14.

Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter

Can you recall? like tiny oscillators that emit electromagnetic
radiation only in discrete packets (E = nh),
What is electromagnetic radiation?
where  is the frequency of oscillator. The
What are the characteristics of a wave?
What do you mean by frequency and wave number emissions occur
associated withonly when the oscillator
a wave?
makes
What are the characteristic properties of particles a jump from one quantized level of
of matter?
How do we define momentum of a particle? energy to another of lower energy. This model
of Planck
What are the different types of energies that a particle turned
of matter out to be the basis for
can possess?
Einstein’s theory to explain the observations
of experiments on photoelectric effect which
we will study in the following section.
14.2 The Photoelectric Effect:
Heinrich Hertz discovered photoelectric
emission in 1887 while he was working on the
14.1 Introduction: production of electromagnetic waves by spark
In earlier chapters you have studied discharge. He noticed that when ultraviolet
various optical phenomena like reflection, light is incident on a metal electrode, a high
refraction, interference, diffraction and voltage spark passes across the electrodes.
polarization of light. Light is electromagnetic Actually electrons were emitted from the
radiation and most of the phenomena metal surface. The surface which emits
mentioned have been explained considering electrons, when illuminated with appropriate
light as a wave. We are also familiar with radiation, is known as a photosensitive
the wave nature of electromagnetic radiation surface.
in other regions like X-rays, -rays, infrared
and ultraviolet radiation and microwaves
apart from the visible light. Electromagnetic
radiation consists of mutually perpendicular
oscillating electric and magnetic fields, both
being perpendicular to the direction in which
the wave and energy are travelling. Fig. 14.1: Process of photoelectric effect.
In Chapter 3 on Kinetic Theory of Gases The phenomenon of emission of
and Radiation, you have come across electrons from a metal surface, when radiation
spectrum of black body radiation which of appropriate frequency is incident on it, as
cannot be explained using the wave nature of shown in Fig. 14.1, is known as photoelectric
radiation. Such phenomena appear during the effect. For metals like zinc, cadmium,
interaction of radiation with matter and need magnesium etc., ultraviolet radiation is
quantum physics to explain them. necessary while for alkali metals, even visible
The idea of 'quantization of energy' was radiation is sufficient.
first proposed by Planck to explain the black Electrical energy can be obtained from
body spectrum. Planck proposed a model that light (electromagnetic radiation) in two
says (i) energy is emitted in packets and (ii) ways
at higher frequencies, the energy of a packet (i) photo-emissive effect as described
is large. Planck assumed that atoms behave above and (ii) photo-voltaic effect, used in
a solar cell. In the latter case, an electrical

1
potential difference is generated in a
semiconductor using solar energy.

2
14.2.1 Experimental Set-up of Photoelectric from the metal through its surface. These
Effect: electrons, called photoelectrons, are collected
A typical laboratory experimental set-up at the collector C (photoelectron are ordinary
for the photoelectric effect (Fig. 14.2) consists electrons, they are given this name to indicate
of an evacuated glass tube with a quartz that they are emitted due to incident light).
window containing a photosensitive metal We now know that free electrons are
plate - the emitter E and another metal plate available in a metal plate. They are emitted if
- the collector C. The emitter and collector sufficient energy (we will know more about
are connected to a voltage source whose this energy later in the Chapter) is supplied to
voltage can be changed and to an ammeter to them to overcome the barrier that keeps them
measure the current in the circuit. A potential inside the metal.
difference of V, as measured by the voltmeter, In the late nineteenth century, these
is maintained between the emitter E (the facts were not known and scientists working
cathode) and collector C (the anode), on photoelectric effect performed various
normally C being at a positive potential with experiments and noted down their
respect to the emitter. This potential observations. These observations are
difference can be varied and C can even be at summarized below. We will try to analyze
negative potential with respect to E. When the these observations and their explanation.
anode potential V is positive, it accelerates the 14.2.2 Observations from Experiments on
electrons (hence called accelerating potential) Photoelectric Effect:
while when the anode potential V is negative, 1. When ultraviolet radiation was incident on
it retards the flow of electrons (therefore the emitter plate, current I was recorded
known as retarding potential). A source S of even if the intensity of radiation was very
monochromatic light (light corresponding to low. Photocurrent I was observed only
only one specific frequency) of sufficiently if the frequency of the incident radiation
high frequency was more than some threshold frequency
(short wavelength  10-7 m) is used.
 .  was same for a given metal and was
0 0
the metal plate E and electrons are ejected
0

Fig. 14.2: Schematic of experimental set-up for

photoelectric effect.
Light is made to fall on the surface of

3
 different for different metals used as the
emitter. For a given frequency  ( >  ) of
the incident radiation, no matter how
feeble was the light meaning however
small the intensity of radiation be,
electrons were always emitted.
2. There was no time lag between the
incidence of light and emission of
electrons. The photocurrent started
instantaneously (within 10-9 s) on shining
the radiation even if the intensity of
radiation was low. As soon as the
incident radiation was stopped, the flow
of current stopped.
3. Keeping the frequency  of the incident
radiation and accelerating potential V
fixed, if the intensity was increased, the
photo current increased linearly with
intensity as shown in Fig. 14.3.

4
 the frequency of the incident radiation is
changed, KEmax changed. It did not depend
on the intensity of the incident radiation.
Thus, even for very small incident
intensity, if the frequency of incident
radiation was
larger than the threshold frequency v0,
Fig. 14.3: Photocurrent as a function of
incident intensity for fixed incident frequency KEmax from a given surface was always the
and accelerating potential . same for a given incident frequency.
4. The photocurrent I could also be varied 7. If increasingly negative potentials were
by changing the potential of the collector applied to the collector, the photocurrent
plate. I was dependent on the accelerating decreased and for some typical value -V0,
potential V (potential difference between photocurrent became zero. V0 was termed
the emitter and collector) for given as cut-off or stopping potential. It
incident radiation (intensity and frequency indicated that when the potential was
were fixed). Initially the current increased retarding, the photoelectrons still had
with voltage but then it remained constant. enough energy to overcome the retarding
(opposing) electric field and reach the
This was termed as the saturation current
collector. Value of V0 was same for any
I0
incident intensity as long as the incident
(Fig. 14.4). frequency was same (Fig. 14.4) but was
different for different emitter materials.
8. If the frequency of incident radiation
was changed keeping the intensity and
accelerating potential V constant, then the
saturation current remained the same but
the stopping potential V0 changed. This
observation is depicted in Fig. 14.5. The
stopping potential V0 varied linearly with 
radiation. If the material is changed or
Fig. 14.4: Photocurrent as a function of
accelerating potential for fixed incident
frequency and different incident intensities.
5. Keeping the accelerating voltage and
incident frequency fixed, if the intensity
of incident radiation was increased, the
value of saturation current also increased
proportionately, e.g., if the intensity was
doubled, the saturation current was also
doubled.
6. The maximum kinetic energy KEmax (and
hence the maximum velocity) of the
electrons depended on the potential V for
a given metal used for the emitter plate
and for a given frequency of the incident

5
 as shown in Fig. 14.6. For different
metals, the slopes of such straight lines
were the same but the intercepts on the
frequency and stopping potential axes
were different.
Fig. 14.5: Photocurrent as a function of
accelerating potential for fixed incident
intensity but different incident frequencies for
the same emitter material .
v3 > v2 > v1

v3 v
2 v1

6
 We know that metals have free electrons.
This fact makes metals good conductors of
heat and electricity. These electrons are free
to move inside the metal but are otherwise
confined inside the metal. They cannot escape
from the surface unless sufficient energy is
supplied to them. The minimum amount of
energy required to be provided to an electron
to pull it out of the metal from the surface is
Fig. 14.6: Stopping potential as a function of called the work function of the metal and is
frequency of incident radiation for emitters denoted by 0 . Work function depends on the
made of different metals.
properties of the metal and the nature of its
9. The photocurrent and hence the number of surface. Values of work function of metals are
electrons depended on the intensity but not generally expressed in a unit of energy called
on the frequency of incident radiation, as the electron volt (eV).
long as the incident frequency was larger
You have studied ionization energy of an atom. What is ioni
than the threshold frequency  and the
0
potential of anode was higher than that of for this exercise.
cathode.
14.2.3 Failure of Wave Theory to Explain
the Observations from Experiments on
Photoelectric Effect:
Most of these observations could
not be explained by the wave theory of
electromagnetic radiation. First and foremost
was the instantaneous emission of electrons
on incidence of light. Wave picture would
expect that the metal surface will absorb the
incident energy continuously. All the
electrons near the surface will absorb energy.
The metal surface will require reasonable
time (~ few minutes to hours) to accumulate
sufficient energy to knock off electrons.
Greater the intensity of incident radiation,
more will be the incident energy, hence Example 14.1: Radiation of intensity
expected time required to knock off the 0.5 × 10-4 W/m2 falls on the emitter in a photoelectric set-u
electrons will be less. For small incident
intensity, the energy incident on unit area in
unit time will be small, and will take longer to
knock off the electrons. These arguments
were contradictory to observations.
Let us try to estimate the time that will be
required for the photocurrent to start. We need
to define the term ‘work function’ of a metal

7
Table 14.1 : Typical values of work function
for some common metals.
Metal Work function (in eV)
Potassium 2.3
Sodium 2.4
Calcium 2.9
Zinc 3.6
Silver 4.3
Aluminum 4.3
Tungsten 4.5
Copper 4.7
Nickel 5.0
Gold 5.1

8
connected in the circuit? (Given the metallic radiusmaximum
of potassiumkinetic
atomenergy
is 230did
pm not depend
and work function of pota
on the incident intensity but depended on
Intensity of radiation = 0.5 × 10-4 W/m2, Area of cathode = 5 cm2 = 5 × 10-4 m2. Radius of potassium atom =
= 230 × 10-12 m the incident frequency. According to wave
Work function of potassium = 2.3 eV theory, frequency of incident radiation has
= 2.3 × 1.6 ×10-19 J no role in determining the kinetic energy
The number N of electrons present on the surface of ofcathode can be approximately
photoelectrons. Moreover, calculated
wave theory assuming that ea
N = Area of cathode/ area covered by one atom
expected photoelectrons to be emitted for any
= 5×10-4/(3.141523010-1223010-12)
= 3009×1012 frequency if the intensity of radiation was
large enough. But observations indicated Incidentthat
power on the ca
for a given metal surface, some characteristic
= 0.5 × 10-4 W/m2 × 5×
cut-off frequency  existed below which no = 2.5×10-8 W
Wave theory assumes that this power distributed over the whole area
photoelectrons wereof emitted
0
the cathode is uniformly
however intenseabsorbed by a
= 2.5×10-8 W /3009×1012  8.31×10-24 W. the incident radiation was and photoelectrons
Work function of potassium is 2.30 eV = 2.30 × 1.6 ×10-19 J
were always emitted if incident frequency 
= 3.68 ×10-19 J.
Hence each electron will require minimum 3.68×10-19 was greater thantobeeven
J of energy if theoffintensity
knocked from thewassurface of the ca
0
The time required to accumulate this energy will below.
3.68 × 10-19 J / 8.31 × 10-24 W 14.2.4 Einstein’s Postulate of Quantization
= 0.443 × 105 s, which is about half a day. of Energy and the Photoelectric Equation:
Planck’s hypothesis of energy
quantization to explain the black body
radiation was extended by Einstein in 1905 to
all types of electromagnetic radiations.
Einstein proposed that under certain
conditions, light behaves as if it was a
particle and its energy is released or absorbed
in bundles or quanta. He named the quantum
of energy of light as photon with energy E =
h, where  is the frequency of light and h is a
constant defined by Planck in his model to
explain black body radiation. It is now known
as the Planck’s constant and has a value 6.626
× 10-34 J s.
It may be noted that the equation
E = h --- (14.1)
is a relation between a particle like property,
the energy E and a wave like property, the
frequency . Equation (14.1) is known as the
Einstein’s relation.
Einstein’s relation (14.1) holds good for
the entire electromagnetic spectrum. It says
Secondly, since larger incident intensity
that energy of electromagnetic radiation is
implies larger energy, the electrons are
directly proportional to the frequency (and
expected to be emitted with larger kinetic
is inversely proportional to the wavelength
energy. But the observation showed that the

9
since  = c/). Hence high frequency
radiation

10
means high energy radiation. Alternatively, Try this
short wavelength radiation means high energy
radiation. Determine the wavelengths and frequencies for photons of e
Accordingly prepare a chart (along a horizontal line) of vari
Example 14.2: (a) Calculate the energies of photons~ 10-13 - 10-12 J. This
corresponding is a very small
to ultraviolet light amount
and red of energy
light, onth
given
(b) A typical FM radio station has its broadcast frequency 98.3 MHz. What is the energy of an FM photon of
Solution: Given

uv = 3000 Å = 3000 × 10-10 m,

=red
7000 Å = 7000 × 10-10 m and
=
FM
98.3 MHz = 98.3 × 106 s-1
We know that energy E of electromagnetic radiation of frequency  is h and if  is the corresponding wavele
in vacuum.
The explanation using Einstein's
postulate of quantization of energy for the
observations mentioned in section 14.2.2 is
hc given below.
Hence, E  h   1. Einstein argued that when a photon of
(a) ultraviolet radiation arrives at the metal
3481
surface and collides with an electron, it
E  6.6310J s  3  10 m s
30001010 m gives all of its energy h to the electron.
 6.631019 J = 4.147 eV The energy is gained by the electron and
for a photon corresponding to ultraviolet light and the photon no longer exists. If 0 is the
6.631034 J s  3  108 m s1 work function of the material of the
emitter plate, then electrons will be
E
70001010 m emitted if and only if the energy gained
 2.841019 J = 1.77 eV by the electrons is more than or equal to
for a photon corresponding to red light. the work function i.e.,h  0 . Thus, a
(b) The energy of photon of FM frequency 98.3 MHzminimum or threshold
is 6.63 ×10-34 J s × 98.3 × 106 s-1
= 651.73 ×10-28 J = 40.73 ×10-8 eV. frequency  (= 0 /h) is required to eject
0
This is very small energy as compared to the photon energy in from
electrons the visible range.
the metal surface. If  < 
0
, the photon will not have enough
energy to liberate an electron. As a result,
no electron will be ejected however
intense the incident radiation is.
Similarly
  if
> , the energy will always be sufficient
0
to eject an electron, however small the
Wavelength (in Å) × energy (in eV)  incident intensity is.
12500 (numerically) 2. Energy is given by the photon to the
Wavelength (in nm) × energy (in eV) 
1250 (numerically) 11
 electron as soon as the radiation is
incident on the surface. The exchange of
energy between the photon and electron

12
 is instantaneous. Hence there is no time 6. If the frequency of incident radiation is
lag between the incidence of light and more than the threshold frequency, then
emission of electrons. Also when the the energy 0 is used by the electron
incident radiation is stopped, there are to escape from the metal surface and
no photons to transfer the energy to
remaining energy of the photon becomes
electrons, hence the photoemission stops
the kinetic energy of the electron.
immediately.
Depending on the energy of the electron
3. According to Einstein’s proposition, if
inside the metal and other processes like
the intensity of incident radiation for a
collisions after emission from the surface,
given wavelength is increased, there will
be an increase in the number of energy the maximum kinetic energy is equal to
(h - 0 ). Hence,
quanta
(photons) incident on unit area in unit KEmax = h - 0
time; the energy of each quantum being --- (14.2)
Equation (14.2) is known as Einstein’s
the same (= h = hc/). Therefore larger
intensity radiation will knock off more photoelectric equation. KE max depends

number of electrons from the surface and and eventually the saturation current.
hence the current will be larger (if  >
0). Conversely lower intensity implies
less number of incident photons, hence,
less number of ejected electrons and
therefore lower current.
4. Once the electron is emitted from the
surface, if the collector is at a higher
potential than the emitter, the electric
field will accelerate the electrons towards
the collector. Higher is the accelerating
potential, more will be number of
electrons reaching the collector. Hence
the photocurrent I increases with the
accelerating potential initially. Moreover,
since the intensity of incident radiation
determines the number of photons
incident on the metal surface on unit area
in unit time, it determines the maximum
number of electrons that can be knocked
off by the incident radiation. Hence for a
given intensity, increasing the
accelerating potential can increase the
current only till all the knocked off
electrons have reached the collector. No
increase can be seen in the current
beyond this limit. This explains the
saturation current I0.
5. Increasing the incident intensity will
increase the number of incident photons
0
31
 on the material of the emitter plate
and varies linearly with the incident
frequency
; it is independent of the intensity of the
incident radiation.
7. The electrons that are emitted from the
metal surface have different kinetic
energies. The reasons for this are many-
fold: all the electrons in a solid do not
possess the same energy, the electrons
may be ejected from varying depths
inside the metal surface, electrons
may suffer collisions before they come
out of the metal surface and may lose
their energy etc. If V is the potential
difference between the emitter and
collector and the collector is at a
lower potential, an electron will lose
its kinetic energy in overcoming the
retarding force. If the kinetic energy is
not sufficient, the emitted electrons may
not reach the collector and the
photocurrent will be
zero. If KEmax is the energy of the most
energetic electron at the emitter
surface
(where its potential energy is zero) and
-V0 is the stopping potential, then this
electron will fail to reach the collector
if KEmax< eV0, where e is the electron
charge and eV0 is the energy needed for
the electron to overcome the retarding
potential V . If the electron just fails
to

31
 reach the collector, i.e., it has lost all
was accepted. The work function values 0
its kinetic energy just at the collector, for some metals were also confirmed from
KEmax = eV0 and the photocurrent becomes Eq. (14.3). Einstein and Millikan received
zero. Equation (14.2) then explains that Nobel prizes for their respective discoveries in
stopping potential V0 depends on the 1921 and 1923 respectively.
incident frequency and the material of Use your brain power
the emitter and does not depend on the
incident intensity. You must have seen light emitting diodes (LEDs) of differen
Design an experiment using LEDs to determine the value of
8. If the ejected electrons have kinetic
You might know that Nobel prize in physics for the year 201
energy more than eV0, electrons can reach
the collector, hence current flows. When
the kinetic energy of the electron is less
than or equal to eV0, no current will flow.
Photocurrent will become zero when
KEmax = eV0. Using KEmax = eV0, we can
write Eq. (14.2) as
eV0  h 0
or, V h --- (14.3)

0 
0  
e e
 
Above equation tells us that V0 varies and the value of h, calculated from Eq. (14.3),
linearly with incident frequency , and matched with the value given by Planck, the
the slope of the straight line depends on hypothesis
constants h and e while the intercept of
the line depends on the material through
0 . Thus the slope of lines in Fig. 14.6 is
same and is independent of the material
of the emitter but intercepts are different
for different materials.
9. All the above arguments thus bring out
the fact that the magnitude of
photocurrent depends on the incident
intensity through the number of emitted
photoelectrons and the potential V of the
collector but not on the incident
0
frequency  as long as  >  .
Thus all the observations related to the
experiments on photoelectric effect were
explained by Einstein’s hypothesis of
existence of a photon or treating light as
bundles of energy. Although Einstein gave his
hypothesis in 1905, it was not widely accepted
by the scientific community. In 1909, when
Millikan measured the charge of an electron
0
31
 According to Einstein, energy of
radiation of frequency  comes in bundles
with magnitude h Thus energy of a light
beam having n photons will be nh, where n
can take only integral values. Is it then
possible to vary the incident energy
continuously? Why we do not see individual
photons? To understand this
issue, let us consider the following example.
Example14.3:Thewavelengthand
intensity of the incident light is 4000 Å and
0.1 W respectively. What is the minimum change in the lig
Solution : Given incident intensity = 0.1 W and  = 4000 Å
The energy E of a photon of given wavelength is
hc 6.631034 J s  3108 m / s

E  h   
4000 1010 m
 4.97 1019 J
This is the minimum change in energy
and is very small. The change in energy can therefore be co

31
 Number of photons N incident per second is
N 0.1W  2 1017
4.97 1019 J
The number of photons coming out is so large that human eye cannot comprehend or count it. Even if one w
required.

Can you tell?

A particular metal used as a cathode in an experiment on photoelectric effect does not show photoelectric eff

Table 14.2 : Summary of analysis of observations from experiments on photoelectric effect.

Observation Wave theory Photon picture
Electrons are emitted Very intense light is needed Only one photon is needed to eject
as soon as the light is for instantaneous emission one electron from the metal surface
incident on the metal of electrons. and energy exchange between
surface. electron and photon is instantaneous
on collision.
Very low intensity of Low intensity should not Low intensity of incident light means
incident light is also give photocurrent. less number of photons and not low
sufficient to generate energy photons. Hence low current
photocurrent. will be produced.
High intensity gives High intensity means Higher intensity means more number
larger photocurrent higher energy radiation and of photons incident in unit time,
means higher rate of therefore more electrons are therefore more number of electrons
release of electrons. emitted. are emitted in unit time and hence
photocurrent is larger.
Increasing the intensity Higher intensity should Higher intensity means higher
has no effect on the mean electrons emitted with number of incident photons per unit
electron energy. higher energies. time. Energy of photon is same as it
does not depend on the intensity.
A minimum threshold Low frequency light should A photon of low frequency light will
frequency is needed for release electrons but would not have sufficient energy to release
photocurrent to start. take more time. an electron from the surface.

31
 Increasing the frequency Increasing intensity should Increasing the frequency increases
of incident light increase the maximum the energy of the photon. Therefore
increases the maximum kinetic energy. Maximum electrons receive more energy which
kinetic energy of kinetic energy should not results in increasing the maximum
electrons. depend on the incident kinetic energy.
frequency.
14.3 Wave-Particle Duality of momentum. Hence the question came up
Electromagnetic Radiation: whether a particle can be associated with
In its interaction with matter, light light or electromagnetic radiation in general.
behaves as if it is made up of packets of Particle nature was confirmed by Compton in
energy called quanta. Later it was confirmed 1924 in experiments on scattering of X-rays
from other theoretical and experimental due to electrons of matter. Summary of these
investigations results is given in the box below and you can
that these light quanta can have associated

31
know more about these experiments from the Compton shift is given by the relation
reference books given at the end of this book   '    h (1 cos )
or from the links given below me c
• http://physics.usa sk.ca /~bzulkosk/ where  is the scattering angle. The shift depends only on th
m o d p h y s l a b / p h y s 2 5 1 m a nu a l/
compton_2009.pdf
• http://www.phys.utk.edu/labs/modphys/
Compton Scattering Experiment.pdf
• http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/
hbase/quantum/comptint.html
Do you know?

Compton
The particle nature of radiation is seen in black body radiation and showed that effect.
photoelectric photonIn has an
the former, near room
-rays interact with matter. In 1923, A. H. associated momentum along with the energy
Compton made a monochromatic beam of X-rays, it of wavelength
carries. , incidentofonelectromagnetic
All photons a graphite sheet and measur
.  is known as the Compton shift that radiation of a particular frequency have the
depends on the scattering angle. same energy and momentum. Photons are
Compton explained his observations by considering incidence of X-ray beam on graphite as collision of X-ra
electrically neutral and are not deflected by
electric or magnetic fields. Photons can have
particle-like collisions with other particles
such as electrons. In photon – particle
collision, energy and momentum of the
system are conserved but the number of
photons is not conserved. Photons can be
absorbed or new photons can be created.
Photons can transfer their energy and
momentum during collisions with particles
and disappear. When we turn on light, they
are created. Photon always moves with the
speed of light, it is never at rest. Mass of a
photon is not defined as we do for a particle in
Newtonian mechanics. Its rest mass is zero (in
all frames of reference).
Effects of wave nature of light were seen
in experiments on interference or diffraction
when the slit widths or the separation between
two slits are smaller than or comparable to
the wavelength of light. If the slit width is
large or the spacing between slits is more, the
interference or diffraction patterns will not
be same and the wave nature will not be so
obvious.
It was realized by scientists that some
phenomena observed in experiments in the

31
 laboratory or in nature (like interference and

31
diffraction) can be explained by considering control systems
light in particular, and electromagnetic and in light measuring devices. Light meters in
radiation in general, as a wave. On the
other hand, some other observations (like
photoelectric effect and black body radiation)
can be explained only if we consider
electromagnetic radiation as consisting of
photons with definite quantum of energy
(and momentum as evident from Compton
scattering experiments). Also there are some
phenomena which can be explained by both
the theories. It is therefore essential to
consider that both the characters or
behaviours hold good; one dominates in some
situations and the other works in rest of the
situations. It is necessary to keep both the
physical models to explain the careful
experimental observations. There is thus a
need to hypothesize the dual character of
light. Later it turned out that such a picture is
required not only for light but for the whole
electromagnetic spectrum. This phenomenon
is termed as wave-particle duality of
electromagnetic radiation.
14.4 Photo Cell:
Photo cell is a device that makes use
of the photoelectric effect and converts light
energy into electrical energy. Schematic of a
photocell is shown in Fig. 14.7. It consists of a
semi-cylindrical photosensitive metal plate E
(acting as a cathode) and a wire loop collector
C (acting as an anode) supported in an
evacuated glass or quartz bulb. The electrodes
are connected to an external circuit having a
high tension battery B and a microammeter
µA. Instead of a photosensitive metal plate,
the photosensitive material can be pasted in
the form of a thin film on the inner walls of
the glass bulb.
When light of suitable wavelength falls
on the cathode, photoelectrons are emitted.
These electrons are attracted towards the
anode due to the applied electric field. The
generated photocurrent is noted from the
microammeter. Photocell is used to operate

31
photographic cameras make use of proposed a relation to connect these with
photocell to measure the intensity of light. the particle
Photocell can also be used to switch on or off
the street lights.

Fig. 14.7 : Schematic of a photocell.

Suppose source of ultraviolet radiation
is kept near the passage or entrance of a
mall or house and the light is made incident
on the cathode of a photocell, photocurrent is
generated. When a person passes through the
passage or comes near the entrance, incident
light beam is interrupted and photocurrent
stops. This event can be used to operate a
counter in counting devices, or to set a
burglar alarm. Such an arrangement can be
used to identify traffic law defaulters by
setting an alarm using the photocell.
Use your brain power
Is solar cell a photocell?

14.5 De Broglie Hypothesis:

In 1924, Prince Louis de Broglie
(pronounced as ‘de broy’) proposed, on the
basis of the symmetry existing in nature,
that if radiation has dual nature - sometimes
wave nature dominates and sometimes
particle nature, matter may also possess dual
nature. Normally we talk about matter as
composed of particles, but are there
situations where matter seems to show wave-
like properties? This will become evident
from the experiments on diffraction of
electrons from nickel crystals described later
in this chapter.
De Broglie used the properties, frequency
 and wavelength  of a wave and
31
properties, energy E and momentum p. The charged ions where m corresponds to the mass
momentum p carried by a photon of energy E of the charged particle. Of course, when V is
is given by the relation very large (say in kV), so that the speed of the
E
p particle becomes close to the speed of light,
c --- (14.4)
such an equation will not be applicable. You
which is valid for a massless particle
travelling with the speed of light c according will learn about other effects in such situations
to Einstein's special theory of relativity. Using in higher classes.
For an electron moving through a potential
the Einstein’s relation for E,
E difference of V (given in volts)
p  h h --- (14.5)
c c    h
where , the wavelength, is given by  = c. 2me eV
De Broglie proposed that a moving 34
6.6310 Js
material particle of total energy E and 
momentum p has associated with it a wave 2  9.111031 kg1.6 1019 CV  in volts
analogous to a photon. He then suggested that
 1.228109 m
the wave and particle properties of matter V in volts
can also be described by a relation similar
to Eq. (14.5) for a photon. Thus frequency 1.228
and wavelength of a wave associated with a or,  in nm   --- (14.7)
V in volts
material particle, of mass m moving with a
velocity v, are given as Example 14.4: An electron is accelerated through a potentia
 = E/h and Solution: Given V = 120 V.
 = h/p = h/mv --- (14.6) We know that   1.228 using Eq. (14.7).
He referred to these waves associated V
with material particles as matter waves.   = 1.228 = 0.112
120
The wavelength of the matter waves, given
by Eq. (14.6), is now known as de Broglie
wavelength. Greater is the momentum, shorter
is the wavelength. Equation (14.6) for the
wavelength of matter waves is known as de
Broglie relation. Use your brain power
For a particle of mass m moving with a
velocity v, the kinetic energy Can you estimate the de Broglie wavelength
1 2EK of the Earth?
EK = mv 2
or v = m .
2 Can you tell?
Thus, h hm h
   2mEK
mv m2EK  The expression p = E/c defines the
For a charged particle of charge q, momentum of a photon. Can this
accelerated from rest, through a potential expression be used for momentum of an
difference V, the work done is qV. This electron or proton?
provides the kinetic energy. Thus EK = qV. Shortly after the existence of photons
h h (particles associated with electromagnetic
   .
2mEK 2mqV waves) was postulated, it was also
This relation holds for any charged experimentally found that electrons sub-
particle like electron, proton or for even atomic and atomic particles like protons and
32
neutrons

32
also exhibit wave properties. The wavelength scattered in different directions by the atoms of
associated with an electron of energy few eV the crystal. Thus, in the Davisson and Germer
is of the order of few Å. Therefore to observe
the wave nature of electron, slit width or
diffracting objects should be of same order of
magnitude (few Å).
The wave property of electron was
confirmed experimentally in 1927 by
Davisson and Germer in America and in 1928
by George
P. Thomson in England by diffraction of
electrons by atoms in metals. Knowing that
the size of the atoms and their spacing in
crystals is of the order of few Å, they
anticipated that if electrons are scattered by
atoms in a crystal, the associated matter waves
will interfere and will show diffraction
effects. It turned out to be true in their
experiments. Electrons showed constructive
and destructive interference. No electrons
were found in certain directions due to
destructive interference while in other
directions, maximum numbers of electrons
were seen due to constructive interference.
Louis de Broglie received the Nobel prize
in Physics in 1929 and Davisson, Germer and
Thomson shared the Nobel prize in Physics in
1937. It was amazing that Sir J. J. Thomson
discovered the existence of electron as a sub-
atomic particle while his son G. P. Thomson
showed that electron behaves like a wave.
14.6 Davisson and Germer Experiment:
A schematic of the experimental
arrangement of the Davisson and Germer
experiment is shown in Fig. 14.8. The whole
set-up is enclosed in an evacuated chamber.
It uses an electron gun - a device to produce
electrons by heating a tungsten filament F
using a battery B. Electrons from the gun
are accelerated through vacuum to a desired
velocity by applying suitable accelerating
potential across a cylindrical anode and are
collimated into a focused beam. This beam
of electrons falls on a nickel crystal and is

32
experiment, electrons were used in place of
light waves. Scattered electrons were
detected by an electron detector and the
current was measured with the help of a
galvanometer. By moving the detector on a
circular scale that is by changing the
scattering angle  (angle between the
incident and the scattered electron beams),
the intensity of the scattered electron beam
was measured for different values of
scattering angle. Scattered intensity was not
foundtobeuniformin alldirections(aspredicted
by classical theory). The intensity pattern
resembled a diffraction pattern with peaks
corresponding to constructive interference
and troughs to regions of destructive
interference. Diffraction is a property of
waves. Hence, above observations implied
that the electrons formed a diffraction pattern
on scattering and that particles could show
wave-like properties.

Fig. 14.8: Schematic of Davisson and

Germer experiment.
Davisson and Germer varied the
accelerating potential from 44 V to 68 V
and observed a peak in the intensity of the
scattered electrons at scattering angle of 50º
for a potential of 54 V. This peak was the
result of constructive interference of the
electrons scattered from different layers of
the regularly spaced atoms of the nickel
crystal.
From Eq. (14.7), for V = 54 V, we get
 = 1.228/54 = 0.167 nm --- (14.8)
From the electron diffraction
measurements, the wavelength of matter
waves associated with the electrons was
found to be 0.165 nm. The two values of
,

32
obtained from the experimental results and particles. Wave-particle duality implies that
from the theoretical de Broglie relation, were all moving particles have an associated
in close agreement. The Davisson and Germer frequency and an associated wave number and
experiment thus substantiated de Broglie’s
all waves have an associated energy and an
hypothesis of wave-particle duality and
associated momentum. We come across the
verified his relation.
wave-particle duality of matter due to
quantum behaviour when we are dealing with
Use your brain power microscopic objects (sizes  10-6 m). Small
Diffraction results described above can be produced in the laboratory using an electron diffraction tube as
order of magnitude of h sets the scale at
which quantum phenomena manifest
themselves.
If all the material objects in motion have
an associated wavelength (and therefore an
associated wave), why then we do not talk
about wavelength of a child running with
speed v on a pathway 2 m wide or a car
moving with speed v on a road 20 m wide? To
understand this, let us try to calculate these
quantities.
Example 14.5: A student, weighing 45 kg, is running with
Solution : Given

graphite. The electrons are diffracted by the atomic layers in the graphite and form diffraction rings on the ph
decrease. Try to explain why? v1 = 8 km / hr = 8 × 103 /3600 m / s and
m1 = 45 kg for the student,
v2 = 60 km / hr = 60 × 103 /3600 m / s and
m2 = 1200 kg for the car,
momentum1 p = 45 × 8 × 103 /3600
= 100 kg m /s for the student and
momentum p2 = 1200 × 60 × 103 /3600
= 20000 kg m /s for the car.
The de Broglie wavelength
1 1= h/p = 6.63 × 10-34 J s / 100 kg m /s
= 6.63 × 10-36 m. for the student, and
de Broglie wavelength
2 =2 h/p = 6.63 × 10-34 J s/ 20000 kg m /s)
14.7 Wave-Particle Duality of Matter: number k are used to describe waves in
= 3.32 × 10-38 m for the car.
Material particles show wave-like nature classical theories while
under certain circumstances. This mass m and momentum p are used to describe
phenomenon is known as wave-particle
duality of matter. Frequency  and wave
32
 The wavelengths calculated in example
14.5 are negligible compared to the size
of the moving objects as well as to the
widths of the paths on which the objects are
moving.

32
Therefore the wavelengths associated with obstacles, or are not measurable, we can use
macroscopic particles do not play any Newtonian mechanics.
significant role in our everyday life and we In conclusion, for both electromagnetic
need not consider their wave nature. Also the radiation and atomic and sub-atomic particles,
wavelengths for macroscopic particles are so particle nature is dominant during their
small that they cannot be measured. interaction with matter. On the other hand,
On the other hand, if we try to estimate while traveling through space, particularly
the associated de Broglie wavelength of a when their confinement is of same order of
moving electron passing through a small magnitude as their associated wavelength, the
aperture of size 10-10 m or an oxygen molecule wave nature is dominant.
in air, we will find it to be significant as can Do you know?
be seen in the following example.
We have seen earlier that electrons are bound inside a metal
Example 14.6: Calculate the de Broglie
Thermionic emission : By heating to temperatures ~2000 ºC
wavelength of an electron moving with
Field emission : By establishing strong electric fields ~106 V
kinetic energy of 100 eV passing through a Photo-electron emission : By shining radiation of suitable fr
circular hole of diameter 2 Å. Electron microscope:
Solution: Given You have learnt about resolving power and resolution of te
E = 100 eV = 100 × 1.6 × 10-19 J.
TheK speed of the electron is given by the
1
relation mv2 = 100 × 1.6 × 10-19 J.
2

v 2 100 1.6 1019 J

= 9.111031 kg
= 0.593 × 107 m/s and
momentum p = 9.11 × 10-31 kg ×
0.593 × 107 m/s = 5.40 × 10-24 kg m/s
 the de Broglie wavelength  = h/p
= 6.63 × 10-34 J s / 5.40 × 10-24 kg m/s
= 1.23 × 10-10 m = 1.23 Å.
The wavelength of the electron in above
example is comparable to the size of the hole
through which the electron is passing. The
wavelength associated with this electron is
same as the size of a helium atom and more
than double the size of a hydrogen atom.

Use your brain power

On what scale or under which

circumstances is the wave nature of matter
apparent?
Photon picture allows transfer of energy
and momentum in the same manner as in
Newtonian mechanics. Wave nature does

3
not modify that. Whenever wavelengths are
small compared to the dimensions of slits or

32
 on the cover page of this book shows tiny crystals of dimens
resolution can be attained by illuminating
the objects to be seen by radiation of
smaller wavelengths. We have seen that an
electron can behave as a wave and its
wavelength is much smaller than the
wavelength of visible light. The
wavelength can be made much smaller as it
depends on the velocity and kinetic energy
of the electron. An electron beam
accelerated to several keV of energy will
correspond to de Broglie wavelength much Internet my friend
smaller than an angstrom, i.e.,
 << 1×10-10 m. The resolution of this
e
electron microscope will be several simulations/schrodinger/dg.jnlp
https://physics.info/photoelectric/
hundred times higher than that obtainable
https:// photoelectric-effect
with an optical microscope. https:// wave-particle-duality
Other advantages of electron https:// wave-particle_duality.htm
microscopes are that (i) electrons do not broglie-hypothesis-2699351
penetrate the matter as visible light or X- https:// dual-nature-of-radiation-and-matter
rays do, (ii) electron beams can be more
hbase/quantum/DavGer2.html
easily produced and controlled by electric
and magnetic fields than electromagnetic
waves and (iii) electrons can be focused
like light is focused with lenses.
It was proposed in 1925 that atoms in
the solids can act as diffraction centers for
electron waves and can give information
about the geometry or structure of solid,
just as X-rays do on getting diffracted by
solids. However, it took many years to
realize an electron microscope for practical
applications. The first electron microscope
was developed by Herald Ruska in Berlin,
Germany in the year 1929.
Microscopic objects, when illuminated
using electron beams, yield high resolution
images. Images of microscopic and
nanometric objects and even of viruses
have been obtained by scientists using
electron microscopes, making valuable
contributions to mankind.
Transmission electron microscopy can
resolve very small particles. A micrograph

3
 Exercises

1. Choose the correct answer. 2. Answer in brief.

i) A photocell is used to automatically i) What is photoelectric effect?
switch on the street lights in the evening ii) Can microwaves be used in the
when the sunlight is low in intensity. experiment on photoelectric effect?
Thus it has to work with visible light. iii) Is it always possible to see photoelectric
The material of the cathode of the photo effect with red light?
cell is iv) Using the values of work function given
(A) zinc (B) aluminum in Table 14.1, tell which metal will
(C) nickel (D) potassium require the highest frequency of incident
ii) Polychromatic (containing many radiation to generate photocurrent.
different frequencies) radiation is used v) What do you understand by the term
in an experiment on photoelectric effect. wave-particle duality? Where does it
The stopping potential apply?
(A) will depend on the average 3. Explain the inverse linear dependence
wavelength of stopping potential on the incident
(B) will depend on the longest wavelength in a photoelectric effect
wavelength
experiment.
(C) will depend on the shortest
4. It is observed in an experiment on
wavelength photoelectric effect that an increase in
(D) does not depend on the wavelength the intensity of the incident radiation
iii) An electron, a proton, an -particle and a does not change the maximum kinetic
hydrogen atom are moving with the energy of the electrons. Where does the
same kinetic energy. The associated de extra energy of the incident radiation go?
Broglie wavelength will be longest for Is it lost? State your answer with
(A) electron (B) proton explanatory reasoning.
(C) -particle (D) hydrogen atom
iv) If 5. Explain what do you understand by the de
and Blue are the number of Broglie wavelength of an electron. Will
NRed N photons
emitted by the respective sources of an electron at rest have an associated de
equal power and equal dimensions in Broglie wavelength? Justify your
unit time, then answer.
(A) N < NBlue (B) NRed = NBlue
Red 6. State the importance of Davisson and
Germer experiment.
(C) NRed > NBlue (D) NRed  Blue 7. What will be the energy of each photon in
v) The equation E = pc is valid electron
(A) for all sub-atomic particles (D) is valid for both an electron and a
(B) is valid for an electron but not for a photon
photon
(C) is valid for a photon but not for an

32
 monochromatic light of frequency
5×1014 Hz?
[Ans : 3.31×10-19 J = 2.07
eV]
8. Observations from an experiment on
photoelectric effect for the stopping
potential by varying the incident
frequency were plotted. The
slope of the linear curve was found
to be
approximately 4.1×10-15 V s. Given
that

3
 the charge of an electron is 1.6 × 10-19 C, Incident wavelength 2536 3650
find the value of the Planck’s constant h. (in Å)
[Ans : 6.56×10-34 J s] Stopping potential 1.95 0.5
9. The threshold wavelength of tungsten (in V)
is 2.76 × 10-5 cm. (a) Explain why no [Ans: 6.42 × 10-34 J s, 2.80 eV,
photoelectrons are emitted when the 6.76 × 1014 Hz, 4440 Å, calcium]
wavelength is more than 2.76 × 10-5 cm. 13. Calculate the wavelength associated with
(b) What will be the maximum kinetic an electron, its momentum and speed
energy of electrons ejected in each of the (a) when it is accelerated through a potential
following cases (i) if ultraviolet radiation of 54 V,
of wavelength  = 1.80 × 10-5 cm and [Ans: 0.167 nm, 39.70 10-25 kg m s-1,
(ii) radiation of frequency 4×1015 Hz is 4.36 106 m s-1]
made incident on the tungsten surface. (b) when it is moving with kinetic energy of
[Ans: 2.40 eV, 12.07 eV] 150 eV.
10. Photocurrent recorded in the micro [Ans: 0.100 nm, 66.1310-25 kg m s-1,
ammeter in an experimental set-up of 7.26 106 m s-1 ]
photoelectric effect vanishes when the 14. The de Broglie wavelengths associated
retarding potential is more than 0.8 V if with an electron and a proton are same.
the wavelength of incident radiation is What will be the ratio of (i) their
4950 Å. If the source of incident momenta
radiation is changed, the stopping (ii) their kinetic energies?
potential turns out to be 1.2 V. Find the [Ans: 1, 1836]
work function of the cathode material 15. Two particles have the same de Broglie
and the wavelength of the second source. wavelength and one is moving four
[Ans: 1.71 eV, 4270 Å] times as fast as the other. If the slower
11. Radiation of wavelength 4500 Å is particle is an -particle, what are the
incident on a metal having work function possibilities for the other particle?
2.0 eV. Due to the presence of a [Ans: proton or neutron]
magnetic field B, the most energetic 16. What is the speed of a proton having de
photoelectrons emitted in a direction Broglie wavelength of 0.08 Å?
perpendicular to the field move along a [Ans: 49.57  103 m s-1]
circular path of radius 20 cm. What is 17. In nuclear reactors, neutrons travel with
the value of the magnetic field B? energies of 5 × 10-21 J. Find their speed
[Ans. : 1.47 × 10-5 T] and wavelength.
[Ans: 2.45  103 m s-1, 1.62 Å]
12. Given the following data for incident metal used for emitter?
wavelength and the stopping potential
obtained from an experiment on
photoelectric effect, estimate the value of
Planck’s constant and the work function
of the cathode material. What is the
threshold frequency and corresponding
wavelength? What is the most likely

32
18. Find the ratio of the de Broglie
wavelengths of an electron and a proton
when both are moving with the (a) same
speed, (b) same energy and (c) same
momentum? State which of the two will
have the longer wavelength in each
case? [Ans: (a) 1836, (b) electron;
42.85, electron; (c) 1, equal]