated
solder embrittlement—reduction in ductility of a metal or
material onto a substrate which is inclined to the direct line
alloy associated with local penetration by molten solder long
of the vapor stream in order to produce shadows.
grain boundaries.
shadow microscope—an electron microscope which forms a solidification range—the temperature range between the liq-
shadow image of an object using electrons emanating from uidus and the solidus.
a point source located close to the object.
solidification shrinkage crack—a crack that forms, usually at
shape resolution—an electron image exhibits shape resolution elevated temperature because of the shrinkage stresses built
when a polygon can be recognized as such in the image. up during solidification of a metal casting; a hot crack.
Roughly, the particle diameter (defined as the diameter of a solid solution—a solid phase in which the composition and
circle of the same area as the particle) must exceed the properties including lattice parameter can vary continuously
resolution by a factor equal to the number of sides on the without changing the crystal structure; a primary or terminal
polygon. solid solution is limited by and has the crystal structures of
shattering—a phenomenon observed in hardness testing in a pure metal, a secondary or intermediate solid solution has
which fissures or subsurface cracks originate in a hardness the basic crystal structure of an intermetallic compound but
indentation and spread to adjacent parts of the specimen. does not necessarily include its stoichiometric composition.
shielding—in an electron-optical instrument, the protection of solidus—the locus of points in a phase diagram, representing
the electron beam from distortion due to extraneous electric the temperature, under equilibrium conditions, at which each
and magnetic fields. Since the metallic column of the composition in the system begins to melt during heating, or
microscope is at ground potential, it provides electrostatic completes freezing during cooling.
shielding. Magnetic shields may be made of a high perme- soller slit—a slit containing a set of thin, closely spaced,
ability material. parallel metal plates used for the purpose of largely elimi-
shutter—a mechanical device which permits regulation of the nating convergent and divergent rays.
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solution—in a chemical system, a phase existing over a range stresses occurring during preparation or observation. In
of composition. electron metallography, strain may be caused by stretching
solvus—the locus of points in a phase diagram, representing during removal of a replica or during subsequent washing or
the temperature, under equilibrium conditions, at which each drying. Also, electrical and thermal stresses caused by the
composition of a solid phase becomes capable of coexistence electron beam may arise during observation.
with another solid phase, that is, a solid-solubility limit. spectrograph (X-ray)—an instrument for recording photo-
Usually applied to the terminal solid solution. graphically at predetermined angles the results of diffraction
sorbite—an aggregate of carbide and ferrite produced by experiments.
tempering martensite at temperatures in the vicinity of spectrometer (X-ray)—( 1) an instrument similar to a spec-
600°C and which may be resolved readily at relatively low trograph but employing a movable X-ray measuring device,
magnification (for example, 5003). such as a Geiger-Müller counter or ionization chamber,
(Contemporary) With reference to tool steels, an aggre- instead of a photographic film. The measuring device moves
gate of carbide and ferrite produced by cooling at a rate too on a circle centered on the spectrometer axis.
slow for martensite formation and too fast for pearlite (2) An instrument for recording, similar to the spec-
formation. trograph, except that a Geiger-Müller counter, scintillation
source (X-rays)—the area emitting primary X-rays in a counter, proportional counter, or ionization chamber substi-
diffraction experiment. The actual source is always the focal tutes for the photographic recording.
spot of the X-ray tube but the virtual source may be a slit or speed (photographic or film) (see sensitivity)—a measure of
pinhole, depending on the conditions of the experiment. the response of sensitivity of the material to light, often
space charge aberration—an aberration resulting from the expressed numerically according to one of several systems,
mutual repulsion of the electrons in a beam. This aberration for example, H. and D., D.I.N., Scheiner, and American
is most noticeable in low-voltage, high-current beams. This Standard speed.
repulsion acts as a negative lens causing rays which were spherical aberration—a lens defect in which image-forming
originally parallel to diverge. rays passing through the outer zones of the lens focus at a
space lattice—See lattice. distance from the principal plane different from that of the
spacing (between lattice planes)—See interplanar distance. rays passing through the center of the lens.
spatial grain size—the average size of the three-dimensional spherical projection—a projection in which the orientation of
grains, as opposed to the more conventional grain size a crystal plane is represented by the point where the plane
determined by a simple average of observations made on a normal intersects a sphere drawn with the crystal as the
cross section of the material. center.
specimen chamber (electron optics)—the compartment lo- spheroidite—a coarse aggregate of carbide and ferrite usually
cated in the column of the electron microscope in which the produced by tempering martensite at temperatures slightly
specimen is placed for observation. below the eutectoid temperature. Generally, any aggregate of
specimen charge (electron optics)—the electrical charge ferrite and large spheroidal carbide particles no matter how
resulting from the impingement of electrons on a noncon- produced.
ducting specimen.
spinodal curve—a graphical representation of the realizable
specimen contamination (electron optics)— the contamina- limit of the super-saturation of a solution.
tion of the specimen caused by the condensation upon it of
sputtering—the production of specimens in the form of thin
residual vapors in the microscope under the influence of
films by deposition from a cathode subjected to positive ion
electron bombardment.
bombardment.
specimen distortion (electron optics)— a physical change in
the specimen caused by desiccation or heating by the stage—a device for holding a sample in the desired position in
electron beam. the optical path.
specimen grid—See specimen screen. stage micrometer—a graduated scale used on the stage of a
specimen holder (electron optics)—a device which supports microscope for calibration.
the specimen and specimen screen in the correct position in standard—1) a physical reference used as a basis for com-
the specimen chamber of the microscope. parison or calibration;
specimen screen (electron optics)—a disk of fine screen, 2) a concept that has been established by authority, custom,
usually 200-mesh stainless steel, copper, or nickel, which or agreement to serve as a model or rule in the measurement
supports the replica or specimen support film for observation of quality or establishment of a practice or procedure.
in the microscope. standard (hardness) block—a carefully prepared metal block
specimen stage—the part of the microscope which supports used to calibrate hardness test machines.
the specimen holder and specimen in the microscope, and standard grain-size micrograph—a micrograph taken of a
can be moved in a plane perpendicular to the optic axis from known grain size at a known magnification, which is used to
outside the column. determine grain size by direct comparison with another
specimen stage controls—the external controls by means of micrograph or with the image of a specimen.
which the stage can be moved. steadite—(1) ternary eutectic found in alloys of iron, carbon
specimen strain—a distortion of the specimen resulting from and phosphorus. In cast irons it consists of austenite,
25
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cementite and iron phosphide or austenite and iron- composed essentially of manganese iron sulfide solid solu-
phosphide. If conditions are such that carbon is deposited as tions (Fe, Mn) S. They are characterized by plasticity at hot-
cementite, the three constituents of the eutectic are present. rolling and forging temperatures and, in the hot worked
If, however, the carbon is deposited as graphite, that precipi- product, appear as dove gray elongated inclusions varying
tated from the ternary eutectic crystallizes on existing flakes from a threadlike to oval outline. Selenide type inclusions
and the eutectic consists of two constituents only, namely, may behave similarly.
austenite and iron-phosphide. superlattice—See ordered structure.
(2) Binary eutectic found in alloys of iron and phosphorus symmetry—a property of a crystal in virtue of which equiva-
consisting of ferrite and iron-phosphide. lent lattice points can be brought into coincidence by
stepdown test—a test involving the preparation of a series of operations such as rotation, inversion, or reflection. Such
machined steps progressing inward from the surface of a bar operations, are called symmetry operations or elements.
for the purpose of detecting by visual inspection internal syntectic equilibrium—a reversible univariant transformation
laminations caused by inclusion segregates. See Practice in which a solid phase, that is stable only at lower tempera-
E 45. ture, decomposes into two conjugate liquid phases that
stereo angle—one half of the angle through which the speci- remain stable at higher temperature; for example:
men is tilted when taking a pair of stereomicrographs. The L1 + L2 = a.
axis of rotation lies in the plane of the specimen. system (crystal)—See crystal system.
stereographic projection—the projection to a plane from a tape replica—See replica.
spherical projection, customarily using the South Pole as the target (in X-ray tubes)—that part of an X-ray tube which the
eye point. electrons strike and from which X-rays are emitted.
stereology—the study of mathematical procedures used to temper carbon—clusters of finely divided in malleable iron,
derive three-dimensional parameters describing a structure that are formed as a result of decomposition of cementite, for
from two-dimensional measurements. example, by heating white cast iron to temperatures above
stereomicroscope—a light optical microscope that permits the ferrite-austenite transformation temperature and holding
each eye to examine the specimen at a slightly different at these temperatures for a considerable period of time
angle, thereby retaining its three-dimensional relationship. (graphite, nodular).
stereoscopic micrographs—a pair of micrographs of the same tempered martensite—the decomposition products which
area but taken from different angles so that the two micro- result from heating martensite to temperatures below the
graphs when properly mounted and viewed reveal the ferrite austenite (Ae1) transformation temper. Under the light
structures of the objects in their three-dimensional relation- microscope, darkening of the martensite needles is observed
ships. in the initial stages of tempering. Prolonged tempering at
stereoscopic specimen holder—a specimen holder designed high temperatures produces spheroidized carbides in a ma-
for the purpose of making stereomicrographs. It makes trix of ferrite. At the higher resolution of the electron
possible the tilting of the specimen through the stereo angle. microscope, the initial stage of tempering is observed to
stress-corrosion crack—a crack which may be intergranular result in a structure containing a precipitate of fine epsilon
or transgranular depending on the material, resulting from the iron carbide particles. At about 500°F (260°C), there is a
combined action of corrosion and stress, either external transition to a structure of larger and elongated cementite
(applied) or internal (residual). particles in a ferrite matrix. With further tempering at higher
stringer—a single, high-aspect ratio, elongated inclusion, two temperature, the cementite particles become spheroidal,
or more elongated inclusions, or a number of small non- decreased in number, and increased in size.
deformable inclusions aligned in a linear pattern due to terminal solid solution—in a multicomponent system, any
deformation. solid phase, of limited composition range, which includes
structure—as applied to a crystal, the shape and size of the the composition of one of the components of the system.
unit cell and the location of all atoms within the unit cell. As ternary system—the complete series of compositions pro-
applied to microstructure, the size, shape and arrangement of duced by mixing three components in all proportions.
phases. tervariant equilibrium—a stable state among a number of
structure factor—the ratio of the amplitude of the wave conjugate phases equal to one less than the number of
scattered by all the atoms of a unit cell to the amplitude of components, that is, having three degrees of freedom.
the wave scattered by a single electron. Symbol = F. Tessar—trade name for a photographic objective made by
sublimation pressure—at a stated temperature, that pressure combining a positive lens, a negative lens, and a doublet,
at which congruent equilibrium between a solid substance which is used for making macrographs.
and its vapor occurs. tetragonal—having three mutually perpendicular axes, two
sublimation temperature—at a stated pressure, that tempera- equal in length and unequal to the third.
ture at which congruent equilibrium between a solid sub- texture (cube)—See preferred orientation.
stance and its vapor occurs. texture (deformation)—See preferred orientation.
submicroscopic—See ultramicroscopic. substrate— thermal arrest—See arrest.
(substratum) that which lies under; foundation. sulfide-type thermal electromotive force—the voltage generated when
inclusions—in steels, nonmetallic inclusions one junction of two dissimilar metal wires is at a different
26
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temperature than the other junction. stated temperature, the pressure, at which two solid phases
thermal expansion—the increase in the dimensions or the exist in congruent equilibrium, that is, an allotropic trans-
volume of a body due to a change in temperature. (See formation temperature, or pressure.
coefficient of thermal expansion.) transition structure—in precipitation from solid solution, a
thermionic cathode gun—(hot cathode gun). An electron gun metastable precipitate which is coherent with the matrix.
which derives its electrons from a heated filament which transmission method—a method of X-ray or electron diffrac-
may also serve as the cathode. tion in which the recorded diffracted beams emerge on the
thermionic emission—the ejection of a stream of electrons same side of the specimen as the transmitted primary beam.
from a hot cathode, usually under the influence of an transmission microscope—a microscope in which the image
electrostatic field. forming rays pass through (are transmitted by) the specimen
thermocouple—two dissimilar electrical conductors so joined being observed.
as to produce a thermal electromotive force when the transverse direction— See cross direction.
junctions are at different temperatures. triclinic—having three axes of any length, none of the in-
thermocouple vacuum gage—a thermal conductivity or hot- cluded angles being equal to one another or equal to 90°.
wire gage in which the temperature of an electrically heated triple curve—in a P-T diagram, a line representing the
fine wire varies as the thermal conductivity of the residual sequence of pressure and temperature values among which
gas. The thermocouple measures the temperature change. two conjugate phases occur in univariant equilibrium.
thermoelectric pyrometer—a device with which tempera- triple point—in a P-T diagram, the temperature and pressure
tures are measured by utilizing the thermoelectric effects. In at which three phases occur in invariant equilibrium.
its simplest form, it consists of a thermocouple of two troostite—a previously unresolvable, fine aggregate of carbide
dissimilar metals which develop an emf when the junctions and ferrite produced by tempering martensite at tempera-
are at different temperatures and an instrument for measuring tures in the vicinity of 400°C. Term variously and errone-
the emf developed by the thermocouple. ously applied to bainite and nodular fine pearlite. Confusion
thermomechanical process, n—controlled thermal and defor- arose because of similarity in appearance among the three
mation treatment performed at an elevated temperature. structures before the advent of high-power microscopy.
threshold setting, in image analysis—the selected range of (Contemporary). With reference to tool steels, synony-
gray levels corresponding to a constituent in the field of the mous with upper bainite.
view. twin bands—bands across a crystal grain, observed on a
tie line—in a binary or higher order phase diagram, an polished and etched section, the crystallographic orientations
isothermal, isobaric straight line connecting the composi- of which have a mirror image relationship to the orientation
tions of a pair of conjugate phases. of the matrix grain across a composition plane which usually
tie tetrahedron—in a quaternary or higher order phase dia- is parallel to the sides of the band.
gram, an isothermal, isobaric four-cornered space figure (1) annealing twin—twin bands which are produced
connecting the compositions of four conjugate phases. during annealing following cold work.
tie triangle—in a ternary or higher order phase diagram, an (2) mechanical twins—twin bands which are produced by
isothermal, isobaric plane three-cornered, straight-sided fig- cold work.
ure connecting the compositions of three conjugate phases. (3) Neumann bands—mechanical twins in ferrite.
time-temperature curve—in thermal analysis, a curve pro- T-X diagram—a two-dimensional, graphical representation of
duced by plotting time against the temperature. the isobaric phase relationships in a binary system; the
traceability—the ability to demonstrate by means of an coordinates of the graph are temperature and concentration.
unbroken chain of comparisons that a measurement is in ultramicroscopic—below the resolution of the microscope.
agreement within acceptable limits of uncertainty with ultraviolet—invisible light radiation, adjacent to the violet end
comparable nationally or internationally recognized stan- of the visible spectrum, with wavelengths from about 200 to
dards. 400 nm (nanometres).
transcrystalline cracking—cracking or fracturing which oc- unary system—composed of one component.
curs through or across a crystal; intracrystalline cracking. unbiased gun—(zero biased gun) an electron gun in which the
transformation temperature—the temperature at which a cathode cap is at the same potential as the filament (see self-
change in phase occurs. The term is sometimes used to biased gun). This type of gun provides a low-intensity
denote the limiting temperature of a transformation range. illumination with large angular aperture.
Sometimes incorrectly and loosely referred to as Critical under-cooling—a decrease in temperature below that at which
Point. an equilibrium phase change exists, without the occurrence
transition curve—in a P-T diagram, the locus of the tempera- of the transformation.
ture and pressure values at which a congruent equilibrium unit cell—a parallelepiped element of crystal structure, con-
between two solid phases exists. taining a certain number of atoms, the repetition of which
transition phase—a non-equilibrium state that appears in a through space will build up the complete crystal. (See
chemical system in the course of transformation between lattice.)
two equilibrium states. unit of structure (in crystals)—the unit cell, or the group of
transition point—at a stated pressure, the temperature, or at a atoms associated with a unit cell.
27
E7
univariant equilibrium—a stable state among a number of the same value, measured along the direction of propagation
phases equal to one more than the number of components, of the wave. It is equal to the velocity divided by the
that is, having one degree of freedom. frequency. (See also electron wavelength.)
upper critical point—in a phase diagram, a specific value of Weissenberg camera—an X-ray diffraction camera used
composition, temperature and pressure, or combinations mainly for the determination of unknown crystal structures.
thereof, occurring as a maximum in temperature, or pressure, A variation of the rotating crystal camera, it has a shield in
for the coexistence of two or more conjugate phases and at front of the film which admits the diffracted beams of only
which the conjugate phases become identical. one layer line. The film moves parallel to the camera axis
vacuum lock—See air lock. and in synchronism with the rotation of the crystal. Over-
Vant Hoff’s law—equilibrium shifts with increasing tempera- lapping spots are thus prevented and the film records not
ture so as to absorb heat, or with decreasing temperature so only the position of a diffraction spot but also the position of
as to liberate heat. the crystal at the time the spot was produced.
vapor-deposited replica— See replica. weld structure—the microstructure of a weld deposit and
vaporization curve—in a P-T diagram the locus of pressure heat-affected base metal.
and temperature values at which a congruent liquid is in white (X-rays)—containing a large number of wavelengths.
equilibrium with its vapor. widefield eyepiece—an eyepiece that permits the observation
vaporization point—at a stated pressure, the temperature at of an extended field of view of the specimen.
which a congruent liquid is in equilibrium with its vapor, or, Widmannstätten structure—a precipitate structure, resulting
at a stated temperature, the pressure at which the same event from the precipitation of a new phase along certain crystal-
occurs. lographic planes of the parent solid solution and character-
variability—also called “variance”; the number of degrees of ized by a geometrical pattern appearance in the microstruc-
freedom of a heterogeneous phase equilibrium. ture, originally observed in meteorites but readily produced
variance—See variability. in many other alloys with proper heat treatment.
verification—confirmation by examination and provision of work hardening—a change in the hardness of a material as a
evidence that an instrument, material, reference, or standard result of plastic deformation.
is in conformance with a specification. working distance—the distance between the surface of the
vertical illumination—light incident on an object from the specimen being examined and the front surface of the
objective side such that smooth planes perpendicular to the objective lens.
optical axis of the objective appear bright. Wratten filter—the trade name for a specific type of color
Vickers—See micro penetration tester. In a more restricted filter.
sense, the 136° diamond pyramid indenter used in microin- X-radiation—electromagnetic radiation of the same nature as
dentation hardness tests. visible light but having a wavelength approximately 1/1000
voltage alignment— See alignment. that of visible light.
V-X diagram—a graphical representation of the isothermal or X-ray tube—a device for the production of X-rays by the
isobaric phase relationships in a binary system, the coordi- impact of high-speed electrons on a metal target.
nates of the graph being specific volume and concentration. X- rays—See X-radiation.
wavelength (X-rays)—the minimum distance between points zone—any group of crystal planes which are all parallel to one
at which the electric vector of an electromagnetic wave has line, called the zone axis.
APPENDIX
(Nonmandatory Information)
X1. ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
X1.1 The following abbreviations are frequently used in the APFEM atomic probe field emission microscopy
field of metallography. ASM acoustic scanning microscope
BEKP back scattered electron kikuchi pattern
Å Angstrom unit. BSE back scattered electrons
K X-rays (See K radiation.) BSI back scattered electron image
CBED convergent beam electron diffraction
X1.2 The following abbreviations and acronyms are fre- CCD charge coupled device
quently used in the area of metallography. CI confidence interval
CL confidence limit
AEM analytical electron microscope CLM cathoodo luminescence
AES auger electron spectroscopy CM confocal microscopy
AFM atomic force microscope CV coefficeient of variation
AGS average grain size DIC differential interference contrast
AI anisotropy index EBIC electron beam induced current
AIA automatic image analysis EBSP Electron Back Scattered Pattern
ALA as large as
28
E7
ECP electron channeling pattern SLAM scanning laser acoustic microscope
EDS energy dispersive spectroscopy SRMN Standard Reference Manual
EDXA energy dispersive X-ray analysis STEM scanning transmission electron microscopy
EELS electron energy loss spectroscopy STIM scanning transmission ion microscopy
EMMA electron microscopy micro analyzer STM scanning tunneling microscope
EMPA electron microprobe micro analysis TCP topologically close-packed
EPMA electron probe micro analysis TEM transmission electron microscope
ESCA electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis TOF SIMS time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrom-
FEM field electron microscopy eter
FFT fast Fourier transform TSC thermal sprayed coating
FIM field ion microscopy UV ultraviolet
GCP geometrically close-packed WDS wavelength dispersive spectrometry
HB Brinell hardness number WORM write once read many
HEED high energy electron diffraction XRD X-ray diffraction
HK Knoop hardness number XRF X-ray fluorescence
HOLZ high order laue zone XRM X-ray microscopy
HR Rockwell hardness number (requires a scale ZAF Z-Absorption fluorescence
designation; for example HRC) ZAP zone axis pattern
HV Vickers hardness number ZOLZ zero order laue zone
HVDF high velocity oxy-fuel
IA image analysis X1.3 The following are abbreviations of societies and
IR infrared
JK Jernkontoret
institutes applicable to the field of metallography.
LaB6 lanthanum-hexaboride cathode AIME American Institute of Mining and Metallur-
LEED low energy electron diffraction gical Engineers
LM light microscopy AISI American Iron and Steel Institute
LOM light optical microscopy ANSI American National Standards Institute
LP lorentz polarization ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
LSCM laser scanning confocal microscope ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
OCC ALA occasional as large as DIN Deutsche Industrie Norm
OCF orientation correlation function ICDD International Center for Diffraction Data (see
ODF orientation distribution function JCPDS)
PAGS prior austenite grain size IEC International Electrochemical Commission
PFZ precipitate free zone IMS International Metallographic Society
RA relative accuracy ISO International Organization for Standardiza-
ROI region of interest tion
SAD selected area diffraction JCPDS Joint Committee on Powder Diffraction
SAECP selected area electron channeling pattern Standards (see ICDD)
SAED selected area electron diffraction JIS Japanese Industry Standard
SAM scanning auger microscopy MRS Materials Research Society
SANS small angle neutron scattering MSA Microscopy Society of America
SE secondary electrons NIST National Institute for Standards &
SEI secondary electron image Technology
SEM scanning electron microscope RMS Royal Microscopical Society
SIM scanning ion microprobe SAE Society of Automative Engineers
SIMS secondary ion mass spectroscopy TMS The Metals Society
The following documents and publications may provide additional definitions of terminology in the field of metallography or
closely related fields.
(1) ASTM Standards: (6) Dictionary of Light Microscopy, 1989, Royal Microscopical Soci-
E 44 Definitions of Terms Relating to the Heat Treatment of ety.
Metals (7) Glossary of Metallurgical Terms and Engineering Tables, 1984,
(2) E 175 Terminology of Microscopy ASM International.
(3) E 456 Terminology Relating to Quality and Statistics
(4) Other ASTM Literature:Compilation of ASTM Standard Definitions (8) Glossary of Microscopical Terms and Definitions, 2nd ed., 1989,
(5) Other Publications: New York Microscopical Society.
ASTM International takes no position respecting the validity of any patent rights asserted in connection with any item mentioned
in this standard. Users of this standard are expressly advised that determination of the validity of any such patent rights, and the risk
of infringement of such rights, are entirely their own responsibility.
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if not revised, either reapproved or withdrawn. Your comments are invited either for revision of this standard or for additional standards
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Standard Terminology Relating to

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X1. ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

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