P a g e | 11.

11. Dual nature of radiation and matter

• Electron emission: The liberation of electrons from the surface of a metal is called
electron emission.
It can be achieved by any one of the following physical processes:
1. Thermionic emission: By suitably heating.
2. Field emission: By applying a very strong electric field (of the order of 108 V m–1).
3. Photoelectric emission: When light of suitable frequency illuminates a metal surface.
•Work function
The minimum energy needed for an electron to escape from the metal surface is called
work function of that metal. The work function of the metal is denoted by φ.
The SI unit of energy is joule. But electron volt is a commonly used unit of energy in atomic
and nuclear physics. One electron volt is defined as the kinetic energy gained by an
electron when accelerated by a potential difference of 1 V.
1 eV = Kinetic energy gained by the electron
= Work done by the electric field
= qV = 1.6 × 10–19 C × 1 V
= 1.6 × 10–19 J
Note
The highest known metal work function is approximately 5.65 eV for platinum (Pt) and
lowest work function is 2.14eV for cesium (Cs).
•Photo electric effect
The ejection of electrons from a metal surface when illuminated by any electromagnetic
radiation of suitable frequency is called photoelectric effect. These photo-generated
electrons are called photoelectrons and the corresponding current as photoelectric current
or photo current.
Photoelectric effect was discovered by Hertz and investigated detailly by Lenard and
Hallwachs.

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•Experimental study of photoelectric effect

It consists of an evacuated glass/quartz tube having a thin photosensitive plate C and
another metal plate A. Monochromatic light from the source S passes through a
transparent quartz window W sealed on to the glass tube and falls on the photosensitive
plate C (emitter). The electrons are emitted by the plate C and are collected by the plate A
(collector), by the electric field created by the battery. The battery maintains the potential
difference between the plates C and A, that can be varied. The polarity of the plates C and
A can be reversed by a commutator. When the collector plate A is positive with respect to
the emitter plate C, the electrons are attracted to it. The emission of electrons causes flow
of electric current in the circuit. The potential difference between the emitter and collector
plates is measured by a voltmeter (V) whereas the resulting photo current flowing in the
circuit is measured by a microammeter (µA).

Effect of intensity of incident light

The intensity (brightness) of light is varied by changing the distance of the light source
from the emitter.
To study the effect of intensity of incident light on photoelectric current, the frequency of
the incident light and the accelerating potential V of the anode are kept constant. Here the
potential of A is kept positive with respect to that of C so
that the electrons emitted from C are attracted towards A.
It is found that the photocurrent, the number of
photoelectrons emitted per second increases linearly with
intensity of incident light. This implies that the number of
photoelectrons emitted per second is directly proportional
to the intensity of incident radiation.
Effect of potential
To study the effect of potential, the frequency and intensity of the light are kept constant.

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Initially the potential of A is kept positive and the cathode is irradiated with the given
light. The potential of A is increased and the corresponding photocurrent is noted. It is
found that the photoelectric current increases with increase in positive (accelerating)
potential. At some stage, for a certain positive potential of plate A, all the emitted electrons
are collected by the plate A and the photoelectric current becomes maximum or saturates.
If we increase the accelerating potential of plate A further, the photocurrent does not
increase. This maximum value of the photoelectric current is called saturation current.
Saturation current corresponds to the case when all the photoelectrons emitted by the
emitter plate C reach the collector plate A.
When the potential of A made negative (retarding) and is increased to negative gradually.
When the polarity is reversed, the electrons are repelled and only the sufficiently energetic
electrons are able to reach the collector A. The photocurrent is found to decrease rapidly
until it drops to zero at a certain sharply defined
critical value of the negative potential V0 on the
plate A called the cut-off or stopping potential.
All the photoelectrons emitted from the metal do
not have the same energy. Photoelectric current is
zero when the stopping potential is sufficient to
repel even the most energetic photoelectrons with
the maximum kinetic energy (Kmax), so that
Kmax=eV0
Repeating this experiment with incident radiation of the same frequency but of higher
intensity, the saturation currents are found to be at higher values. This shows that more
electrons are being emitted per second, proportional to the intensity of incident radiation.
But the stopping potential remains the same for all the intensities. Thus, the stopping
potential and hence the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons depends on the light
source and the emitter plate material, but is independent of intensity of incident radiation.

Effect of frequency of incident light on V0

To study the effect of frequency of incident light on stopping potential, the intensity of the
incident light is kept constant.
Light of different frequencies can be obtained by putting appropriate coloured filter in the
path of light falling on the emitter C.

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We obtain different values of stopping

potential but the same value of the saturation
current for incident radiation of different
frequencies. The energy of the emitted
electrons depends on the frequency of the
incident radiations. The stopping potential is
more negative for higher frequencies of incident radiation. This implies that greater the
frequency of incident light, greater is the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons.
Consequently, we need greater retarding potential to stop them completely.
If we plot a graph between the frequency of
incident radiation and the corresponding
stopping potential for different metals, we get a
straight line.
The graph shows that:
i. the stopping potential V0 varies linearly with
the frequency of incident radiation for a given photosensitive material.
ii. there exists a certain minimum cut-off frequency ν0 for which the stopping potential is
zero.
These observations have two implications:
i. The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons varies linearly with the frequency
of incident radiation, but is independent of its intensity.
ii. For a frequency ν of incident radiation, lower than the cut-off frequency ν0, no
photoelectric emission is possible even if the intensity is large. This minimum, cut-off
frequency ν0, is called the threshold frequency. It is different for different metals.
•Laws of photoelectric effect
1. For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident radiation (above the
threshold frequency), the photoelectric current is directly proportional to the intensity
of incident light.
2. For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident radiation, saturation
current is found to be proportional to the intensity of incident radiation whereas the
stopping potential is independent of its intensity.

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3. For a given photosensitive material, there exists a certain minimum cut-off frequency of
the incident radiation, called the threshold frequency, below which no emission of
photoelectrons takes place, no matter how intense the incident light is. Above the
threshold frequency, the stopping potential or equivalently the maximum kinetic
energy of the emitted photoelectrons increases linearly with the frequency of the
incident radiation, but is independent of its intensity.
4. The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process without any apparent time lag
(∼10–9 s or less), even when the incident radiation is made exceedingly dim.
•Failures of classical wave theory
According to wave picture of light,
1. When light is incident on the target, there is a continuous supply of energy to the
electrons. According to wave theory, intensity of light is the energy delivered per unit
area per unit time and hence light of greater intensity should impart greater kinetic
energy to the liberated electrons. But the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons
does not depend on the intensity of the incident light.
2. According to wave theory, if a sufficiently intense beam of light is incident on the
surface, electrons will be liberated from the surface of the target, however low the
frequency of the radiation is. From the experiments, we know that photoelectric
emission is not possible below a certain minimum frequency.
3. Since the energy of light is spread across the wavefront, the electrons which receive
energy from it are large in number. Each electron needs considerable amount of time (a
few hours) to get energy sufficient to overcome the work function and to get liberated
from the surface. But photoelectric emission is almost instantaneous process.
Thus, the experimental observations of photoelectric emission could not be explained on
the basis of the wave theory of light.
•Einstein’s photoelectric equation
According to Einstein, light consist of small packets of energy called photons. The energy
of a photon is given by E=hν, where h is Planck’s constant and ν the frequency of light.
The energy absorbed is used for two purposes:
i. One part is to overcome work function.
ii. The remaining part is to impart kinetic energy to the photoelectron.
i.e., hν= Kmax +φ ⇒ Kmax= hν- φ

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If the incident frequency is equal to threshold

frequency, then kinetic energy the photoelectron is zero.
i.e., ν=ν0⇒Kmax=0
∴ hν0= φ
Or, Kmax= hν- hν0
This equation is known as Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
Notes
c
1. Using ν=λ , we can rewrite the Einstein’s photoelectric equation as,
1 1
Kmax= hc(λ − λ )
0

2. We have,
hc
E=hν= λ

Substituting h=6.63×10-34Js and c=3×108ms-1, we get

19.89×10−26
E= J
λ

In eV,
19.89×10−26 12.4×10−7
E= λ ×1.602×10−19 = eV
λ

If λ is in angstrom,
12400
E= eV
λ

3. The initial kinetic energy of the fastest electron (Kmax) is equal to the work done by the
stopping potential to stop it (eV0).
1
∴ 2
Kmax=2 mvmax = eV0

2eV 0
v max = √ m

Substituting e=1.602 × 10−19 C and m=9.1×10-31kg, we get

v max = 5.93 × 105 √V 0

Einstein’s explanation for the photoelectric effect
1. As each incident photon liberates one electron, then the increase of intensity of the light
(the number of photons per unit area per unit time) increases the number of electrons
emitted thereby increasing the photocurrent linearly.
2. We know that Kmax= h (ν- ν0). Since Kmax must be non-negative, photoelectric emission
is possible only if ν > ν0, no matter how intense the incident radiation may be or how

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long it falls on the surface. If ν > ν0, Kmax is proportional to the frequency of the light
and is independent of intensity of the light.
3. According to quantum concept, the whole energy of a photon is given to a single
electron and not to the entire surface. Thus, the transfer of photon energy to the electrons
is instantaneous so that there is no time lag between incidence of photons and ejection
of electrons.
Some important graphs
1 1 1
We have, 2
Kmax=2 mvmax = eV0= hν- φ= h(ν-ν0) = hc(λ − λ )
0

1. Stopping potential Vs Frequency

hν Φ
From, eV0= hν- φ⇒ V0= −
e e

Comparing with y=mx+c, we get a straight line with a

h
slope which is independent of the metals.
e
Φ Φ
The Y-intercept is − and the X-intercept is h = ν 0 .
e

2. Kmax Vs Frequency
From, Kmax = h(ν-ν0)
If ν>ν0, Kmax is proportional to the frequency of the light.
We get a straight line with a slope h. It is independent of
the metal. The Y-intercept is −hν0 = −Φ and the X-
Φ
intercept is h = ν 0 .

3. Photocurrent Vs Frequency
At constant intensity photocurrent is independent of
frequency. But the frequency of the incident light should
be above the threshold frequency.
4. Stopping potential Vs Intensity
Stopping potential is independent of intensity. It depends
only on the frequency of the incident light.
5. Photocurrent Vs time
4. The transfer of photon energy to the electrons is almost an
instantaneous process (∼10–9 s or less). There is no time
lag between incidence of photons and ejection of
electrons.

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•Particle nature of light: the photon

According to Einstein, the energy in light is not spread out over wavefronts but is
concentrated in small packets or energy quanta. The light quantum can behave as a particle
and this is called photon. Therefore, photon is nothing but particle manifestation of light.
Characteristics of photons:
1. In interaction of radiation with matter, radiation behaves as if it is made up of particles
called photons.
2. The light of frequency v from any source can be considered as a stream of quanta and
the energy of each light quantum is given by E = hν. It is independent of intensity of
radiation.
3. The photons travel with the velocity of light and its momentum is given by,
p=mc
Using,
E=mc2 and E=hν
We get,
hν
m= c2
hν hν h
∴ p= c2 ×c= c =λ
h
4. Each photon has energy (E=hν), momentum (p=λ) and speed, c the speed of light.

5. Since photons are electrically neutral, they are unaffected by electric or magnetic fields.
6. In a photon-particle collision the total energy and total momentum are conserved.
However, the number of photons may not be conserved in a collision. The photon may
be absorbed or a new photon may be created.
•Wave nature of particles
Greatly influenced by the symmetry in nature, de Broglie suggested that if radiation can
act as particles at times, then matter particles should also act as waves at times. According
to de Broglie hypothesis, a moving particle behaves as a particle when it interacts with
matter and it behaves as a wave while spreading through space. These waves are called de
Broglie waves or matter waves. For a particle of mass m travelling with speed υ , the
wavelength is given by,
h h
λ =mv=p

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This wavelength of the matter waves is known as de Broglie wavelength. This equation
relates the wave character and the particle character through Planck’s constant.
The de Broglie wavelength λ is smaller for a heavier particle or more energetic particle.
de Broglie wave length of electrons
An electron of mass m initially at rest is accelerated through a potential difference of V
volt. The work done on electron is converted into its kinetic energy.
1
eV = mv 2
2

Therefore, the speed υ of the electron is

2eV
V=√ m

Hence, the de Broglie wavelength of the electron is,

h h
λ =mv=
√2meV

Substituting h=6.63×10-34Js, e=1.602 × 10−19 C and m=9.1×10-31kg, we get

12.27×10−10
λ= m
√V

In angstrom,
12.27
λ= Å
√V

Notes
1. Since the kinetic energy of the electron, K = eV, then the de Broglie wavelength
associated with electron can be also written as,
h
λ=
√2mK

2. The matter–wave picture elegantly incorporated the Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.

According to this principle, it is not possible to measure both the position and
momentum of a particle at the same time exactly. There is always some uncertainty (∆x)
in the specification of position and some uncertainty (∆p) in the specification of
h
momentum. The product of ∆x and ∆p is of the order of ħ (= 2π).

∆x ∆p≥ ħ
•Davisson-Germer experiment
The wave nature of electrons was first experimentally verified in this experiment.
Davisson- Germer experiment thus confirms the de Broglie relation. The wave properties
of electrons have been utilised in the design of electron microscope which is a great
improvement, with higher resolution, over the optical microscope.

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