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 The photoelectric effect is a phenomenon in which

electrons are ejected from the surface of a metal when light
is incident on it. These ejected electrons are
called photoelectrons. It is important to note that the
emission of photoelectrons and the kinetic energy of the
ejected photoelectrons are dependent on the frequency of
the light that is incident on the metal’s surface. The process
through which photoelectrons are ejected from the surface
of the metal due to the action of light is commonly referred
to as photoemission.
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 The photoelectric effect occurs because the electrons at

the surface of the metal tend to absorb energy from the
incident light and use it to overcome the attractive forces
that bind them to the metallic nuclei. An illustration
detailing the emission of photoelectrons as a result of the
photoelectric effect is provided below.
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History of the Photoelectric Effect :

 The photoelectric effect
was first introduced by
Wilhelm Ludwig Franz
Hallwachs in the year
1887, and the experimental
verification was done by
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz. They
observed that when a
surface is exposed to
electromagnetic radiation
at a higher threshold
frequency, the radiation is
absorbed, and the electrons
Wilhelm Ludwig Franz Hallwachs are emitted. Today, we study
the photoelectric effect as a phenomenon that involves a
material absorbing electromagnetic radiation and releasing
electrically charged particles.
To be more precise, light incident on the surface of a metal in the
photoelectric effect causes electrons to be ejected. The electron
ejected due to the photoelectric effect is called a photoelectron
and is denoted by e–. The current produced as a result of the
ejected electrons is called photoelectric current.
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Explaining the Photoelectric Effect:

The Concept of Photons
 The photoelectric effect cannot be explained by considering
light as a wave. However, this phenomenon can be explained
by the particle nature of light, in which light can be
visualised as a stream of particles of electromagnetic energy.
These ‘particles’ of light are called photons. The energy held
by a photon is related to the frequency of the light
via Planck’s equation.
E = h𝜈 = hc/λ
Where,

 E denotes the energy of the photon

h is Planck’s constant
𝜈 denotes the frequency of the light


 c is the speed of light (in a vacuum)

 λ is the wavelength of the light
Thus, it can be understood that different frequencies of light carry
photons of varying energies. For example, the frequency of blue
light is greater than that of red light (the wavelength of blue light
is much shorter than the wavelength of red light). Therefore, the
energy held by a photon of blue light will be greater than the
energy held by a photon of red light.
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Threshold Energy for the

Photoelectric Effect
 For the photoelectric effect to occur, the photons that are
incident on the surface of the metal must carry sufficient
energy to overcome the attractive forces that bind the
electrons to the nuclei of the metals. The minimum amount
of energy required to remove an electron from the metal is
called the threshold energy (denoted by the symbol Φ). For
a photon to possess energy equal to the threshold energy, its
frequency must be equal to the threshold frequency (which
is the minimum frequency of light required for the

usually denoted by the symbol 𝜈th, and the associated

photoelectric effect to occur). The threshold frequency is

wavelength (called the threshold wavelength) is denoted by

the symbol λth. The relationship between the threshold
energy and the threshold frequency can be expressed as
follows.
Φ = h𝜈th = hc/λth
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Relationship between the Frequency of

the Incident Photon and the Kinetic Energy
of the Emitted Photoelectron
Therefore, the relationship between the energy of the photon and
the kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectron can be written as
follows:
Ephoton = Φ + Eelectron
⇒ h𝜈 = h𝜈th + ½mev2
Where,

 Ephoton denotes the energy of the incident photon, which is

equal to h𝜈
 Φ denotes the threshold energy of the metal surface, which
is equal to h𝜈th
 Eelectron denotes the kinetic energy of the photoelectron,
which is equal to ½mev2 (me = Mass of electron = 9.1*10-
31
kg)
If the energy of the photon is less than the threshold energy, there
will be no emission of photoelectrons (since the attractive forces

the photoelectric effect will not occur if 𝜈 < 𝜈th. If the frequency of
between the nuclei and the electrons cannot be overcome). Thus,

the photon is exactly equal to the threshold frequency (𝜈 = 𝜈th),

there will be an emission of photoelectrons, but their kinetic
energy will be equal to zero. An illustration detailing the effect of
the frequency of the incident light on the kinetic energy of the
photoelectron is provided on the next page.
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From the image, it can be observed that

 The photoelectric effect does not occur when the red light
strikes the metallic surface because the frequency of red
light is lower than the threshold frequency of the metal.
 The photoelectric effect occurs when green light strikes the
metallic surface, and photoelectrons are emitted.
 The photoelectric effect also occurs when blue light strikes
the metallic surface. However, the kinetic energies of the
emitted photoelectrons are much higher for blue light than
for green light. This is because blue light has a greater
frequency than green light.
It is important to note that the threshold energy varies from metal
to metal. This is because the attractive forces that bind the
electrons to the metal are different for different metals. It can also
be noted that the photoelectric effect can also take place in non-
metals, but the threshold frequencies of non-metallic substances
are usually very high.
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Einstein’s Contributions towards

the Photoelectric Effect
The photoelectric effect is the process that involves the ejection
or release of electrons from the surface of materials (generally a
metal) when light falls on them. The photoelectric effect is an
important concept that enables us to clearly understand
the quantum nature of light and electrons.
After continuous research in this field,
the explanation for the photoelectric
effect was successfully explained by
Albert Einstein. He concluded that
this effect occurred as a result of light
energy being carried in discrete
quantised packets. For this excellent
work, he was honoured with the Nobel
Prize in 1921.

Albert Einstein

According to Einstein, each photon of energy E is

E = hν
Where E = Energy of the photon in joule
h = Plank’s constant (6.626 × 10-34 J.s)
ν = Frequency of photon in Hz
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Properties of the Photon

 For a photon, all the quantum numbers are zero.
 A photon does not have any mass or charge, and they are not
reflected in a magnetic and electric field.
 The photon moves at the speed of light in empty space.
 During the interaction of matter with radiation, radiation
behaves as it is made up of small particles called photons.
 Photons are virtual particles. The photon energy is directly
proportional to its frequency and inversely proportional to
its wavelength.
 The momentum and energy of the photons are related, as
given below
E = p.c
Where,
p = Magnitude of the momentum
c = Speed of light

Definition of the Photoelectric Effect

The phenomenon of metals releasing electrons when they are exp
osed to light of the appropriate frequency is called
the photoelectric effect, and the electrons emitted during the
process are called photoelectrons.
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Principle of the Photoelectric Effect:

 The law of conservation of energy forms the basis for the
photoelectric effect.

Minimum Condition for Photoelectric

Effect:
Threshold Frequency (γth)
It is the minimum frequency of the incident light or radiation that
will produce a photoelectric effect, i.e., the ejection of
photoelectrons from a metal surface is known as the threshold
frequency for the metal. It is constant for a specific metal but may
be different for different metals.
If γ = Frequency of the incident photon and γth= Threshold
frequency, then,

 If γ < γTh, there will be no ejection of photoelectron and,

therefore, no photoelectric effect.
 If γ = γTh, photoelectrons are just ejected from the metal
surface; in this case, the kinetic energy of the electron is
zero.
 If γ > γTh, then photoelectrons will come out of the surface,
along with kinetic energy.

Threshold Wavelength (λth)

During the emission of electrons, a metal surface corresponding
to the greatest wavelength to incident light is known as threshold
wavelength.
λth = c/γth
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For wavelengths above this threshold, there will be no

photoelectron emission. For λ = wavelength of the incident
photon, then

 If λ < λTh, then the photoelectric effect will take place, and
ejected electron will possess kinetic energy.
 If λ = λTh, then just the photoelectric effect will take place,
and the kinetic energy of ejected photoelectron will be zero.
 If λ > λTh, there will be no photoelectric effect.

Work Function or Threshold Energy (Φ)

The minimal energy of thermodynamic work that is needed to
remove an electron from a conductor to a point in the vacuum
immediately outside the surface of the conductor is known as
work function/threshold energy.
Φ = hγth = hc/λth
The work function is the characteristic of a given metal. If E =
energy of an incident photon, then

1. If E < Φ, no photoelectric effect will take place.

2. If E = Φ, just a photoelectric effect will take place, but the
kinetic energy of ejected photoelectron will be zero
3. If E > photoelectron will be zero
4. If E > Φ, the photoelectric effect will take place along with
the possession of the kinetic energy by the ejected electron.
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Photoelectric Effect Formula

According to Einstein’s explanation of the photoelectric effect,
The energy of photon = Energy needed to remove an electron +
Kinetic energy of the emitted electron
i.e. , hν = W + E
Where,

 h is Planck’s constant
 ν is the frequency of the incident photon
 W is a work function
 E is the maximum kinetic energy of ejected electrons: 1/2
mv²
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Laws Governing the

Photoelectric Effect:
1. For a light of any given frequency,; (γ > γ Th), the
photoelectric current is directly proportional to the intensity
of light.
2. For any given material, there is a certain minimum (energy)
frequency, called threshold frequency, below which the
emission of photoelectrons stops completely, no matter how
high the intensity of incident light is.
3. The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is found
to increase with the increase in the frequency of incident
light, provided the frequency (γ > γ Th) exceeds the threshold
limit. The maximum kinetic energy is independent of the
intensity of light.
4. The photo-emission is an instantaneous process.
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Experimental Study of the

Photoelectric Effect:

The given experiment is used to study the photoelectric effect

experimentally. In an evacuated glass tube, two zinc plates, C and
D, are enclosed. Plates C acts as an anode, and D acts as a
photosensitive plate.
Two plates are connected to battery B and ammeter A. If the
radiation is incident on plate D through a quartz window, W
electrons are ejected out of the plate, and current flows in the
circuit. This is known as photocurrent. Plate C can be maintained
at desired potential (+ve or – ve) with respect to plate D.
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Characteristics of the Photoelectric Effect:

 The threshold frequency varies with the material, it is
different for different materials.
 The photoelectric current is directly proportional to the light
intensity.
 The kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is directly
proportional to the light frequency.
 The stopping potential is directly proportional to the
frequency, and the process is instantaneous.

Factors Affecting the Photoelectric

Effect:
With the help of this apparatus, we will now study the
dependence of the photoelectric effect on the following factors:

1. The intensity of incident radiation.

2. A potential difference between the metal plate and collector.
3. Frequency of incident radiation.
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Effects of Intensity of Incident Radiation

on Photoelectric Effect:
The potential difference between the metal plate, collector and
frequency of incident light is kept constant, and the intensity
of light is varied.

The electrode C, i.e., the collecting electrode, is made positive with

respect to D (metal plate). For a fixed value of frequency and the
potential between the metal plate and collector, the photoelectric
current is noted in accordance with the intensity of incident
radiation.
It shows that photoelectric current and intensity of incident
radiation both are proportional to each other. The photoelectric
current gives an account of the number of photoelectrons ejected
per sec.

Effects of Potential Difference between the

Metal Plate and the Collector on the
Photoelectric Effect:
The frequency of incident light and intensity is kept constant,
and the potential difference between the plates is varied.

Keeping the intensity and frequency of light constant, the positive

potential of C is increased gradually. Photoelectric current
increases when there is a positive increase in the potential
between the metal plate and the collector up to a characteristic
value.
There is no change in photoelectric current when the potential is
increased higher than the characteristic value for any increase in
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the accelerating voltage. This maximum value of the current is

called saturation current.

Effect of Frequency on Photoelectric

Effect:
The intensity of light is kept constant, and the frequency of
light is varied.

For a fixed intensity of incident light, variation in the frequency of

incident light produces a linear variation of the cut-off
potential/stopping potential of the metal. It is shown that the cut-
off potential (Vc) is linearly proportional to the frequency of
incident light.
The kinetic energy of the photoelectrons increases directly
proportionally to the frequency of incident light to completely
stop the photoelectrons. We should reverse and increase the
potential between the metal plate and collector in (negative
value) so the emitted photoelectron can’t reach the collector.
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Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation

According to Einstein’s theory of the photoelectric effect, when a
photon collides inelastically with electrons, the photon is
absorbed completely or partially by the electrons. So if an
electron in a metal absorbs a photon of energy, it uses the energy
in the following ways.
Some energy Φ0 is used in making the surface electron free from
the metal. It is known as the work function of the material. Rest
energy will appear as kinetic energy (K) of the emitted
photoelectrons.

Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation Explains

the Following Concepts:
 The frequency of the incident light is directly proportional to
the kinetic energy of the electrons, and the wavelengths of
incident light are inversely proportional to the kinetic
energy of the electrons.
 If γ = γth or λ =λth then vmax = 0
 γ < γth or λ > λth: There will be no emission of
photoelectrons.
 The intensity of the radiation or incident light refers to the
number of photons in the light beam. More intensity means
more photons and vice-versa. Intensity has nothing to do
with the energy of the photon. Therefore, the intensity of the
radiation is increased, and the rate of emission increases,
but there will be no change in the kinetic energy of electrons.
With an increasing number of emitted electrons, the value of
the photoelectric current increases.
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Different Graphs of the

Photoelectric Equation:
 Photoelectric current vs Retarding potential for different
voltages:

 Photoelectric current vs Retarding potential for different

intensities:
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 Electron current vs Light Intensity:

 Stopping potential vs Frequency:

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 Electron current vs Light frequency:

 Electron kinetic energy vs Light frequency:

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Applications of the Photoelectric

Effect:
 Used to generate electricity in solar panels. These panels
contain metal combinations that allow electricity generation
from a wide range of wavelengths.
 Motion and Position Sensors: In this case, a photoelectric
material is placed in front of a UV or IR LED. When an object
is placed in between the Light-emitting diode (LED) and
sensor, light is cut off, and the electronic circuit registers a
change in potential difference
 Lighting sensors, such as the ones used in smartphones,
enable automatic adjustment of screen brightness according
to the lighting. This is because the amount of current
generated via the photoelectric effect is dependent on the
intensity of light hitting the sensor.
 Digital cameras can detect and record light because they
have photoelectric sensors that respond to different colours
of light.
 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS): This technique
uses X-rays to irradiate a surface and measure the kinetic
energies of the emitted electrons. Important aspects of the
chemistry of a surface can be obtained, such as elemental
composition, chemical composition, the empirical formula of
compounds and chemical state.
 Photoelectric cells are used in burglar alarms.
 Used in photomultipliers to detect low levels of light.
 Used in video camera tubes in the early days of television.
 Night vision devices are based on this effect.
 The photoelectric effect also contributes to the study of
certain nuclear processes. It takes part in the chemical
analysis of materials since emitted electrons tend to carry
specific energy that is characteristic of the atomic source.
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For successfully completing my project file. I have taken help from

the following:

1. NCERT book
2. WWW.google.com
3. WWW.wikipedia.com