VIJETA SERIES

VIJETA SERIES

Dual Nature
of Radiation
IN 1 SHOT
Kshitiz Kanik Sir
 TABLE OF CONTENT

1.1Photons,Photoelectric effect
2.1 Experiments and outcomes
3.1 Einstein’s Equation
4. Dual Nature of Matter
Quantum Theory
Photons
Photons
Photons
5. In a photon particle ( or photon-electron) collisions, the total energy & total
momentum is conserved. However the number of photons may not be conserved.
The photon may be absorbed or a new photon may be created.
5. In a photon particle ( or photon-electron) collisions, the total energy & total
momentum is conserved. However the number of photons may not be conserved.
The photon may be absorbed or a new photon may be created.
6. If the intensity of light of a given wavelength is increased, there is a increase in the
number of photons incident on a given area in a given time. But the energy of each
photon remains the same.
Q
Monochromatic light of frequency 6 × 1014 Hz is produced by a laser.
The power emitted is 2.0 × 10–3 W. How many photons per second on a
average are emitted by the source?

SOLUTION
Electron Emission
Work Function
The minimum amount of energy required by an electron to just escape from the metal
surface is called work function of the metal.
The work function depends on (i) the nature of the metal & (ii) the conditions of its
surface.
Denoted by W0 (⁡ ∅0)
Measured in (eV)
Electron Volt
One electron volt is the kinetic energy gained by an electron when it is accelerated
through a potential difference of 1 volt.
Energy gained by an electron = Work done by electric field = qV
1 eV = 1.602 × 10–19 J
Electron volt is commonly used unit of energy in atomic and nuclear physics.
Work Functions of some Photosensitive Metals

Work Function Work Function

Metal Metal
(eV) (eV)

Cs 2.14 Al 4.28

K 2.30 Hg 4.49

Na 2.75 Cu 4.65

Ca 3.20 Ag 4.70

Mo 4.17 Ni 5.15

Pb 4.25 Pt 5.65
Electron Emission
The phenomenon of emission of electrons from a metal surface is called electron
emission.
For their release from the metal surface, electrons are supplied required amount of
energy by any one of the following method:

1 Thermionic emission ( e called thermo electrons)

2 Field emission
3 Photoelectric emission ( e called photoelectrons)
4 Secondary emission ( e called Secondary electrons)
Photoelectric Effect
When light of suitable frequency illuminates a metal surface, electrons are emitted from
the metal surface. The phenomenon is called photoelectric effect.
Or
The phenomenon of emission of electrons from a metal surface, when electromagnetic
radiations of sufficiently high frequency are incident on it, is called photoelectric effect.

The photo (light) - generated electrons are called photoelectrons.

Experimental Study of Photoelectric Effect
Experimental Study of Photoelectric Effect
1 Effect of Intensity of Light on Photoelectric Current: The number of
photoelectrons emitted per second is proportional to the intensity of incident
radiation.

Fixed Frequency
Fixed accelerating potential
Intensity not fixed
Experimental Study of Photoelectric Effect
2 Effect of Potential: The photoelectric current increases with the increase in
accelerating potential till a stage is reached when the photoelectric current becomes
maximum and does not increase further with the increase in the accelerating potential.
This maximum value of photoelectric current is called the saturation current.

Fixed Frequency
Fixed Intensity
accelerating potential not fixed
Experimental Study of Photoelectric Effect
2 Intensity vs Stopping potential: For a given frequency, the stopping potential is
independent of its intensity. Thus in turn implies that the max K.E. of the photoelectrons
is independent of the intensity of incident radiation.
Experimental Study of Photoelectric Effect
3 Effect of frequency on stopping potential: The minimum value of the frequency of
incident radiation below which the photoelectric emission stops altogether is called
threshold frequency.
3 Effect of frequency of incident radiation on stopping potential: if we plot a graph
between the frequency of incident radiation and the corresponding stopping
potential for different metals, we get straight line.
 From previous graph

(i) The stopping potential increases linearly with the frequency of the incident
radiation for a given photosensitive material.
(ii) There exists a certain minimum cut-off frequency for which the stopping potential is
zero.
The minimum value of the frequency of incident radiation below which the
photoelectric emission stops altogether is called threshold frequency.
(iii) For two different metals A and B, these graphs are parallel straight lines i.e.,
they have same slope. But the threshold frequencies are different for the two
metals.
Imp. Note
(i) The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons increases linearly with the
frequency of the incident radiation, but is independent of its intensity.

(ii) For a frequency ν of the incident radiation less than the threshold frequency v0, no
photoelectric emission is possible, howsoever large is the intensity of incident
radiation.
 Important Terms
• Stopping Potential

• Intensity

• Frequency

• KE(max)
Q
Define the term “Intensity” in photon picture of electromagnetic
radiation. [CBSE DELHI SET 1, 2019]

SOLUTION
Q
Define the term “threshold frequency” in the context of photoelectric
emission. [CBSE DELHI SET 1, 2019]

SOLUTION
Q
In a photoelectric experiment, the potential required to stop the ejection
of electrons from cathode is 4 V. What is the value of maximum kinetic
energy of emitted Photoelectrons? [SQP 2020-21]

SOLUTION
Q
Name the phenomenon which shows the quantum nature of
electromagnetic radiation. [CBSE O.D. I, 2017]

SOLUTION
Laws of Photoelectric Emission
1 For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident radiation, (above the
threshold frequency), the photoelectric current is directly proportional to the
intensity of light. The t. saturation current is directly proportional to the intensity of
incident radiation.
2 For a given photosensitive material, there exists a certain minimum cut-off frequency
below which no photoelectrons are emitted, howsoever high is the intensity of
incident radiation. This frequency is called threshold frequency.
Laws of Photoelectric Emission
3. Above the threshold frequency, the stopping potential or equivalently the maximum
kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is directly proportional to the frequency of
incident radiation, but is independent of its intensity.
4. The photoelectric emission is an an instantaneous process. The time lag between the
incidence of light radiation and the emission of photoelectrons is very small, even
less than 10-9 s
Failure of Classical Wave Theory
The classical wave theory of radiation could not explain the main features of
photoelectric effect.

1. The independence of Kmax on intensity

2. The existence of threshold frequency v0
3. The instantaneous nature of the phenomenon.
Einstein's Theory of Photoelectric Effect
In 1905, Einstein explained photoelectric effect on the basis of Planck's quantum theory
according to which a light radiation travels in the form of discrete photons. Each photon
carries hv energy.

The main points of the Einstein's theory of photoelectric effect are:

1. Photoelectric emission is the result of interaction of two particles – one a photon of

incident radiation and the other an electron of photosensitive metal.

2. The free electrons are bound within the metal due to restraining forces on the
surface. The minimum energy required to liberate an electron from the metal surface
is called work function W0 of the metal.
Einstein's Theory of Photoelectric Effect
3. Each photon interacts with one electron. The energy hv of the incident photon is
used up in two parts:
(a) A part of the energy of the photon is used in liberating the electron from the metal
surface, which is equal to the work function Wo of the metal,
(b) The remaining energy of the photon is used in imparting kinetic energy of the ejected
electron.
Einstein's Theory of Photoelectric Effect
Einstein's explanation of Photoelectric Effect
Einstein's explanation of Photoelectric Effect
Q
Photons of frequency v are incident on the surface of two metals A and B
of threshold frequencies 3 v/4 and 2 v/3 , respectively. Find the ratio of
maximum kinetic energy of electrons emitted from A to that from B.
[CBSE DELHI SET 2, 2020 Modified]

SOLUTION
Q
In an experiment of photoelectric emission, Following observations were
made
1. Wavelength of the incident light = 2 × 10–7 m
2. Stopping potential = 3 V
Find
(i) Kinetic energy of photoelectrons with maximum speed
(ii) Work function and
(iii) Threshold frequency (h = 6.62 × 10–34/s).

SOLUTION
Q
The work function of caesium metal is 2.14 eV. When light of frequency
6 × 1014 Hz is incident on the metal surface, photoemission of electrons
occurs. What is the
(a) Maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electrons?
(b) Stopping potential ?

SOLUTION
Determination of Plank’s Constant & Work Function
Determination of Plank’s Constant & Work Function

W0 = e × Magnitude of the intercept on vertical axis

Q
Using the graph shown in the fig for stopping potential versus the
incident frequency of photons, calculate Planck’s constant.

SOLUTION
Particle Nature of Light: The Photon
When light interacts with matter, it behaves as if it is made up of discrete packets of
energy, called quanta.
The fact that a light quantum has definite energy as well as momentum allows us to
associate a particle with it. This particle was called Photon.
Particle Nature of Light: The Photon
Particle Nature of Light: The Photon
Some basic features of the photon picture of electromagnetic radiation are

5. In a photon particle ( or photon-electron) collisions, the total energy & total

momentum is conserved. However the number of photons may not be conserved.
The photon may be absorbed or a new photon may be created.
6. If the intensity of light of a given wavelength is increased, there is a increase in the
number of photons incident on a given area in a given time. But the energy of each
photon remains the same.
Dual Nature of Radiation
Light has dual nature. It manifests itself as a wave in diffraction, interference,
polarisation, etc., while it shows particle nature in photoelectric effect, Compton
scattering, etc.
Dual Nature of Matter: De-Broglie Waves
De-Broglie put forward the bold hypothesis that “material particles in motion should
display wave – like properties”.
His reasoning was based on the following two considerations:
1. Two physical quantities which govern all the form of the physical universe are mass
and energy
The Einstein's Mass - energy relationship: E = mc2

2. Nature loves symmetry, therefore, from symmetry considerations, de – Broglie

predicted that matter also posses dual nature.
Dual Nature of Matter: De-Broglie Waves
The waves associated with material particles in motion are called matter or de Broglie
waves and their wavelength is de Broglie wavelength
Dual Nature of Matter: De-Broglie Waves
De-Broglie Wavelength of an Electron
Q
Two particles have equal momenta. What is the ratio of their de-Broglie
wavelengths?

SOLUTION
Q
An -particle and a proton are accelerated from rest by the same
potential. Find the ratio of their de-Borglie wavelengths. [CBSE 2010]

SOLUTION
Q
Find the ratio of de-Broglie wavelengths associated with two electrons
accelerated through 25 V and 36 V. [CBSE OD SET 3, 2020]

SOLUTION
Q
An electron is accelerated through a potential difference of 100 V. What
is the de Broglie wavelength associated with it?
[CBSE 2010]

SOLUTION
Summary
 The minimum energy needed by an electron to come out from a metal surface is
called the work function of the metal. Energy (greater than the work function
(fο) required for electron emission from the metal surface can be supplied by
suitably heating or applying strong electric field or irradiating it by light of
suitable frequency.
 Photoelectric effect is the phenomenon of emission of electrons by metals when
illuminated by light of suitable frequency. Certain metals respond to ultraviolet
light while others are sensitive even to the visible light. Photoelectric effect
involves conversion of light energy into electrical energy. It follows the law of
conservation of energy. The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process
and possesses certain special features.
 Photoelectric current depends on (i) the intensity of incident light, (ii) the
potential difference applied between the two electrodes, and (iii) the nature of
the emitter material.
 The stopping potential (Vo) depends on (i) the frequency of incident light, and
(ii) the nature of the emitter material. For a given frequency of incident light, it is
independent of its intensity. The stopping potential is directly related to the
maximum kinetic energy of electrons emitted eV0 = (1/2) m v2max = Kmax:
 Below a certain frequency (threshold frequency) ν0, characteristic of the metal,
no photoelectric emission takes place, no matter how large the intensity may be,
 The classical wave theory could not explain the main features of photoelectric
effect. Its picture of continuous absorption of energy from radiation could not
explain the independence of Kmax on intensity, the existence of νo and the
instantaneous nature of the process. Einstein explained these features on the
basis of photon picture of light. According to this, light is composed of discrete
packets of energy called quanta or photons. Each photon carries an energy E (= h
ν) and momentum p (= h/λ), which depend on the frequency (ν ) of incident light
and not on its intensity. Photoelectric emission from the metal surface occurs
due to absorption of a photon by an electron.
 Einstein’s photoelectric equation is in accordance with the energy conservation
law as applied to the photon absorption by an electron in the metal. The
maximum kinetic energy (1/2)m v2max is equal to the photon energy (hν) minus
the work function f0 (= hν0) of the target metal:
1/2 m v2max= V0e = hν – f0 = h (ν – ν0)
This photoelectric equation explains all the features of the photoelectric effect.
Millikan’s first precise measurements confirmed the Einstein’s photoelectric
equation and obtained an accurate value of Planck’s constant h. This led to the
acceptance of particle or photon description (nature) of electromagnetic
radiation, introduced by Einstein.
 Radiation has dual nature: wave and particle. The nature of experiment
determines whether a wave or particle description is best suited for
understanding the experimental result. Reasoning that radiation and matter
should be symmetrical in nature, Louis Victor de Broglie attributed a wave-like
character to matter (material particles). The waves associated with the moving
material particles are called matter waves or de Broglie waves.
 The de Broglie wavelength (λ) associated with a moving particle is related to its
momentum p as: λ = h/p. The dualism of matter is inherent in the de Broglie
relation which contains a wave concept (λ) and a particle concept (p). The de
Broglie wavelength is independent of the charge and nature of the material
particle. It is significantly measurable (of the order of the atomic-planes spacing
in crystals) only in case of sub-atomic particles like electrons, protons, etc. (due
to smallness of their masses and hence, momenta). However, it is indeed very
small, quite beyond measurement, in case of macroscopic objects, commonly
encountered in everyday life.
 Electron diffraction experiments by Davisson and Germer, and by G. P. Thomson,
as well as many later experiments, have verified and confirmed the wave-nature
of electrons. The de Broglie hypothesis of matter waves supports the Bohr’s
concept of stationary orbits.
 Points to Ponder
1. Free electrons in a metal are free in the sense that they move inside the metal in
a constant potential (This is only an approximation). They are not free to move
out of the metal. They need additional energy to get out of the metal.
2. Free electrons in a metal do not all have the same energy. Like molecules in a
gas jar, the electrons have a certain energy distribution at a given temperature.
This distribution is different from the usual Maxwell’s distribution that you have
learnt in the study of kinetic theory of gases. You will learn about it in later
courses, but the difference has to do with the fact that electrons obey Pauli’s
exclusion principle.
3. Because of the energy distribution of free electrons in a metal, the energy
required by an electron to come out of the metal is different for different
electrons. Electrons with higher energy require less additional energy to come
out of the metal than those with lower energies. Work function is the least
energy required by an electron to come out of the metal.
4. Observations on photoelectric effect imply that in the event of matter-light
interaction, absorption of energy takes place in discrete units of hν. This is not
quite the same as saying that light consists of particles, each of energy hν.
5. Observations on the stopping potential (its independence of intensity and
dependence on frequency) are the crucial discriminator between the wave-
picture and photon-picture of photoelectric effect.
6. The wavelength of a matter wave given by l = h/p has physical significance; its
phase velocity vp has no physical significance. However, the group velocity of the
matter wave is physically meaningful and equals the velocity of the particle.