14.

Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter

like tiny oscillators that emit electromagnetic
Can you recall? radiation only in discrete packets (E = nhQ),
where Q is the frequency of oscillator. The
1. What is electromagnetic radiation?
emissions occur only when the oscillator makes
2. What are the characteristics of a wave?
a jump from one quantized level of energy to
3. What do you mean by frequency and
another of lower energy. This model of Planck
wave number associated with a wave?
turned out to be the basis for Einstein’s theory
4. What are the characteristic properties
of particles of matter? to explain the observations of experiments on
5. How do we define momentum of a photoelectric effect which we will study in the
particle? following section.
6. What are the different types of energies 14.2 The Photoelectric Effect:
that a particle of matter can possess? Heinrich Hertz discovered photoelectric
emission in 1887 while he was working on the
14.1 Introduction: production of electromagnetic waves by spark
In earlier chapters you have studied discharge. He noticed that when ultraviolet
various optical phenomena like reflection, light is incident on a metal electrode, a high
refraction, interference, diffraction and voltage spark passes across the electrodes.
polarization of light. Light is electromagnetic Actually electrons were emitted from the metal
radiation and most of the phenomena surface. The surface which emits electrons,
mentioned have been explained considering when illuminated with appropriate radiation,
light as a wave. We are also familiar with is known as a photosensitive surface.
the wave nature of electromagnetic radiation
in other regions like X-rays, J-rays, infrared
and ultraviolet radiation and microwaves
apart from the visible light. Electromagnetic
radiation consists of mutually perpendicular
oscillating electric and magnetic fields, both
being perpendicular to the direction in which Fig. 14.1: Process of photoelectric effect.
the wave and energy are travelling. The phenomenon of emission of electrons
In Chapter 3 on Kinetic Theory of Gases from a metal surface, when radiation of
and Radiation, you have come across spectrum appropriate frequency is incident on it, as
shown in Fig. 14.1, is known as photoelectric
of black body radiation which cannot be
effect. For metals like zinc, cadmium,
explained using the wave nature of radiation.
magnesium etc., ultraviolet radiation is
Such phenomena appear during the interaction
necessary while for alkali metals, even visible
of radiation with matter and need quantum
radiation is sufficient.
physics to explain them.
Electrical energy can be obtained from light
The idea of 'quantization of energy' was
(electromagnetic radiation) in two ways
first proposed by Planck to explain the black
(i) photo-emissive effect as described above
body spectrum. Planck proposed a model that
and (ii) photo-voltaic effect, used in a solar
says (i) energy is emitted in packets and (ii)
cell. In the latter case, an electrical potential
at higher frequencies, the energy of a packet
difference is generated in a semiconductor
is large. Planck assumed that atoms behave
using solar energy.
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14.2.1 Experimental Set-up of Photoelectric from the metal through its surface. These
Effect: electrons, called photoelectrons, are collected
A typical laboratory experimental set-up at the collector C (photoelectron are ordinary
for the photoelectric effect (Fig. 14.2) consists electrons, they are given this name to indicate
of an evacuated glass tube with a quartz that they are emitted due to incident light). We
window containing a photosensitive metal now know that free electrons are available in
plate - the emitter E and another metal plate a metal plate. They are emitted if sufficient
- the collector C. The emitter and collector energy (we will know more about this energy
are connected to a voltage source whose later in the Chapter) is supplied to them to
voltage can be changed and to an ammeter to overcome the barrier that keeps them inside
measure the current in the circuit. A potential the metal.
difference of V, as measured by the voltmeter, In the late nineteenth century, these
is maintained between the emitter E (the facts were not known and scientists working
cathode) and collector C (the anode), normally on photoelectric effect performed various
C being at a positive potential with respect to experiments and noted down their observations.
the emitter. This potential difference can be These observations are summarized below.
varied and C can even be at negative potential We will try to analyze these observations and
with respect to E. When the anode potential V their explanation.
is positive, it accelerates the electrons (hence 14.2.2 Observations from Experiments on
called accelerating potential) while when the Photoelectric Effect:
anode potential V is negative, it retards the 1. When ultraviolet radiation was incident on
flow of electrons (therefore known as retarding the emitter plate, current I was recorded
potential). A source S of monochromatic light even if the intensity of radiation was very
(light corresponding to only one specific low. Photocurrent I was observed only
frequency) of sufficiently high frequency if the frequency of the incident radiation
(short wavelength d 10-7 m) is used. was more than some threshold frequency
Q0. Q0 was same for a given metal and was
different for different metals used as the
emitter. For a given frequency Q ( > Q0) of
the incident radiation, no matter how feeble
was the light meaning however small the
intensity of radiation be, electrons were
always emitted.
2. There was no time lag between the
incidence of light and emission of electrons.
The photocurrent started instantaneously
(within 10-9 s) on shining the radiation even
if the intensity of radiation was low. As
soon as the incident radiation was stopped,
the flow of current stopped.
3. Keeping the frequency Q of the incident
Fig. 14.2: Schematic of experimental set-up for radiation and accelerating potential V
photoelectric effect. fixed, if the intensity was increased, the
Light is made to fall on the surface of photo current increased linearly with
the metal plate E and electrons are ejected intensity as shown in Fig. 14.3.
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 on the intensity of the incident radiation.
Thus, even for very small incident intensity,
if the frequency of incident radiation was
larger than the threshold frequency v0,
KEmax from a given surface was always the
same for a given incident frequency.
7. If increasingly negative potentials were
Fig. 14.3: Photocurrent as a function of incident applied to the collector, the photocurrent
intensity for fixed incident frequency and decreased and for some typical value -V0,
accelerating potential . photocurrent became zero. V0 was termed
4. The photocurrent I could also be varied as cut-off or stopping potential. It indicated
by changing the potential of the collector that when the potential was retarding, the
plate. I was dependent on the accelerating photoelectrons still had enough energy to
potential V (potential difference between overcome the retarding (opposing) electric
the emitter and collector) for given incident field and reach the collector. Value of V0
radiation (intensity and frequency were was same for any incident intensity as long
fixed). Initially the current increased with as the incident frequency was same (Fig.
voltage but then it remained constant. This 14.4) but was different for different emitter
was termed as the saturation current I0 materials.
(Fig. 14.4). The superscripts 1, 2, 3 of I0 8. If the frequency of incident radiation was
refer o different intensities of the incident changed keeping the intensity constant,
light. then the saturation current remained
the same but the stopping potential V0
changed. V01, V02 , V03 are the stopping
potentials for incident frequencies Q, Q, Q
respectively. The superscripts 1, 2, 3 of I0
refer to different intensities of the incident
light. This observation is depicted in Fig.
14.5. The stopping potential V0 varied
linearly with Q as shown in Fig. 14.6. For
Fig. 14.4: Photocurrent as a function of
accelerating potential for fixed incident different metals, the slopes of such straight
frequency and different incident intensities. lines were the same but the intercepts on
The superscripts 1, 2, 3 of I0 refer to different the frequency and stopping potential axes
intensities
5. Keeping the accelerating voltage and were different.
incident frequency fixed, if the intensity
of incident radiation was increased, the
value of saturation current also increased
proportionately, e.g., if the intensity was v3 > v2 > v1
doubled, the saturation current was also
doubled. v3
v2 v
6. The maximum kinetic energy KEmax (and 1

hence the maximum velocity) of the

electrons depended on the potential V for
a given metal used for the emitter plate
Fig. 14.5: Photocurrent as a function of
and for a given frequency of the incident accelerating potential for fixed incident intensity
radiation. If the material is changed or but different incident frequencies for the same
the frequency of the incident radiation is emitter material .
changed, KEmax changed. It did not depend
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 We know that metals have free electrons.
This fact makes metals good conductors of
heat and electricity. These electrons are free
to move inside the metal but are otherwise
confined inside the metal. They cannot escape
from the surface unless sufficient energy is
supplied to them. The minimum amount of
energy required to be provided to an electron
to pull it out of the metal from the surface is
Fig. 14.6: Stopping potential as a function of called the work function of the metal and is
frequency of incident radiation for emitters denoted by I0 . Work function depends on the
made of different metals.
properties of the metal and the nature of its
9. The photocurrent and hence the number of surface. Values of work function of metals are
electrons depended on the intensity but not generally expressed in a unit of energy called
on the frequency of incident radiation, as the electron volt (eV).
long as the incident frequency was larger
than the threshold frequency Q0 and the You have studied ionization energy of an
potential of anode was higher than that of atom. What is ionization energy to an atom
cathode. is the work function to a solid which is a
14.2.3 Failure of Wave Theory to Explain large collection of atoms.
the Observations from Experiments on Table 14.1 : Typical values of work function for
Photoelectric Effect: some common metals.
Most of these observations could Metal Work function (in eV)
not be explained by the wave theory of Potassium 2.3
electromagnetic radiation. First and foremost Sodium 2.4
was the instantaneous emission of electrons on
Calcium 2.9
incidence of light. Wave picture would expect
Zinc 3.6
that the metal surface will absorb the incident
Silver 4.3
energy continuously. All the electrons near the
Aluminum 4.3
surface will absorb energy. The metal surface
Tungsten 4.5
will require reasonable time (~ few minutes
Copper 4.7
to hours) to accumulate sufficient energy to
Nickel 5.0
knock off electrons. Greater the intensity of
Gold 5.1
incident radiation, more will be the incident
energy, hence expected time required to knock Example 14.1: Radiation of intensity
off the electrons will be less. For small incident 0.5 × 10-4 W/m2 falls on the emitter in a
intensity, the energy incident on unit area in photoelectric set-up. The emitter (cathode)
unit time will be small, and will take longer to is made up of potassium and has an area
knock off the electrons. These arguments were of 5 cm2. Let us assume that the electrons
contradictory to observations. from only the surface are knocked off
Let us try to estimate the time that will be by the radiation. According to the wave
required for the photocurrent to start. We need theory, what will be the time required to
to define the term ‘work function’ of a metal notice some deflection in the microammeter
for this exercise.
309
 maximum kinetic energy did not depend
connected in the circuit? (Given the metallic on the incident intensity but depended on
radius of potassium atom is 230 pm and the incident frequency. According to wave
work function of potassium is 2.3 eV.) theory, frequency of incident radiation has
Solution : Given no role in determining the kinetic energy
Intensity of radiation = 0.5 × 10-4 W/m2, of photoelectrons. Moreover, wave theory
Area of cathode = 5 cm2 = 5 × 10-4 m2. expected photoelectrons to be emitted for any
Radius of potassium atom = 230 pm frequency if the intensity of radiation was
= 230 × 10-12 m large enough. But observations indicated that
Work function of potassium = 2.3 eV for a given metal surface, some characteristic
= 2.3 × 1.6 ×10-19 J cut-off frequency Q0 existed below which no
The number N of electrons present on photoelectrons were emitted however intense
the surface of cathode can be approximately the incident radiation was and photoelectrons
calculated assuming that each potassium were always emitted if incident frequency Q
atom contributes one electron and the radius was greater than Q0 even if the intensity was
of potassium atom is 230×10-12 m. low.
N = Area of cathode/ area covered by one 14.2.4 Einstein’s Postulate of Quantization
atom of Energy and the Photoelectric Equation:
= 5×10-4/(3.1415u230u10-12u230u10-12) Planck’s hypothesis of energy quantization
= 3008×1012 to explain the black body radiation was
Incident power on the cathode is extended by Einstein in 1905 to all types of
= 0.5 × 10-4 W/m2 × 5×10-4 m2 electromagnetic radiations. Einstein proposed
= 2.5×10-8 W that under certain conditions, light behaves as
Wave theory assumes that this power if it was a particle and its energy is released
distributed over the whole area of the or absorbed in bundles or quanta. He named
cathode is uniformly absorbed by all the the quantum of energy of light as photon with
electrons. Therefore the energy absorbed by energy E = hQ, where Q is the frequency of
each electron in one second is light and h is a constant defined by Planck in
= 2.5×10-8 W /3009×1012 | 8.311×10-24 W. his model to explain black body radiation. It is
Work function of potassium is now known as the Planck’s constant and has a
2.30 eV = 2.30 × 1.6 ×10-19 J value 6.626 × 10-34 J s.
= 3.68 ×10-19 J. It may be noted that the equation
Hence each electron will require minimum E = hQ --- (14.1)
3.68×10-19 J of energy to be knocked off is a relation between a particle like property,
from the surface of the cathode. the energy E and a wave like property, the
The time required to accumulate this energy frequency Q. Equation (14.1) is known as the
will be Einstein’s relation.
3.68 × 10-19 J / 8.31 × 10-24 W Einstein’s relation (14.1) holds good for
= 4.428 × 104 s, which is about half a day. the entire electromagnetic spectrum. It says
that energy of electromagnetic radiation is
Secondly, since larger incident intensity
directly proportional to the frequency (and
implies larger energy, the electrons are
is inversely proportional to the wavelength
expected to be emitted with larger kinetic
since Q = c/O). Hence high frequency radiation
energy. But the observation showed that the

310
means high energy radiation. Alternatively,
short wavelength radiation means high energy Try this
radiation.
Determine the wavelengths and frequencies
Example 14.2: (a) Calculate the energies for photons of energies (i) 10-12 J, (ii) 10-15 J,
of photons corresponding to ultraviolet light (iii) 10-18 J, (iv) 10-21 J and (v) 10-24 J.
and red light, given that their wavelengths are Accordingly prepare a chart (along a
3000 Å and 7000 Å respectively. (Remember horizontal line) of various regions of
that the photon are not coloured. Colour is electromagnetic spectrum and identify
human perception for that frequency range.) these regions in categories that you know.
(b) A typical FM radio station has its Compare your results with a standard chart
broadcast frequency 98.3 MHz. What is the from any reference book or from Internet.
energy of an FM photon of this frequency? You would notice that J photons are the most
Solution: Given energetic photons and their energies are
Ouv = 3000 Å = 3000 × 10-10 m, ~ 10-13 - 10-12 J. This is a very small amount
Ored = 7000 Å = 7000 × 10-10 m and of energy on the human scale and therefore
QFM = 98.3 MHz = 98.3 × 106 s-1 we do not notice individual photons along
We know that energy E of electromagnetic their passage.
radiation of frequency Q is hQ and if O is the
The explanation using Einstein's postulate
corresponding wavelength, then OQ = c, c
of quantization of energy for the observations
being the speed of electromagnetic radiation mentioned in section 14.2.2 is given below.
in vacuum. 1. Einstein argued that when a photon of
hc
Hence, E  hT  z ultraviolet radiation arrives at the metal
/
(a) surface and collides with an electron, it
 34 Js 3 10
6.6310  8 ms 1 gives all of its energy hQ to the electron.
E
 10 m
3000 10 The energy is gained by the electron and
 19 J = 4.144 eV
 6.63 10 the photon no longer exists. If I0 is the
for a photon corresponding to ultraviolet work function of the material of the emitter
light and plate, then electrons will be emitted if and
 34 Js 3 10
6.6310  8 ms 1 only if the energy gained by the electrons
E
 10 m
7000 10 is more than or equal to the work function
 19 J = 1.776 eV
 2.84 10 i.e.,hQ t I0 . Thus, a minimum or threshold
for a photon corresponding to red light. frequency Q0 (= I0 /h) is required to eject
(b) The energy of photon of FM frequency electrons from the metal surface. If Q < Q0,
98.3 MHz is 6.63 ×10-34 J s × 98.3 × 106 s-1 the photon will not have enough energy
to liberate an electron. As a result, no
= 651.73 ×10-28 J = 40.74 ×10-8 eV.
electron will be ejected however intense
This is very small energy as compared
the incident radiation is. Similarly if
to the photon energy in the visible range.
Q > Q0, the energy will always be sufficient
to eject an electron, however small the
• Wavelength (in Å) × energy (in eV) | incident intensity is.
12500 (numerically) 2. Energy is given by the photon to the
• Wavelength (in nm) × energy (in eV) | electron as soon as the radiation is
1250 (numerically) incident on the surface. The exchange of
energy between the photon and electron
311
 is instantaneous. Hence there is no time 6. If the frequency of incident radiation is
lag between the incidence of light and more than the threshold frequency, then
emission of electrons. Also when the the energy I0 is used by the electron
incident radiation is stopped, there are to escape from the metal surface and
no photons to transfer the energy to remaining energy of the photon becomes
electrons, hence the photoemission stops the kinetic energy of the electron.
immediately. Depending on the energy of the electron
3. According to Einstein’s proposition, if the inside the metal and other processes like
intensity of incident radiation for a given collisions after emission from the surface,
wavelength is increased, there will be an the maximum kinetic energy is equal to
increase in the number of energy quanta (hQ - I0 ). Hence,
(photons) incident on unit area in unit KEmax = hQ - I0 --- (14.2)
time; the energy of each quantum being Equation (14.2) is known as Einstein’s
the same (= hQ = hc/O). Therefore larger
photoelectric equation. KEmax depends
intensity radiation will knock off more
on the material of the emitter plate and
number of electrons from the surface and
varies linearly with the incident frequency
hence the current will be larger (if Q > Q0).
Q; it is independent of the intensity of the
Conversely lower intensity implies less
incident radiation.
number of incident photons, hence, less
7. The electrons that are emitted from the
number of ejected electrons and therefore
metal surface have different kinetic
lower current.
4. Once the electron is emitted from the energies. The reasons for this are many-
surface, if the collector is at a higher fold: all the electrons in a solid do not
potential than the emitter, the electric possess the same energy, the electrons
field will accelerate the electrons towards may be ejected from varying depths
the collector. Higher is the accelerating inside the metal surface, electrons may
potential, more will be number of suffer collisions before they come out
electrons reaching the collector. Hence of the metal surface and may lose their
the photocurrent I increases with the energy etc. If V is the potential difference
accelerating potential initially. Moreover, between the emitter and collector and
since the intensity of incident radiation the collector is at a lower potential,
determines the number of photons incident an electron will lose its kinetic energy
on the metal surface on unit area in unit in overcoming the retarding force. If
time, it determines the maximum number the kinetic energy is not sufficient, the
of electrons that can be knocked off by emitted electrons may not reach the
the incident radiation. Hence for a given collector and the photocurrent will be
intensity, increasing the accelerating zero. If KEmax is the energy of the most
potential can increase the current only energetic electron at the emitter surface
till all the knocked off electrons have (where its potential energy is zero) and
reached the collector. No increase can be -V0 is the stopping potential, then this
seen in the current beyond this limit. This electron will fail to reach the collector
explains the saturation current I0. if KEmax< eV0, where e is the electron
5. Increasing the incident intensity will charge and eV0 is the energy needed for
increase the number of incident photons the electron to overcome the retarding
and eventually the saturation current. potential V0. If the electron just fails to
312
 reach the collector, i.e., it has lost all was accepted. The work function values I0
its kinetic energy just at the collector, for some metals were also confirmed from
KEmax= eV0 and the photocurrent becomes Eq. (14.3). Einstein and Millikan received
zero. Equation (14.2) then explains that Nobel prizes for their respective discoveries in
stopping potential V0 depends on the 1921 and 1923 respectively.
incident frequency and the material of
Use your brain power
the emitter and does not depend on the
incident intensity. You must have seen light emitting
8. If the ejected electrons have kinetic diodes (LEDs) of different colours. In LED,
energy more than eV0, electrons can reach electrical energy is converted into light
the collector, hence current flows. When energy corresponding to different colours.
the kinetic energy of the electron is less Can you tell what must be the difference in
than or equal to eV0, no current will flow. the working of LEDs of different colours.
Photocurrent will become zero when Design an experiment using LEDs to
KEmax = eV0. Using KEmax = eV0, we can determine the value of Planck’s constant.
write Eq. (14.2) as You might know that Nobel prize in
eV0  hT  40 physics for the year 2014 was awarded to
h 4 Professors Isamu Akasaki, Hiroshi Amano
or, V0    T  0  --- (14.3)
e e and Shuji Nakamura for the invention of
Above equation tells us that V0 varies blue LEDs. They made the first blue LED in
linearly with incident frequency Q, and the early 1990s. Try to search on the Internet
the slope of the straight line depends on why it was difficult to make a blue LED.
constants h and e while the intercept of
the line depends on the material through According to Einstein, energy of radiation
I0 . Thus the slope of lines in Fig. 14.6 is of frequency Q comes in bundles with
magnitude hQ Thus energy of a light beam
same and is independent of the material having n photons will be nhQ, where n can take
of the emitter but intercepts are different only integral values. Is it then possible to vary
for different materials. the incident energy continuously? Why we do
9. All the above arguments thus bring out the not see individual photons? To understand this
fact that the magnitude of photocurrent issue, let us consider the following example.
depends on the incident intensity through Example 14.3: The wavelength and power
the number of emitted photoelectrons and of the incident light is 4000 Å and 0.1 W
the potential V of the collector but not on respectively. What is the minimum change
the incident frequency Q as long as Q > Q0. in the energy of the incident light? What is
the number of incident photons?
Thus all the observations related to the Solution : Given incident intensity = 0.1 W
experiments on photoelectric effect were and O = 4000 Å = 4000 × 10-10 m.
explained by Einstein’s hypothesis of existence The energy E of a photon of given
of a photon or treating light as bundles of wavelength is
energy. Although Einstein gave his hypothesis hc 6.6310 34 Js 3  10 8 m / s
E  hT    
in 1905, it was not widely accepted by the / 4000  10 10 m
scientific community. In 1909, when Millikan  19 J
 4.972 10
measured the charge of an electron and the This is the minimum change in energy
value of h, calculated from Eq. (14.3), matched and is very small. The change in energy can
with the value given by Planck, the hypothesis therefore be considered as continuous.

313
 Number of photons N incident per second is Can you tell?
0.1W
N  S 2.011 10
 17
 19 J
4.97 10
¾A particular metal used as a cathode in
The number of photons coming out is an experiment on photoelectric effect
so large that human eye cannot comprehend does not show photoelectric effect when
or count it. Even if one wishes to count, say it is illuminated with green light. Which
10 photons per second, a109 years will be of the colours in the visible spectrum are
required. likely to generate photocurrent?
Table 14.2 : Summary of analysis of observations from experiments on photoelectric effect.
Observation Wave theory Photon picture
Electrons are emitted Very intense light is needed Only one photon is needed to eject
as soon as the light is for instantaneous emission one electron from the metal surface
incident on the metal of electrons. and energy exchange between
surface. electron and photon is instantaneous
on collision.
Very low intensity of Low intensity should not Low intensity of incident light means
incident light is also give photocurrent. less number of photons and not low
sufficient to generate energy photons. Hence low current
photocurrent. will be produced.
High intensity gives High intensity means Higher intensity means more number
larger photocurrent higher energy radiation and of photons incident in unit time,
means higher rate of therefore more electrons are therefore more number of electrons
release of electrons. emitted. are emitted in unit time and hence
photocurrent is larger.
Increasing the intensity Higher intensity should Higher intensity means higher
has no effect on the mean electrons emitted with number of incident photons per unit
electron energy. higher energies. time. Energy of photon is same as it
does not depend on the intensity.
A minimum threshold Low frequency light should A photon of low frequency light will
frequency is needed for release electrons but would not have sufficient energy to release
photocurrent to start. take more time. an electron from the surface.
Increasing the frequency Increasing intensity should Increasing the frequency increases
of incident light increases increase the maximum the energy of the photon. Therefore
the maximum kinetic kinetic energy. Maximum electrons receive more energy which
energy of electrons. kinetic energy should not results in increasing the maximum
depend on the incident kinetic energy.
frequency.
14.3 Wave-Particle Duality of Electromagnetic momentum. Hence the question came up
Radiation: whether a particle can be associated with
In its interaction with matter, light behaves light or electromagnetic radiation in general.
as if it is made up of packets of energy called Particle nature was confirmed by Compton in
quanta. Later it was confirmed from other 1924 in experiments on scattering of X-rays
theoretical and experimental investigations due to electrons of matter. Summary of these
that these light quanta can have associated results is given in the box below and you can
314
know more about these experiments from the
Compton shift is given by the relation
reference books given at the end of this book h
or from the links given below &/  / '  /   (1  cos  )
me c
• http://physics.usask.ca/~bzulkosk/ where T  is the scattering angle. The shift
modphyslab/phys251manual/ depends only on the scattering angle and
compton_2009.pdf not on the incident wavelength. This shift
• http://www.phys.utk.edu/labs/modphys/ cannot be explained using wave theory. If
Compton Scattering Experiment.pdf we let the Planck’s constant go to zero, we
• http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/ get the result expected from wave theory.
hbase/quantum/comptint.html This is the test to check whether the new
picture is correct or not.
Do you know?
Compton showed that photon has an
The particle nature of radiation is seen associated momentum along with the energy
in black body radiation and photoelectric it carries. All photons of electromagnetic
effect. In the former, near room temperature, radiation of a particular frequency have the
the radiation is mostly in the infrared region same energy and momentum. Photons are
while in the latter it is in the visible and electrically neutral and are not deflected by
ultraviolet region of the spectrum. The electric or magnetic fields. Photons can have
third experiment, which established that a particle-like collisions with other particles
photon possesses momentum like a particle, such as electrons. In photon – particle
was Compton scattering where X-rays and collision, energy and momentum of the system
J-rays interact with matter. In 1923, A. H. are conserved but the number of photons is not
Compton made a monochromatic beam conserved. Photons can be absorbed or new
of X-rays, of wavelength O, incident on a photons can be created. Photons can transfer
graphite sheet and measured the intensity their energy and momentum during collisions
of the scattered rays in different directions with particles and disappear. When we turn on
as a function of wavelength. He found that light, they are created. Photon always moves
although the incident beam consisted of a with the speed of light, it is never at rest.
single wavelength O, the scattered intensity Mass of a photon is not defined as we do for a
was maximum at two wavelengths. One of particle in Newtonian mechanics. Its rest mass
these was same as the incident wavelength is zero (in all frames of reference).
but the other Oc was larger by an amount Effects of wave nature of light were seen
'O. 'O is known as the Compton shift that in experiments on interference or diffraction
depends on the scattering angle. when the slit widths or the separation between
Compton explained his observations two slits are smaller than or comparable to
by considering incidence of X-ray beam the wavelength of light. If the slit width is
on graphite as collision of X-ray photons large or the spacing between slits is more, the
with the electrons of graphite, like collision interference or diffraction patterns will not
of billiard balls. Energy and momentum be same and the wave nature will not be so
is transferred during the collision and obvious.
scattered photons have lower energy than It was realized by scientists that some
the incident photons. Therefore they have phenomena observed in experiments in the
lower frequency or higher wavelength. The laboratory or in nature (like interference and
315
diffraction) can be explained by considering photographic cameras make use of photocell
light in particular, and electromagnetic to measure the intensity of light. Photocell can
radiation in general, as a wave. On the also be used to switch on or off the street lights.
other hand, some other observations (like
photoelectric effect and black body radiation)
can be explained only if we consider
electromagnetic radiation as consisting of
photons with definite quantum of energy
(and momentum as evident from Compton
scattering experiments). Also there are some
phenomena which can be explained by both
the theories. It is therefore essential to consider
that both the characters or behaviours hold Fig. 14.7 : Schematic of a photocell.
good; one dominates in some situations and Suppose source of ultraviolet radiation
the other works in rest of the situations. It is is kept near the passage or entrance of a
necessary to keep both the physical models to mall or house and the light is made incident
explain the careful experimental observations. on the cathode of a photocell, photocurrent is
There is thus a need to hypothesize the dual generated. When a person passes through the
passage or comes near the entrance, incident
character of light. Later it turned out that such
light beam is interrupted and photocurrent
a picture is required not only for light but for
stops. This event can be used to operate a
the whole electromagnetic spectrum. This counter in counting devices, or to set a burglar
phenomenon is termed as wave-particle alarm. Such an arrangement can be used to
duality of electromagnetic radiation. identify traffic law defaulters by setting an
14.4 Photo Cell: alarm using the photocell.
Photo cell is a device that makes use
of the photoelectric effect and converts light Use your brain power
energy into electrical energy. Schematic of a Is solar cell a photocell?
photocell is shown in Fig. 14.7. It consists of a
semi-cylindrical photosensitive metal plate E 14.5 De Broglie Hypothesis:
(acting as a cathode) and a wire loop collector In 1924, Prince Louis de Broglie
C (acting as an anode) supported in an (pronounced as ‘de broy’) proposed, on the
evacuated glass or quartz bulb. The electrodes basis of the symmetry existing in nature, that
are connected to an external circuit having a if radiation has dual nature - sometimes wave
high tension battery B and a microammeter nature dominates and sometimes particle
μA. Instead of a photosensitive metal plate, nature, matter may also possess dual nature.
the photosensitive material can be pasted in Normally we talk about matter as composed
the form of a thin film on the inner walls of the of particles, but are there situations where
glass bulb. matter seems to show wave-like properties?
When light of suitable wavelength falls on
This will become evident from the experiments
the cathode, photoelectrons are emitted. These
on diffraction of electrons from nickel crystals
electrons are attracted towards the anode due
described later in this chapter.
to the applied electric field. The generated
photocurrent is noted from the microammeter. De Broglie used the properties, frequency
Photocell is used to operate control systems Q and wavelength O of a wave and proposed
and in light measuring devices. Light meters in a relation to connect these with the particle

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properties, energy E and momentum p. The charged ions where m corresponds to the mass
momentum p carried by a photon of energy E of the charged particle. Of course, when V is
is given by the relation very large (say in kV), so that the speed of the
E particle becomes close to the speed of light,
p --- (14.4)
c such an equation will not be applicable. You
which is valid for a massless particle
travelling with the speed of light c according will learn about other effects in such situations
to Einstein's special theory of relativity. Using in higher classes.
the Einstein’s relation for E, For an electron moving through a potential
E hT h difference of V (given in volts)
pz z z --- (14.5) h
c c / /
where O, the wavelength, is given by OQ = c. 2 me eV
De Broglie proposed that a moving 6.63  10 34 Js
material particle of total energy E and 
momentum p has associated with it a wave 2  9.11  10 31 kg 1.6  10 19 C V
 involts 
analogous to a photon. He then suggested that 1.228 10 9
 m
the wave and particle properties of matter V  involts
can also be described by a relation similar
to Eq. (14.5) for a photon. Thus frequency 1.228
or, /  innm   --- (14.7)
and wavelength of a wave associated with a V  involts
material particle, of mass m moving with a
velocity v, are given as Example 14.4: An electron is accelerated
 Q = E/h and through a potential of 120 V. Find its de
 O = h/p = h/mv --- (14.6) Broglie wavelength.
He referred to these waves associated Solution: Given V = 120 V.
with material particles as matter waves. 1.228
The wavelength of the matter waves, given We know that O using Eq. (14.7).
V
by Eq. (14.6), is now known as de Broglie 
wavelength. Greater is the momentum, shorter 1.228
 ?O = = 0.112 nm.
is the wavelength. Equation (14.6) for the 120 
wavelength of matter waves is known as de
Broglie relation. Use your brain power
For a particle of mass m moving with a
velocity v, the kinetic energy Can you estimate the de Broglie wavelength
of the Earth?
1 2EK
EK = mv2 or v = .
2 m Can you tell?
Thus, h h m h
/  
mv m 2 EK 2 mEK ¾The expression p = E/c defines the
For a charged particle of charge q, momentum of a photon. Can this
accelerated from rest, through a potential expression be used for momentum of an
difference V, the work done is qV. This provides electron or proton?
the kinetic energy. Thus EK = qV. Shortly after the existence of photons
h h
/  . (particles associated with electromagnetic
2 mEK 2 mqV waves) was postulated, it was also
This relation holds for any charged experimentally found that sub-atomic
particle like electron, proton or for even particles like electrons, protons, neutrons and
317
atomic particles also exhibit wave properties. experiment, electrons were used in place of
The wavelength associated with an electron light waves. Scattered electrons were detected
of energy few eV is of the order of few Å. by an electron detector and the current was
Therefore to observe the wave nature of measured with the help of a galvanometer. By
electron, slit width or diffracting objects should moving the detector on a circular scale that
be of same order of magnitude (few Å). is by changing the scattering angle T (angle
The wave property of electron was between the incident and the scattered electron
confirmed experimentally in 1927 by Davisson beams), the intensity of the scattered electron
and Germer in America and in 1928 by George beam was measured for different values of
P. Thomson in England by diffraction of scattering angle. Scattered intensity was not
electrons by atoms in metals. Knowing that the found to be uniform in all directions (as predicted
size of the atoms and their spacing in crystals by classical theory). The intensity pattern
is of the order of few Å, they anticipated that resembled a diffraction pattern with peaks
if electrons are scattered by atoms in a crystal, corresponding to constructive interference and
the associated matter waves will interfere and troughs to regions of destructive interference.
will show diffraction effects. It turned out to Diffraction is a property of waves. Hence,
be true in their experiments. Electrons showed above observations implied that the electrons
constructive and destructive interference. No formed a diffraction pattern on scattering and
electrons were found in certain directions that particles could show wave-like properties.
due to destructive interference while in other
directions, maximum numbers of electrons
were seen due to constructive interference.
Louis de Broglie received the Nobel prize
in Physics in 1929 and Davisson, Germer and
Thomson shared the Nobel prize in Physics in
1937. It was amazing that Sir J. J. Thomson
discovered the existence of electron as a sub-
atomic particle while his son G. P. Thomson
showed that electron behaves like a wave. Fig. 14.8: Schematic of Davisson and Germer
14.6 Davisson and Germer Experiment: experiment.
A schematic of the experimental Davisson and Germer varied the
arrangement of the Davisson and Germer accelerating potential from 44 V to 68 V
experiment is shown in Fig. 14.8. The whole and observed a peak in the intensity of the
set-up is enclosed in an evacuated chamber. scattered electrons at scattering angle of 50º
It uses an electron gun - a device to produce for a potential of 54 V. This peak was the result
electrons by heating a tungsten filament F of constructive interference of the electrons
using a battery B. Electrons from the gun scattered from different layers of the regularly
are accelerated through vacuum to a desired spaced atoms of the nickel crystal.
velocity by applying suitable accelerating From Eq. (14.7), for V = 54 V, we get
potential across a cylindrical anode and are O = 1.228/—54 = 0.167 nm --- (14.8)
collimated into a focused beam. This beam From the electron diffraction
of electrons falls on a nickel crystal and is measurements, the wavelength of matter
scattered in different directions by the atoms of waves associated with the electrons was
the crystal. Thus, in the Davisson and Germer found to be 0.165 nm. The two values of O,
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obtained from the experimental results and particles. Wave-particle duality implies that all
from the theoretical de Broglie relation, were moving particles have an associated frequency
in close agreement. The Davisson and Germer and an associated wave number and all waves
experiment thus substantiated de Broglie’s have an associated energy and an associated
hypothesis of wave-particle duality and momentum. We come across the wave-particle
verified his relation. duality of matter due to quantum behaviour
when we are dealing with microscopic objects
Use your brain power (sizes d 10-6 m). Small order of magnitude of
h sets the scale at which quantum phenomena
Diffraction results described above
manifest themselves.
can be produced in the laboratory using
If all the material objects in motion have
an electron diffraction tube as shown in
an associated wavelength (and therefore an
figure. It has a filament which on heating
associated wave), why then we do not talk
produces electrons. This filament acts as a
about wavelength of a child running with speed
cathode. Electrons are accelerated to quite
v on a pathway 2 m wide or a car moving with
high speeds by creating large potential
speed v on a road 20 m wide? To understand
difference between the cathode and a
this, let us try to calculate these quantities.
positive electrode. On its way, the beam
of electrons comes across a thin sheet of
Example 14.5: A student, weighing 45 kg,
is running with a speed of 8 km per hr on a
foot path 2 m wide. A small car, weighing
1200 kg, is moving with a speed of 60 km
per hr on a 20 m wide road. Calculate their
de Broglie wavelengths.
Solution : Given
graphite. The electrons are diffracted by v1 = 8 km / hr = 8 × 103 /3600 m / s and
the atomic layers in the graphite and form m1 = 45 kg for the student,
diffraction rings on the phosphor screen. By v2 = 60 km / hr = 60 × 103 /3600 m / s and
changing the voltage between the cathode m2 = 1200 kg for the car,
and anode, the energy, and therefore the momentum p1 = 45 × 8 × 103 /3600
speed, of the electrons can be changed. This = 100 kg m /s for the student and
will change the wavelength of the electrons momentum p2 = 1200 × 60 × 103 /3600
and a change will be seen in the diffraction = 20000 kg m /s for the car.
pattern. By increasing the voltage, the The de Broglie wavelength
radius of the diffraction rings will O1 = h/p1 = 6.63 × 10-34 J s / 100 kg m /s
decrease. Try to explain why? = 6.63 × 10-36 m. for the student, and
de Broglie wavelength
14.7 Wave-Particle Duality of Matter: O2 = h/p2 = 6.63 × 10-34 J s/ 20000 kg m /s)
Material particles show wave-like nature = 3.32 × 10-38 m for the car.
under certain circumstances. This phenomenon
is known as wave-particle duality of matter. The wavelengths calculated in example
Frequency Z and wave number k are used 14.5 are negligible compared to the size of
to describe waves in classical theories while the moving objects as well as to the widths
mass m and momentum p are used to describe of the paths on which the objects are moving.
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Therefore the wavelengths associated with obstacles, or are not measurable, we can use
macroscopic particles do not play any Newtonian mechanics.
significant role in our everyday life and we In conclusion, for both electromagnetic
need not consider their wave nature. Also the radiation and atomic and sub-atomic particles,
wavelengths for macroscopic particles are so particle nature is dominant during their
small that they cannot be measured. interaction with matter. On the other hand,
On the other hand, if we try to estimate the while traveling through space, particularly
associated de Broglie wavelength of a moving
when their confinement is of same order of
electron passing through a small aperture of
magnitude as their associated wavelength, the
size 10-10 m or an oxygen molecule in air, we
wave nature is dominant.
will find it to be significant as can be seen in
the following example. Do you know?

Example 14.6: Calculate the de Broglie We have seen earlier that electrons are
wavelength of an electron moving with bound inside a metal surface and need
kinetic energy of 100 eV passing through a some minimum energy equal to the work
circular hole of diameter 2 Å. function to be knocked off from the surface.
Solution: Given This energy, if provided by any means, can
EK = 100 eV = 100 × 1.6 × 10-19 J. make the electron come out of the metal
The speed of the electron is given by the surface. Physical ways to provide this
1
relation mv2 = 100 × 1.6 × 10-19 J. energy differentiate the physical processes
2
involved and accordingly different devices
2  100  1.6  10 19 J
?v= and characterizing microscopes based on
9.11 10 31 kg them have been designed by scientists.
= 5.927 × 107 m/s and • Thermionic emission : By heating to
momentum p = 9.11 × 10-31 kg × temperatures ~2000 ºC provide thermal
0.593 × 107 m/s = 5.40 × 10-24 kg m/s energy.
? the de Broglie wavelength O = h/p • Field emission : By establishing strong
= 6.63 × 10-34 J s / 5.40 × 10-24 kg m/s electric fields ~106 V/m at the surface
= 1.23 × 10-10 m = 1.228 Å. of a metal tip, provide electrical energy.
The wavelength of the electron in above • Photo-electron emission : By shining
example is comparable to the size of the hole radiation of suitable frequency
through which the electron is passing. The (ultraviolet or visible) on a metal
wavelength associated with this electron is
surface provide light energy.
same as the size of a helium atom and more
Electron microscope:
than double the size of a hydrogen atom.
You have learnt about resolving
Use your brain power power and resolution of telescopes and
microscopes that use the ordinary visible
On what scale or under which circumstances light. The resolution of a microscope is
is the wave nature of matter apparent? limited by the wavelength of the light
Photon picture allows transfer of energy used. The shorter the wavelength of the
and momentum in the same manner as in characterizing probe, the smaller is the
Newtonian mechanics. Wave nature does
limit of resolution of a microscope, i.e., the
not modify that. Whenever wavelengths are
small compared to the dimensions of slits or resolution of microscope is better. Better

320
resolution can be attained by illuminating on the cover page of this book shows tiny
the objects to be seen by radiation of smaller crystals of dimensions less than 50 nm.
wavelengths. We have seen that an electron An electron diffraction pattern is also
can behave as a wave and its wavelength is seen on the cover page (spot pattern).
much smaller than the wavelength of visible When an electron beam passes through
light. The wavelength can be made much a crystal having periodic arrangement of
smaller as it depends on the velocity and atoms, diffraction occurs. The crystal acts
kinetic energy of the electron. An electron as a collection of diffraction slits for the
beam accelerated to several keV of energy electron beam.
will correspond to de Broglie wavelength
much smaller than an angstrom, i.e., Internet my friend
Oe<< 1×10-10 m. The resolution of this
electron microscope will be several hundred
1. h t t p : / / p h e t - w e b . c o l o r a d o . e d u /
times higher than that obtainable with an
simulations/schrodinger/dg.jnlp
optical microscope.
2. https://physics.info/photoelectric/
Other advantages of electron
3. https://www.britannica.com/science/
microscopes are that (i) electrons do not
photoelectric-effect
penetrate the matter as visible light or
4. https://www.britannica.com/science/
X-rays do, (ii) electron beams can be more
wave-particle-duality
easily produced and controlled by electric
5. https://www.sciencedaily.com/terms/
and magnetic fields than electromagnetic
wave-particle_duality.htm
waves and (iii) electrons can be focused
6. h t t p s : / / w w w . t h o u g h t c o . c o m / d e -
like light is focused with lenses.
broglie-hypothesis-2699351
It was proposed in 1925 that atoms in
7. https://www.toppr.com/guides/physics/
the solids can act as diffraction centers for
dual-nature-of-radiation-and-matter
electron waves and can give information
8. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/
about the geometry or structure of solid,
hbase/quantum/DavGer2.html
just as X-rays do on getting diffracted by
solids. However, it took many years to
realize an electron microscope for practical
applications. The first electron microscope
was developed by Herald Ruska in Berlin,
Germany in the year 1929.
Microscopic objects, when illuminated
using electron beams, yield high resolution
images. Images of microscopic and
nanometric objects and even of viruses
have been obtained by scientists using
electron microscopes, making valuable
contributions to mankind.
Transmission electron microscopy can
resolve very small particles. A micrograph

321
 Exercises

1. Choose the correct answer. 2. Answer in brief.

i) A photocell is used to automatically i) What is photoelectric effect?
switch on the street lights in the evening ii) Can microwaves be used in the experiment
when the sunlight is low in intensity. on photoelectric effect?
Thus it has to work with visible light. The iii) Is it always possible to see photoelectric
material of the cathode of the photo cell effect with red light?
is iv) Using the values of work function given
(A) zinc (B) aluminum in Table 14.1, tell which metal will
(C) nickel (D) potassium require the highest frequency of incident
ii) Polychromatic (containing many radiation to generate photocurrent.
different frequencies) radiation is used v) What do you understand by the term
in an experiment on photoelectric effect. wave-particle duality? Where does it
The stopping potential apply?
(A) will depend on the average 3. Explain the inverse linear dependence
wavelength of stopping potential on the incident
(B) will depend on the longest wavelength wavelength in a photoelectric effect
(C) will depend on the shortest experiment.
wavelength 4. It is observed in an experiment on
(D) does not depend on the wavelength photoelectric effect that an increase in the
iii) An electron, a proton, an D-particle and a intensity of the incident radiation does
hydrogen atom are moving with the same not change the maximum kinetic energy
kinetic energy. The associated de Broglie of the electrons. Where does the extra
wavelength will be longest for energy of the incident radiation go? Is it
(A) electron (B) proton lost? State your answer with explanatory
reasoning.
(C) D-particle (D) hydrogen atom
5. Explain what do you understand by the de
iv) If NRed and NBlue are the number of photons
Broglie wavelength of an electron. Will
emitted by the respective sources of equal
an electron at rest have an associated de
power and equal dimensions in unit time, Broglie wavelength? Justify your answer.
then 6. State the importance of Davisson and
(A) NRed < NBlue (B) N Red = N Blue Germer experiment.
(C) NRed > NBlue (D) NRed | NBlue 7. What will be the energy of each photon in
v) The equation E = pc is valid monochromatic light of frequency 5×1014
(A) for all sub-atomic particles Hz?
(B) is valid for an electron but not for a [Ans : 3.315×10-19 J = 2.071 eV]
photon 8. Observations from an experiment on
photoelectric effect for the stopping
(C) is valid for a photon but not for an
potential by varying the incident
electron
frequency were plotted. The slope
(D) is valid for both an electron and a
of the linear curve was found to be
photon
approximately 4.1×10-15 V s. Given that

322
 the charge of an electron is 1.6 × 10-19 C, Incident wavelength 2536 3650
find the value of the Planck’s constant h. (in Å)
[Ans : 6.56×10-34 J s] Stopping potential 1.95 0.5
9. The threshold wavelength of tungsten (in V)
is 2.76 × 10-5 cm. (a) Explain why no [Ans: 6.427 × 10-34 J s, 2.801 eV,
photoelectrons are emitted when the 6.761 × 1014 Hz, 4438 Å, calcium]
wavelength is more than 2.76 × 10-5 cm. 13. Calculate the wavelength associated with
(b) What will be the maximum kinetic an electron, its momentum and speed
energy of electrons ejected in each of the (a) when it is accelerated through a potential
following cases (i) if ultraviolet radiation of 54 V,
of wavelength O = 1.80 × 10-5 cm and [Ans: 0.1671 nm, 39.70 u10-25 kg m s-1,
(ii) radiation of frequency 4×1015 Hz is 4.358 u106 m s-1]
made incident on the tungsten surface. (b) when it is moving with kinetic energy of
[Ans: 2.40 eV, 12.07 eV] 150 eV.
10. Photocurrent recorded in the micro [Ans: 0.1002 nm, 66.17u10-25 kg m s-1,
ammeter in an experimental set-up of 7.263 u106 m s-1 ]
photoelectric effect vanishes when the 14. The de Broglie wavelengths associated
retarding potential is more than 0.8 V if with an electron and a proton are same.
the wavelength of incident radiation is What will be the ratio of (i) their momenta
4950 Å. If the source of incident radiation (ii) their kinetic energies?
is changed, the stopping potential turns [Ans: 1, 1836]
out to be 1.2 V. Find the work function of 15. Two particles have the same de Broglie
the cathode material and the wavelength wavelength and one is moving four times
of the second source. as fast as the other. If the slower particle
[Ans: 1.71 eV, 4270 Å] is an D-particle, what are the possibilities
11. Radiation of wavelength 4500 Å is for the other particle?
incident on a metal having work function [Ans: proton or neutron]
2.0 eV. Due to the presence of a magnetic 16. What is the speed of a proton having de
field B, the most energetic photoelectrons Broglie wavelength of 0.08 Å?
emitted in a direction perpendicular to [Ans: 49.623 u 103 m s-1]
the field move along a circular path of 17. In nuclear reactors, neutrons travel with
radius 20 cm. What is the value of the energies of 5 × 10-21 J. Find their speed
magnetic field B? and wavelength.
[Ans. : 1.473 × 10-5 T] [Ans: 2.447 u 103 m s-1, 1.622 Å]
12. Given the following data for incident 18. Find the ratio of the de Broglie
wavelength and the stopping potential wavelengths of an electron and a proton
obtained from an experiment on when both are moving with the (a) same
photoelectric effect, estimate the value of speed, (b) same energy and (c) same
Planck’s constant and the work function momentum? State which of the two will
of the cathode material. What is the have the longer wavelength in each case?
threshold frequency and corresponding [Ans: (a) 1836, (b) electron; 42.85,
wavelength? What is the most likely electron; (c) 1, equal]
metal used for emitter?

323