Photoelectricity

 Classically, light is treated as EM wave according to

Maxwell equation
 However, in a few types of experiments, light behave
in ways that is not consistent with the wave picture
 In these experiments, light behave like particle
instead
 So, is light particle or wave? (recall that wave and
particle are two mutually exclusive attributes of
existence)
 This is a paradox that we will discuss in the rest of
the course – wave particle duality

1
 Photoelectric effect
 Photoelectrons are ejected from a metal
surface when hit by radiation of
sufficiently high frequency f usually in
the uv region)

 The photoelectrons are attracted to the

collecting anode (positive) by potential
difference applied on the anode and
detected as electric current by the
external circuits

 A negative voltage, relative to that of the

emitter, can be applied to the collector.
 When this retarding voltage is sufficiently
large the emitted electrons are repelled,
and the current to the collector drops to
zero (see later explanation). 2
 Photocurrent I vs applied voltage at
constant f
 No current flows for a
retarding potential more saturation photocurrent
negative than –Vs I1 at higher radiation
intensity, R1
 The photocurrent I
saturates for potentials
near or above zero saturation photocurrent
 Why does the I- curve I2 at lower radiation
rises gradually from –Vs intensity, R2
towards more positive
V before it flat off ?
Kmax = eVs f constant
3
 Features of the experimental result
 When the external potential difference V = 0,
the current is not zero because the
photoelectrons carry some kinetic energy, K
 K range from 0 to a maximal value, K
max
 As V becomes more and more positive, there
are more electrons attracted towards the anode
within a given time interval. Hence the
pthotocurrent, I, increases with V
 Saturation of I will be achieved when all of the
ejected electron are immediately attracted
towards the anode once they are kicked out
from the metal plates (from the curve this
happens approximately when V ≈ 0 or larger 4
 On the other direction, when V becomes more
negative, the photocurrent detected decreases
in magnitude because the electrons are now
moving against the potential
 Kmax can be measured. It is given by eVs, where
Vs, is the value of |V| when the current flowing in
the external circuit = 0
 Vs is called the ‘stopping potential’
potential
 When V = -Vs, e of the highest KE will be
sufficiently retarded by the external electric
potential such that they wont be able to reach
the collector
5
 I2 > I1 because more electrons are
kicked out per unit time by radiation
of larger intensity, R
 The photocurrent saturates at a larger value
of I2 when it is irradiated by higher radiation
intensity R2
 This is expected as largerR means energy
are imparted at a higher rate on the metal
surface

6
 Stopping potential Vs is radiation
intensity-independent
 Experimentalists
observe that for a saturation photocurrent
given type of surface: I1 at higher radiation
intensity, R1
 At constant frequency
the maximal kinetic
energy of the
saturation photocurrent
photoelectrons is
I2 at lower radiation
measured to be a
intensity, R2
constant independent
of the intensity of light.
Kmax = eVs f constant
7
 Kmax of photoelectrons is frequency-
dependent at constant radiation
intensity
 One can also detect the
stopping potential Vs for
a given material at
different frequency (at
constant radiation
intensity)
 Kmax (=eVs) is measured
to linearly dependent
on the radiation
frequency Kmax  f
Sodium
8
 Cutoff frequency, f0
 From the same graph
one also found that
there exist a cut-off
frequency,
frequency f0, below
which no PE effect
occurs no matter how
intense is the radiation
shined on the metal
surface

Sodium
9
Different material have different
cut-off frequency f0

 For different material, the cut-off

frequency is different

10
 Classical physics can’t explain PE
 The experimental results of PE pose
difficulty to classical physicists as they
cannot explain PE effect in terms of
classical physics (Maxwell EM theory,
thermodynamics, classical mechanics etc.)

11
 Puzzle one
 Iflight were wave, the energy carried by
the radiation will increases as the intensity
of the monochromatic light increases
 Hence we would also expect K of the
max
electron to increase as the intensity of
radiation increases (because K.E. of the
photoelectron must come from the energy
of the radiation)
 YET THE OBSERVATION IS
OTHERWISE.

12
 Puzzle two
 Existenceof a characteristic cut-off
frequency, 0. (previously I use f0)

 Wave theory predicts that photoelectric

effect should occur for any frequency as
long as the light is intense enough to give
the energy to eject the photoelectrons.
 No cut-off frequency is predicted in
classical physics.

13
 Puzzle three
 No detection time lag measured.
 Classical wave theory needs a time lag
between the instance the light impinge on the
surface with the instance the photoelectrons
being ejected. Energy needs to be
accumulated for the wave front, at a rate
proportional to , E
S 0

2 c
before it has enough energy to eject0

photoelectrons.
 But, in the PE experiments, PE is almost
immediate
14
Cartoon analogy: in the wave picture, accumulating
the energy required to eject an photoelectron from an
atom is analogous to filling up a tank with water from a
pipe until the tank is full. One must wait for certain
length of time (time lag) before the tank can be filled
up with water at a give rate. The total water filled is
analogous to the total energy absorbed by electrons
before they are ejected from the metal surface at
Electron
spills out
from the tank
when the
Water from the pipe water is filled
fills up the tank at up gradually
some constant rate after some
‘time lag’ 15
 Wave theory and the time delay
problem
 A potassium foil is placed at a distance r=
3.5 m from a light source whose output
power P0 is 1.0 W. How long would it take
for the foil to soak up enough energy (=1.8
eV) from the beam to eject an electron?
Assume that the ejected electron collected
the energy from a circular area of the foil
whose radius is 5.3 x 10-11 m

16
 Use inverse r lawArea of the
2

surface
Energy from the presented by
bulb, P0 = 1 W an atom, a =
(or joule per rb2, where rb
second) = 0.5
r=3.5m Angstrom

Energy absorbed by a is
 = (a/A) x P0
Area of
= (rb2/r2) x 1 Watt
sphere , A = 
17
r2 -22
 Time taken for a to absorb 1.8 eV is simply 1.8 x
1.6 x 10-19 J / 5000 s = 1.4 h!!!

 In PE, the photoelectrons are ejected almost

immediately but not 1.4 hour later
 This shows that the wave model used to
calculate the time lag in this example fails to
account for the almost instantaneous ejection of
photoelectron in the PE experiment

18
 Einstein’s quantum theory of the
photoelectricity (1905)
 A Noble-prize winning theory (1905)
 To explain PE, Einstein postulates that the
radiant energy of light is quantized into
concentrated bundle. The discrete entity that
carries the energy of the radiant energy is
called photon
 Or, in quantum physics jargon, we say
“photon is the quantum of light”
 Wave behaviour of light is a result of collective
behaviour of very large numbers of photons
19
 Photon is granular

Flux of radiant
energy appears
like a continuum
at macroscopic Granularity of light (in
scale of intensity terms of photon)
becomes manifest when
magnified
20
 Wave and particle carries energy
differently
 The way how photon carries energy is in in
contrast to the way wave carries energy.
 For wave the radiant energy is
continuously distributed over a region in
space and not in separate bundles
 (always recall the analogy of water in a
hose and a stream of ping pong ball to
help visualisation)

21
 A beam of light if pictured as monochromatic wave (, )

 A

E0
Energy flux of the beam is S
20c
(in unit
of joule per unit time per unit area),
analogous to fluid in a host
A beam of light pictured in terms of photons
L = ct A
E=h
Energy flux of the beam is S = N (hv) /At = n0 ch (in unit of joule
per unit time per unit area). N is obtained by ‘counting’ the total
number of photons in the beam volume, N = n0V = n0 x (A ct),
where n0 is the photon number density of the radiation (in unit of 22
22
 Einstein’s !st postulate
1. The energy of a single photon is E = h. h is a
proportional constant, called the Planck constant, that
is to be determined experimentally.

 With this assumption, a photon will have a momentum

given by p = E/c = h/.
 This relation is obtained from SR relationship
E2 = p2c2 + (m0c2)2, for which the mass of a photon is
zero.
 Note that in classical physics momentum is intrinsically
a particle attribute not defined for wave.
By picturing light as particle (photon), the definition of
momentum for radiation now becomes feasible

23
Light as photon (in Einstein theory)
instead of wave (in Classical EM
theory)

p=h/, E=hhc
,
24
 Example
 (a) What are the energy and momentum of a photon of red
light of wavelength 650nm?

 (b) What is the wavelength of a photon of energy 2.40 eV?

 In atomic scale we usually express energy in eV,

momentum in unit of eV/c, length in nm; the combination
of constants, hc, is conveniently expressed in

 1 eV = 1.6x10-19 J

 hc = (6.62x10-34 Js)·(3x108 m/s)

= [6.62x10-34 ·(1.6x10-19)-1eV·s]·(3x108 m/s)
= 1.24eV·10-6m = 1240eV·nm

 1 eV/c = (1.6x10-19)J/ (3x108 m/s) = 5.3x10-28 Ns

25
 solution
 (a) E = hc/
= 1240 eV·nm /650 nm
= 1.91 eV (= 3.1x10-19J)
 (b) p = E/c = 1.91 eV/c (= 1x10-27 Ns)
 (c)  = hc/E
= 1240eV·nm /2.40 eV
= 517 nm

26
 Einstein’s 2nd postulate
 In PE one photon is completely absorbed by one atom in the
photocathode.
 Upon the absorption, one electron is ‘kicked out’ by the
absorbent atom.
 The kinetic energy for the ejected electron is
K = h - W
 W is the worked required to
 (i) cater for losses of kinetic energy due to internal collision of
the electrons (Wi),
 (ii) overcome the attraction from the atoms in the surface (W0)
 When no internal kinetic energy loss (happens to electrons
just below the surface which suffers minimal loss in internal
collisions), K is maximum:
 Kmax = h - W0

27
In general,
K = h – W, where
W = W0 + Wi

KE = h – Wi – W0
W0

W0 = work
KE loss = W0
required to
KE loss = overcome
Wi attraction from
surface atoms

KE = h - Wi
KE = h 28
 Einstein theory manage to solve
the three unexplained features:
 First feature:
 In Einstein’s theory of PE, Kmax = h - W0
 Both h and W0 do not depend on the radiation
intensity
 Hence Kmax is independent of irradiation intensity
 Doubling the intensity of light wont change Kmax
because only depend on the energy h of individual
photons and W0
 W0 is the intrinsic property of a given metal surfac

29
 Second feature explained
 The cut-off frequency is explained

 Recall that in Einstein assumption, a photon is

completely absorbed by one atom to kick out one
electron.
 Hence each absorption of photon by the atom
transfers a discrete amount of energy by h only.
 If h is not enough to provide sufficient energy to
overcome the required work function, W0, no
photoelectrons would be ejected from the metal
surface and be detected as photocurrent

30
Cut-off frequency is related to work
function of metal surface W0 = h
 A photon having the cut-off frequency  has just enough
energy to eject the photoelectron and none extra to appear
as kinetic energy.
 Photon of energy less than h has not sufficient energy to
kick out any electron
 Approximately, electrons that are eject at the cut-off
frequency will not leave the surface.
 This amount to saying that the have got zero kinetic
energy: Kmax = 0
 Hence, from Kmax = h - W0, we find that the cut-off
frequency and the work function is simply related by
 W 0 = h 
 Measurement of the cut-off frequency tell us what the work
function is for a given metal
31
W0 = h0

32
 PYQ 15, test I, 2003/04
 Which of the following statements correctly describe
light?
 I According to Einstein, the energy in an
electromagnetic beam is concentrated in discrete
bundles called photon
 II According to the classical Maxwell theory of
radiation, light is described as electromagnetic wave
 III The energy of the photon is proportional to the root-
mean-square of the amplitude of the electromagnetic
fields
 IV The intensity of a beam of light is proportional to the
root-mean-square of the amplitude of the
electromagnetic fields
 A. II,III B. I, II,IV C. II, III, IV
 D. I,III, IV E. I,II, III,IV
 ANS:B
33
 Third feature explained
 The required energy to eject photoelectrons is
supplied in concentrated bundles of photons, not
spread uniformly over a large area in the wave
front.
 Any photon absorbed by the atoms in the target
shall eject photoelectron immediately.
 Absorption of photon is a discrete process at
quantum time scale (almost ‘instantaneously’): it
either got absorbed by the atoms, or otherwise.
 Hence no time lag is expected in this picture

34
 A simple way to picture photoelectricity in terms of particle-
particle collision:
Energy of photon is transferred during the instantaneous
collision with the electron. The electron will either get kicked
up against the barrier threshold of W0 almost
instantaneously, or fall back to the bottom of the valley if h
is less
Initial than W0
photon
with energy h
Almost K = h– W0
instantaneously
h

W0
Photoelectron that is
Electron within the successfully kicked out from
metal, initially at rest the metal, moving with K35
 Compare the particle-particle
collision model with the water-
filling-tank model:
Electron
spills out
from the tank
when the
water is filled
up gradually
Water (light wave) after some
from the pipe fills up ‘time lag’
the tank at some
constant rate
36
 Experimental determination of
Planck constant from PE
 Experiment can measure eVs(= Kmax) for a
given metallic surface (e.g. sodium) at
different frequency of impinging radiation
 We know that the work function and the
stopping potential of a given metal is given
by
 eV = h - W
s 0

37
In experiment, we can measure the slope in the graph of
Vsverses frequency for different metal surfaces. It gives
a universal value of h/e = 4.1x10-15 Vs. Hence, h =
6.626 x 10-34 Js

Vs  = (h/e)-

Different metal
surfaces have
different  38
PYQ 2.16, Final Exam 2003/04
 Planck constant
 (i) is a universal constant
 (ii) is the same for all metals
 (iii) is different for different metals
 (iv) characterises the quantum scale
 A. I,IV B. I,II, IV C. I, III,IV

 D. I, III E. II,III
 ANS: B, Machlup, Review question 8, pg.
496, modified
39
PYQ 4(a,b) Final Exam 2003/04
 (a) Lithium, beryllium and mercury have
work functions of 2.3 eV, 3.9 eV and 4.5
eV, respectively. If a 400-nm light is
incident on each of these metals, determine
 (i) which metals exhibit the photoelectric
effect, and
 (ii) the maximum kinetic energy for the
photoelectron in each case (in eV)

40
 Solution for Q3a
 The energy of a 400 nm photon is E = hc/l
= 3.11 eV
 The effect will occur only in lithium*
 Q3a(ii)

max = h – W0
 For lithium, K
= 3.11 eV – 2.30 eV

= 0.81 eV
*marks are deducted for calculating “Kmax” for
beryllium and mercury which is
meaningless 41
PYQ 4(a,b) Final Exam 2003/04
 (b) Molybdenum has a work function of
4.2 eV.
 (i) Find the cut-off wavelength (in nm)
and threshold frequency for the
photoelectric effect.
 (ii) Calculate the stopping potential if the
incident radiation has a wavelength of 180
nm.

42
 Solution for Q4b
 Q3a(ii)
 Known hcutoff = W0
 Cut-off wavelength =  cutoff = c/cutoff
= hc/W0 = 1240 nm eV / 4.2 eV = 295 nm
 Cut-off frequency (or threshold frequency)=
 cutoff = c / cutoff = 1.01 x 1015 Hz
 Q3b(ii)
= (hc/ – W0) / e
 Stopping potential Vstop
= (1240 nm.eV/180 nm – 4.2 eV)/e = 2. 7 V
43
 Example (read it yourself)
 Light of wavelength 400
nm is incident upon lithium
(W0 = 2.9 eV). Calculate
 (a) the photon energy and
 (b) the stopping potential,
V s
 (c) What frequency of light
is needed to produce
electrons of kinetic energy
3 eV from illumination of
lithium?
44
 Solution:
 (a) E= h = hc/ = 1240eV·nm/400 nm = 3.1 eV
 (b) The stopping potential x e = Max Kinetic
energy of the photon
 => eVs = Kmax = h - W0 = (3.1 - 2.9) eV
 Hence, Vs = 0.2 V
 i.e. a retarding potential of 0.2 V will stop all
photoelectrons
 (c) h = Kmax + W0 = 3 eV + 2.9 eV = 5.9 eV.
Hence the frequency of the photon is
 = 5.9 x (1.6 x 10-19 J) / 6.63 x 10-34 Js
= 1.42 x1015 Hz
45
 PYQ, 1.12 KSCP 2003/04
Which of the following statement(s) is (are) true?
 I The energy of the quantum of light is proportional
to the frequency of the wave model of light
 II In photoelectricity, the photoelectrons has as
much energy as the quantum of light which causes it to
be ejected
 III In photoelectricity, no time delay in the emission
of photoelectrons would be expected in the quantum
theory
 A. II, III B. I, III C. I, II, III D. I
ONLY
 E. Non of the above
 Ans: B
 Murugeshan, S. Chand & Company, New Delhi, pg.
136, Q28 (for I), Q29, Q30 (for II,III) 46
To summerise: In
photoelectricity (PE), light
behaves like particle rather
than like wave.

47
 Compton effect
 Another experiment revealing the
particle nature of X-ray (radiation, with
wavelength ~ 10-10 nm)
Compton, Arthur Holly (1892-1962),
American physicist and Nobel laureate
whose studies of X rays led to his discovery
in 1922 of the so-called Compton effect.
The Compton effect is the change in
wavelength of high energy
electromagnetic radiation when it scatters
off electrons. The discovery of the
Compton effect confirmed that
electromagnetic radiation has both wave
and particle properties, a central principle
of quantum theory.
48
 Compton’s experimental setup
 A beam of x rays of
wavelength 71.1 pm is
directed onto a carbon
target T. The x rays
scattered from the target
are observed at various
angle  to the direction of 
the incident beam. The
detector measures both
the intensity of the
scattered x rays and their
wavelength

49
 Experimental data


Although initially the
incident beam consists of
only a single well-defined
wavelength ( ) the
 
 
scattered x-rays at a given
angle  have intensity
peaks at two wavelength
(’ in addition), where ‘>

50
Compton shouldn’t shift, according
to classical wave theory of light
 Unexplained by classical wave theory
for radiation
 No shift of wavelength is predicted in
wave theory of light

51
 Modelling Compton shift as
“particle-particle” collision
 Compton (and independently by Debye)
explain this in terms of collision between
collections of (particle-like) photon, each
with energy E = h, with the free electrons
in the target graphite (imagine billard balls
collision)

52
 Scattered
photon,
Initial E’=hc/’,
Initial y
photon, p’=h/’
electron, at
E=hc/, rest,
p=h/ Eei=mec2,
pei=0
 x


1: Conservation of E:
cp + mec2 = cp’ + Ee
Scattered
2: Conservation of electron, Ee,pe
momentum:p = p’ + pe
53
(vector sum)
 Conservation of momentum in 2-D
 p = p’ + p (vector sum) actually
e
comprised of two equation for both
conservation of momentum in x- and y-
directions

Conservation
of l.mom in y-
direction
p’sin = pesin

p = p’cos + pecos
54
Conservation of l.mom in x-direction
 Some algebra…
Mom conservation in y : p’sin = pesin
(PY)

Mom conservation in x : p - p’ cos = pecos

(PX)

Conservation of total relativistic energy:

cp + mec2 = cp’ + Ee
(RE)
(PY)2 + (PX)2, substitute into (RE)2 to eliminate , pe

and Ee (and using Ee2 = c2pe2 + me2c4 ):

 ≡ ’-  = (h/mec)(1 – cos)

55
 Compton wavelength
 e = h/mec = 0.0243 Angstrom, is the Compton
wavelength (for electron)
 Note that the wavelength of the x-ray used in the
scattering is of the similar length scale to the
Compton wavelength of electron

 The Compton scattering experiment can now be

perfectly explained by the Compton shift
relationship
 ≡ ’ = e(1 - cos)
as a function of the photon scattered angle
 Be reminded that the relationship is derived by
assuming light behave like particle (photon)
56
X-ray scattering from an electron
(Compton scattering): classical
versus quantum picture

57
  ≡ ’ = (h/mec)(1 - cos)
Notice that  depend on  only,
not on the incident wavelength, ..

Consider some limiting

behaviour of the Compton
shift:

For  = 00  “grazing”
collision =>  = 0

’=0.1795 nm
’



58
 For  1800 “head-on” collision
=>  = max
  1800 photon being reversed in direction
max =max’ =(h/mec)(1 – cos 180)
 = 2c =2( 0.00243nm)

initially
=180o

After collision
’max + max 59
PYQ 2.2 Final Exam 2003/04
Suppose that a beam of 0.2-MeV photon is
scattered by
the electrons in a carbon target. What is the
wavelength
of those photon scattered through an angle of 90 o?
A. 0.00620 nm
B. 0.00863 nm
C. 0.01106 nm
D. 0.00243 nm
E. Non of the above

60
 Solution
First calculate the wavelength of a 0.2 MeV photon:
E = hc/= 1240 eV.nm/= 0.2 MeV
=1240 nm / 0.2 x 106= 0.062 nm

From Compton scattering formula, the shift is

 = ’= c(1 – cos 90 ) = c
Hence, the final wavelength is simply
’ =  += c+ 0.00243nm + 0.062 nm = 0.00863 nm

ANS: B, Schaum’s 3000 solved problems, Q38.31, pg.

712

61
 Example

 X-rays of wavelength 0.2400 nm are

Compton scattered and the scattered beam is
observed at an angle of 60 degree relative to
the incident beam.
 Find (a) the wave length of the scattered x-
rays, (b) the energy of the scattered x-ray
photons, (c) the kinetic energy of the
scattered electrons, and (d) the direction of
travel of the scattered electrons
62
 solution
’=  + c (1 - cos)
= 0.2400nm+0.00243nm(1–cos60o)
= 0.2412 nm

’ = hc/’
= 1240 eV∙nm /0.2412 nm
= 5141 eV
63
 p p’
 E’ < E
Initial me
photon
E 
K pe
kinetic energy gained by the scattered electron =
energy transferred by the incident photon during
the scattering:
K = hc/ - hc/’
=(5167–5141)eV = 26 eV
Note that we ignore SR effect here because K << rest mass of electron, m e = 0.5
MeV

64
 p p’
 E’ < E
Initial me
photon
E 
K pe

By conservation of momentum in the x- and y- direction:

p= p’cos+ pecosp’sin= pesin 
tan  = pesin  / pecos(p’sin)/ (p - p’cos

(E’sin)/ (E - E’cos

sin cos 

Hence,  = 59.7 degree
65
 PYQ 3(c), Final exam 2003/04
 (c) A 0.0016-nm photon scatters from a
free electron. For what scattering angle of
the photon do the recoiling electron and
the scattered photon have the same
kinetic energy?
 Serway solution manual 2, Q35, pg. 358

66
 Solution
 The energy of the incoming photon is Ei = hc/ =
0.775 MeV
 Since the outgoing photon and the electron each
have half of this energy in kinetic form,
 Ef = hc/’ = 0.775 MeV / 2 = 0.388 MeV and
 ’ = hc/Ef = 1240 eV. nm / 0.388 MeV = 0.0032 nm
 The Compton shift is
  = ’ -  = (0.0032 – 0.0016) nm = 0.0016 nm
 By  = c (1 – cos )
 = (h/mec) (1 – cos ) 0.0016 nm
 = 0.00243 nm (1 – cos )
 = 70o 67
 PYQ 1.10 KSCP 2003/04
Which of the following statement(s) is (are) true?
 I. Photoelectric effect arises due to the
absorption of electrons by photons
 II. Compton effect arises due to the scattering of
photons by free electrons
 III. In the photoelectric effect, only part of the energy
of the incident photon is lost in the process
 IV.In the Compton effect, the photon completely
disappears and all of its energy is given to the
Compton electron
 A. I,II B. II,III,IV C. I, II, III
 D. III,IV Ans: E
 [I = false; II = true; III = false; IV = false]
 Murugeshan, S. Chand & Company, New Delhi, pg.
134, Q13,
68
 X-ray:
The inverse of photoelectricity
• X-ray, discovered by
Wilhelm Konrad
Roentgen (1845-1923).
He won the first Nobel
prize in 1902. He
refused to benefit
financially from his
work and died in
poverty in the German
inflation that followed
the end of World War 1.
69
 X-rays are simply EM radiation with
very short wavelength, ~ 0.01 nm –
10 nm
Some properties:
 energetic, according to E = hc/keV
(c.f. E ~ a few eV for visible light)
 travels in straight lines
 is unaffected by electric and magnetic fields
 passes readily through opaque materials – highly
penetrative
 causes phosphorescent substances to glow
 exposes photographic plates
70
 In photoelectricity, energy is transferred
from photons to kinetic energy of
electrons. The inverse of this process
produces x-rays
P.E: x-ray: electron
electron (Ke=0)+ photon (Ke) heat +
(hc/)  electron (Ke) + photon (hc/)
W0
Ke = 0  

(E = hc/ W0  0 compared

W0 to Ke, hence ignored
e
e
(Ee = K) (Ee = Ke >> W0)
71
 PE and x-rays production happen
at different energy scale
 However, both process occur at
disparately different energy scale
 Roughly ,for PE, it occurs at eV scale with
ultraviolet radiation
 For x-ray production, the energy scale
involved is much higher - at the order of
100 eV - 100 keV

72
 X-ray production
 X-rays is produced
when electrons,
accelerated by an
electric field in a E 
vacuum cathode-ray
tube, are impacted
on the glass end of
the tube
e
 Part or all of the
kinetic energy of a Ke
moving electron is
converted into a x-
ray photon
73
 The x-ray tube

 A cathode (the `pole’ that emits negative charge) is heated by

means of electric current to produce thermionic emission of
the electrons from the target
 A high potential difference V is maintained between the
cathode and a metallic target
 The Thermionic electrons will get accelerated toward the latter
 The higher the accelerating potential V, the faster the electron
and the shorter the wavelengths of the x-rays 74
Typical x-ray spectrum from the x-
ray tube

min
75
 Important features of the x-ray
spectrum
1. The spectrum is continuous
2. The existence of a minimum wavelength
 min for a given V, below which no
x-ray is observed
3. Increasing V decreases  min .

76
 min  1/V, the same for all material
surface
 At a particular V, min
is approximately
the same for different
target materials.
Experimentally one
finds that lmin is
inversely proportional
to V,
 1.24 10 6 
min   m  V
 V 
The peaks in the spectrum are due to the electronic transition occurring between the
adjacent shells (orbit) in the atom. We would not discuss them further here.
77
 X-ray production heats up the
target material
 Due to conversion of energy from the
impacting electrons to x-ray photons is not
efficient, the difference between input
energy, Ke and the output x-ray energy
Ebecomes heat
 Hence the target materials have to be
made from metal that can stand heat and
must have high melting point (such as
Tungsten and Molybdenum)

78
 Classical explanation of continuous
x-ray spectrum:
 The continuous X-ray spectrum is explained in terms of
Bremsstrahlung: radiation emitted when a moving electron
“tekan brake”
 According to classical EM theory, an accelerating (decelerating)
electric charge will radiate EM radiation
 Electrons striking the target get slowed down and brought to
eventual rest because of collisions with the atoms of the target
material
 Within the target, many electrons collides with many atoms for
many times before they are brought to rest
 Each collision causes some non-unique losses to the kinetic
energy of the Bremsstrahlung electron
 As a net effect of the collective behavior by many individual
collisions, the radiation emitted (a result due to the lost of KE of
the electron) forms a continuous spectrum
79
 Bremsstrahlung

 E = K - K’

electron
Target atom

K’ < K
80
Bremsstrahlung canot explain
min
 Notice that in the classical Bremsstrahlung
process the x-ray radiated is continuous and
there is no lower limit on the value of the
wavelength emitted. Hence, the existence of
min is not explained with the classical
Bremsstrahlung mechanism. All range of
from 0 to a maximum should be possible
in this classical picture.

min can only be explained by assuming light
as photons but not as EM wave
81
 Energy of the x-ray photon in the
quantum picture
 According to Einstein assumption on the energy of a
photon, the energy of the photon emitted in the
Bremsstrahlung is simply the difference between the
initial and final kinetic energy of the electron:
h = K – K’
 The shortest wavelength of the emitted photon gains
its energy, E = h max = hc/min corresponds to the
maximal loss of the K.E. of an electron in a single
collision (happen when K’ = 0 in a single collision)
 This (e.g. the maximal lose on KE) only happens to
a small sample of collisions. Most of the other
collisions loss their KE gradually in smaller amount
in an almost continuous manner.

82
 Theoretical explanation of the
experimental Value of min
 K (of the Bremsstrahlung electron) is converted
into the photon with E = hc/min
 Experimentally K is caused by the external
potential V that accelerates the electron before it
bombards with the target, hence
K = eV
 Conservation of energy requires
K = eV = hc/min
 or,  = hc/eV = (1240 nm.eV)/eV
min
= (1240 /V ) nm.V
which is the value measured in x-ray experiments
83
 Why is min the same for different
material?
 The production of the x-ray can be considered as an inverse
process of PE
 Hence, to be more rigorous, the conservation of energy should
take into account the effects due to the work potential of the
target material during the emission of x-ray process, W0
 However, so far we have ignored the effect of W0 when we were
calculating the relationship between min and K
 This approximation is justifiable because of the following reason:
 The accelerating potentials that is used to produce x-ray in a x-
ray vacuum tube, V, is in the range of 10,000 V
 Whereas the work function W0 is only of a few eV
 Hence, in comparison, W0 is ignored wrp to eV
 This explains why is the same for different target materials

84
 Example
 Find the shortest wavelength present in
the radiation from an x-ray machine whose
accelerating potential is 50,000 V
 Solution:
6
hc 1.24 10 V  m
min    2 .48  10 11
m  0.0248nm
eV 5.00 10 V4

This wavelength corresponds to the frequency

c 3 10 m / s
8
 max    1. 21  1019
Hz
min 11
2.48 10 m
85
 PYQ 1. 9 Final Exam 2003/04
 To produce an x-ray quantum energy of 10 -15 J
electrons must be accelerated through a
potential difference of about
 A. 4 kV Solution:
 B. 6 kV The energy of the x-rays photon comes from the
 C. 8 kV external accelerating potential,V
E  eV
 D. 9 kV
 1  10 15

 E. 10 kV V  E / e  11015 J/e=  19 
eV/e  6250V
 1.6 10 
 ANS: B, OCR ADVANCED SUBSIDIARY GCE
PHYSICS B (PDF), Q10, pg. 36
86
 PYQ 1.9 KSCP 2003/04
Which of the following statement(s) is (are) true?
 I. -rays have much shorter wavelength than
x-rays
 II. The wavelength of x-rays in a x-ray tube can
be controlled by varying the accelerating potential
 III. x-rays are electromagnetic waves
 IV. x-rays show diffraction pattern when passing
through crystals
 A. I,II B. I,II,III,IV C. I, II, III
 D. III.IV E. Non of the above
 Ans: B Murugeshan, S. Chand & Company, New
Delhi, pg. 132, Q1.(for I), pg. 132, Q3 (for II), pg.
132, Q4 (for III,IV) 87
 X-ray diffraction
 X-ray wavelengths can be determined through
diffraction in which the x-ray is diffracted by the
crystal planes that are of the order of the
wavelength of the x-ray, ~ 0.1 nm
 The diffraction of x-ray by crystal lattice is called
‘Bragg’s diffraction’
 It is also used to study crystal lattice structure
(by analysing the diffraction pattern)

88
Condition for diffraction
 Note that as a general
rule in wave optics,
diffraction effect is
prominent only when
the wavelength and
the ‘hole/obstacle are
comparable in their
length scale

89
Experimental setup of Bragg’s
diffraction

90
 X-ray diffraction pattern from crystal

The bright spots correspond to the directions where x-

rays scattered from various layers (different Braggs
planes) in the crystal interfere constructively. 91
 Adjacent
parallel crystal
planes

Constructive interference takes place only between those

scattered rays that are parallel and whose paths differ by
exactly , 2 ,3  and so on (beam I, II):
2d sin  = n , n = 1, 2, 3 …Bragg’s law for x-ray diffraction
92
 Example
 A single crystal of table salt (NaCl) is
irradiated with a beam of x-rays of
unknown wavelength. The first Bragg’s
reflection is observed at an angle of
26.3 degree. Given that the spacing
between the interatomic planes in the
NaCl crystal to be 0.282 nm, what is the
wavelength of the x-ray?

93
 Solution
 Solving Bragg’s law for then = 1 order,
  = 2d sin  = 2 x 0.282 nm x sin (26.3o) =
0.25 nm Constructive
inteference of n=1
order:
2dsin= 

d

94
 If powder specimen is used
(instead of single crystal)
 We get diffraction ring
due to the large
randomness in the
orientation of the
planes of scattering
in the power
specimen

95
 PYQ 6 Test I, 2003/04
 X-ray of wavelength 1.2 Angstrom strikes a
crystal of d-spacing 4.4 Angstrom. Where does
the diffraction angle of the second order occur?
 A.16 B. 33 C.55 
 D. 90 E. Non of the above
 Solution: n = 2d sin
 sin= n/2d = 2 x 2.2 / (2 x 4.4) = 0. 5
 = 30 
 ANS: B, Schaum’s 3000 solved problems,
Q38.46, pg. 715

96
 Pair Production: Energy into matter
 In photoelectric effect, a photon gives an electron all of its
energy. In Compton effect, a photon give parts of its
energy to an electron
 A photon can also materialize into an electron and a
positron
 Positron = anti-electron, positively charged electron with
the exactly same physical characteristics with electron
except opposite in charge and spin
 In this process, called pair production, electromagnetic
energy is converted into matter
 Creation of something (electron-positron pair) out of
nothing (pure EM energy) triggered by strong external EM
field

97
 Pictorial visualisation of pair
production
 In the process of pair production, a photon of
sufficient energy is converted into electron-
positron pair. The conversion process must
occur only in the presence of some external EM
field (such as near the vicinity of a nucleus)

98
 Conservational laws in pair-
production
 The pair-production must not violate some very
fundamental laws in physics:
 Charge conservation, total linear momentum,
total relativistic energy are to be obeyed in the
process
 Due to kinematical consideration (energy and
linear momentum conservations) pair production
cannot occur in empty space
 Must occur in the proximity of a nucleus
 Will see this is an example

99
 Energy threshold
 Due to conservation of relativistic energy, pair
production can only occur if E is larger than 2
me = 2 x 0.51 MeV = 1.02 MeV
 Any additional photon energy becomes kinetic
energy of the electron and positron, K
hc
E   2me c  K
2


PP

nucleus 100
 Example
 What is the minimal wavelength of a EM radiation
to pair-produce an electron-positron pair?
 Solutions: minimal photon energy occurs if the
pair have no kinetic energy after being created, K
=0
 Hence,

hc 1240nm  eV
min   12
 1.21 10 m
2me c 2
2  0.51MeV
These are very energetic EM radiation called gamma
rays and are found in nature as one of the emissions
from radioactive nuclei and in cosmic rays. 101
 Example
 Show that pair production cannot occur in
empty space

102

Solution
Conservation of energy must me fulfilled,
h = 2mc2
 Conservation of linear momentum must be fulfilled:

p
h 
  h/c = 2p cos  
 Since p = mv for electron and positron,
p
  h= 2c (mv) cos = 2mc2 (v/c) cos 
 Because v/c < 1 and cos ≤ 1, h< 2mc2
 But conservation of energy requires h = 2mc2. Hence it is
impossible for pair production to conserve both energy and
momentum unless some other object (such as a nucleus)
in involved in the process to carry away part of the initial of
the photon momentum 103
 Pair-annihilation
 The inverse of pair production occurs when a
positron is near an electron and the two come
together under the influence of their opposite
electric charges
e+ + e -   + 
 Both particles vanish simultaneously, with the
lost masses becoming energies in the form of
two gamma-ray photons
 Positron and electron annihilate because they
are anti particles to each other

104
Initial energy = 2mec2 + K

Final energy = hc/hc/

Conservation of relativistic
energy:
2mec2 + K = 2 hc/
105
 Energy and linear momentum are
always conserved in pair
annihilation
 The total relativistic energy of the e--e+ pair is E =
2mec2 + K = 1.02 MeV + K, where K the total kinetic
energy of the electron-positron pair before annihilation
 Each resultant gamma ray photon has an energy h =
0.51 MeV + K/2
 Both energy and linear momentum are automatically
conserved in pair annihilation (else it wont occur at all)
 The gamma photons are always emitted in a back-to-
back manner due to kinematical reasons (conservation
of linear momentum)
 No nucleus or other particle is needed for pair
annihilation to take place
 Pair annihilation always occurs whenever a matter
comes into contact with its antimatter 106
 As a tool to observe anti-world
 What is the characteristic energy of a gamma-
ray that is produced in a pair-annihilation
production process? What is its wavelength?
 Answer: 0.51 MeV, annih = hc / 0.51 MeV =
0.0243 nm
 The detection of such characteristic gamma ray
in astrophysics indicates the annihilation of
matter-antimatter in deep space

107
 PYQ 4, Test I, 2003/04
 An electron and a positron collide and
undergo pair-annihilation. If each particle
is moving at a speed of 0.8c relative to
the laboratory before the collision,
determine the energy of each of the
resultant photon.
 A. 0.85MeV B. 1.67 MeV
 C. 0.51 MeV D. 0.72MeV
 E. Non of the above

108
 Solution
Total energy before and after anniliation
must remain the same: i.e. the energy of each
electron is converted into the energy of each photon.
Hence the energy of each photon is simple equal
to the total relativistic energy of each electron
travelling at 0.8c :
E  Ee   me c 2

where   1/ 1   0.8   1.678

2

Hence E  1.678  0.51 MeV = 0.85 MeV

 ANS: A, Cutnell, Q17, pg. 878, modified 109

 To summarise
 X-rays are energetic photons produced via inversed
photoelectric effect
 It behave like particle in Compton scattering with free
electron
 But it also behaves like ordinary EM wave (undergoes
diffraction) when diffracted by the lattice sites in crystals
 Energy convert from one form to another as long as the
process doesn’t violate conservation laws (e.g.
conservation of energy/momentum/charge etc.)
 e.g. particle-antiparticle photon (pure energy)
 e.g. pure energy (photon)  particle-antiparticle pair

110