HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

SAS 1: INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Anatomy - ANA (Greek)= up; TOM (Greek)= cut to slice(dissection comes

from dis= apart and section = to cut
- study of the structure and shape of the body and its parts

Physiology – PHYSI(Greek)= a function of nature; LOGY(Greek)= a study of

- study of how the body and its parts work or function.

Specialization within each of these science include:

Gross (Macroscopic) Anatomy
- study of large body structures visible to the naked eye (heart, lungs, kidneys)
● Regional Anatomy – all the structures (muscles, bones, blood vessels,
nerves, etc.) in a particular region of the body, such as the abdomen or ● Regional Terms – identify specific areas of the body. In some
leg, are examined at the same time/ body areas. cases, a descriptive word is used to identify the location.
- Axial Region – refers to the main axis of the body (head, neck,
● Systematic Anatomy – body structure is studied system by system trunk)
- Appendicular Region – refers to the appendages (arms & legs)
● Surface Anatomy – the study of internal structures as they relate to the - Other regional terms use a body part to identify a particular
overlying skin surface/ exterior features. region of the body. Ex. The Nasal Region to the nose.
● Sectional Anatomy
● Clinical Anatomy - medical specialties
- a section is a slice through a three-dimensional object
● Sectional Anatomy - cross-section - Used to visualize internal organization
- important in radiological techniques
Microscopic Anatomy – deals with structures too small to be seen with the
- MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) used to investigate or
naked eye. Subdivisions include:
diagnose conditions that affect soft tissues such as tumors or
● Histology – the study of tissues at the microscopic level brain disorders.
- PET (Positron Emission Tomography)
● Cytology – the study of cell at the microscopic level. - CT (Computed tomography) scan of the abdomen
Developmental Anatomy – traces structural changes that occur throughout the ● Body Planes or Sectional Plane – used to describe how the body or an
lifespan. organ is divided into two parts:
- Sagittal Planes – divide body/ organ vertically into right & left
● Embryology – a subdivision of developmental anatomy, concerns parts.
developmental changes that occur before birth. Midsagittal plane = equally divided
Renal Physiology – concerns kidney function and urine production. Parasagittal Plane = unequal
Neurophysiology – the study of how the nervous system functions. - Frontal (coronal) – divides body/organ vertically into
Cardiovascular Physiology – examines the operation of the heart and blood front(anterior) & rear (posterior) parts.
vessels. - Transverse (horizontal) plane – divides body/organ horizontally
Cell Physiology - study the function of cell into top(superior) and bottom (inferior). This is
Organ Physiology - function of a specific organ also known as cross section.
Systemic Physiology - function of organ system
Pathological Physiology - effects of diseases on organ or system

Anatomical Terminologies

Anatomical Position – a reference position in which the body is

standing erect, facing forward, arms down at the side,
with the palms turned forward.
Supine = lying down, face up
Prone - lying down, face down
● Directional Terms / anatomical directions – used to describe
● Body Cavities - are enclosed areas that houses viscera (internal organs)
the relative position of one body part to another.
- Protect organs from shocks and impacts
- Permit significant changes in size and shape of internal organs
1. Ventral Cavity - divided by diaphragm
➢ Thoracic Cavity
a. Mediastinum – mid portion of thoracic cavity (heart & trachea)
b. Pleural cavities – right lung is located in right pleural cavity.
left lung is located in left pleural cavity.

➢ Abdominopelvic Cavity
a. Abdominal cavity - contains stomach, intestines, liver,
gallbladder, pancreas, and spleen.
b. Pelvic Cavity – contains reproductive organs, urinary bladder,
and lowest part of intestines.
c. Abdominopelvic regions

3. Dorsal Cavity
a. Cranial Cavity – contains brain
b. Spinal Cavity – contains spinal cord.
 ● Called the chemical processing and package center

● storage, alteration, and packaging of secretory products and lysosomal

SAS 2: CELLS AND TISSUES
enzymes.
I. Cell – the basic and smallest functional unit of all living things. Knowledge
(d) Mitochondria - double membrane, w/ inner membrane folds (cristae)
about cells is crucial to any physiologist or anatomist.
enclosing important metabolic enzymes.
Cytology - study of cells, a branch of cell biology
Sex cells (germs/reproductive cells) - sperm and oocytes ● Composed of inner and outer membrane sacs
Somatic cells - all body cells except sex cells.
Cell Theory - cells are building block of all organisms ● Involved with energy-releasing chemical reactions (cellular respirations)
- All cells come from division of preexisting cells
- Cells are the smallest units that perform all vital physiological ● Often called power plants of the cell
functions ● Each mitochondrion contains 1 DNA molecule
- Each cell maintains homeostasis at the cellular level.
● “Powerhouse” of the cell; most of the cell’s ATP is formed here.

● Produces 95% of the ATP required by the cell.

(e) Lysosomes
● Membrane-enclosed packets containing digestive enzymes

● Bags of digestive enzymes in the cell

● Have protective function (eat microbes)

● Formerly thought to be responsible for apoptosis (programmed cell

death)

(f) Centrosome (2)

● Essential for movement of chromosomes during cell division;
organization of microtubules in cytoskeleton.
● Microtubule (9)– organizing region of the cytoskeleton near the nucleus.

● Centrioles – paired organelles that lie at right angles to each other within
A. the centrosome and function in moving chromosomes during cell
SIZE AND SHAPE: human cells differs in size; all microscopic; differ production.
notably in size (g) Cell extensions
B. COMPOSITION: cells contains cytoplasm, a substance only found in ● Microvilli – short extensions of the plasma membrane containing
cells; organelles are specialized structures within the
microfilaments that increase surface area and produce slight movements
cytoplasm; cell interior is surrounded by plasma membrane
that enhance absorption by the cell.
C. STRUCTURAL PARTS
1. Plasma Membrane - lipid bilayer containing phospholipids, steroids, ● Cilia – hairlike extensions with inner microtubules found on free or
proteins, and carbohydrates. exposed surfaces of all cells;
● Forms outer boundary of cell ● 2 types: Cilium = sensory functions, Motile = capable of moving
● Composed of thin, two-layered membrane of phospholipids and together in a wavelike fashion to propel mucus across surfaces.
embedded with proteins ● Flagella – single projections (much longer than cilia) that acts as “tails”
● Selectively permeable of sperm cells. Much longer than cilia
– a long cell projection used to propel sperm cells.
● Isolation; protection; sensitivity, support, controls entry and exit of (h) Proteasomes - hollow cylinders of proteolytic enzymes with regulatory
materials. proteins at their ends.
2. Cytoplasm ● Breakdown and recycle damage of abnormal intracellular proteins.
(i) Peroxisomes - vesicles containing degradative enzymes.
● All cell substance from the nucleus to the plasma membrane ● Catabolism of fats and other organic compounds; neutralization of
toxic compounds generated in the process.
● Cytoskeleton - proteins organized in fine filaments or slender tubes.
- internal framework of cell
- made up of microfilaments and microtubules.
- provides support and movement of cells and organelles.
- Provides strength & support; movements of cellular structures
and materials.
● Other cell parts
(a). Ribosomes - RNA + proteins
● Fixed ribosomes = bound to RER;

● Free ribosomes = scattered in cytoplasm

● Made of 2 tiny sub-units of mostly ribosomal RNA(mRNA)

3. Nucleus
● May attach to rough ER or lie free in cytoplasm
● Controls cells because it contains most of the genetic code (genome),
● Manufacture enzymes and other proteins; often called protein factories instructions for making proteins, which in turn determine cell structure
(b). Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) - network of membranous channels and function.
extending throughout the cytoplasm
● Components structures include nuclear envelope, nucleoplasm,
● Network of connecting sacs and canals nucleolus, and chromatin granules
● Tubelike passages that carries substance through cytoplasm ● DNA molecule become tightly coiled chromosomes during cell division.

● Rough ER collects, folds, and transports protein made by ribosomes. ● 46 nuclear chromosomes contain DNA, which contains genetic code.

● Smooth ER synthesizes chemicals, makes new membrane (don’t have ● Directs protein synthesis; the brain of the cell
ribosomes)
● Synthesis of secretory products, intracellular storage and transport;
D. RELATIONSHIP OF CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
detoxification of drugs and toxins.
(c). Golgi apparatus - stacks of flattened membrane (cisternae) containing ● Every human cell has a designated function: some help maintain the cell,
chambers. and others regulate life processes.
● Group of flattened sacs near nucleus ● Specialized functions of a cell differ depending on number and type of
organelles
● Collects chemicals into vesicles that move from the smooth ER outward
to the plasma membrane E. CELL JUNCTIONS
● The plasma membranes of adjacent cells are usually separated by ● Stratified Transitional Epithelium – up to 10 layers of roughly cuboidal
extracellular fluids that allow transport of nutrients and wastes to and from cells that distort to squamous shape when stretched;
the bloodstream. found in body areas
that stretch (urinary bladder)
● In certain tissues, however, the membranes of adjacent cell may join and
form a junction. ● Pseudostratified Epithelium – single
layer of distorted columnar cells;
each cell
touches basement membrane.
●

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium –

single layer of cubelike cells
often
specialized for
secretory activity; may secrete into
ducts, directly
into blood, and on body surface.
(a) Desmosomes – protein attachment between adjacent cells. B. CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Inside
the plasma membrane, a desmosome bears a disk-
shapes
structure from which protein fibers extend into the
cytoplasm.
- It acts like a post welds to hold together tissues that
undergo considerable stress (such as skin or heat
muscle)
(b) Tight junction – tightly stitched seams between cells. The junction
completely encircles each cell, preventing the
movement of material between the cells.
- are characteristics of cells lining the digestive tract,
where materials are required to pass through cells
(rather than intercellular spaces) to penetrate the
bloodstream.
(c) Gap Junction – narrow tunnels between cells that consist of proteins
called connexons. The proteins allow only the
passage of ions and small molecules.
- allows communication between cells through
exchange of the materials or the transmission of
electrical impulses.

II. Tissues
– The human body is composed of approximately 200 distinctly different
types of cells. These cells are organized into 4 basic tissues that are
- most abundant and widely distributed tissue in the body, with many different
assembled to form organs.
types, appearance, and functions.
- Collection of specialized cells and cell products that perform specific
- relatively few cells in the intercellular matrix.
functions
a. Areolar (loose connective) tissue – fibrous glue (fascia) that hold organs
- Combination of tissues form organs, such as heart or liver
together, collagenous and elastic fibers, plus a variety of cell types.
- Examining tissue at a microscopic level enables you to identify the
b. Adipose (fat) tissue – lipid storage, metabolism regulation; brown fat
organ you’re looking at.
produces heat.
Histology - study of tissues.
c. Reticular tissue – delicate net of collagen fibers, as in bone marrow.
d. Dense Fibrous tissue – bundles of strong collagen fibers; ex. Tendon.
A. EPITHELIAL TISSUE
Supporting Connective Tissue
- covers body and lines body cavities
e. Bone tissue – matrix is calcified; functions as support and protection.
- cells packed closely together with little matrix
f. Cartilage tissue – matrix is the consistency of gristle-like gel; chondrocyte is
- classified by shape of cells:
cell type.
a. Squamous (flat and scale-like)
Fluid Connective Tissue
b. Cuboidal (cube-shape)
g. Blood tissue – matrix is fluid; functions are transportation and protection.
c. Columnar (higher than they are wide)
i. Lymph - forms as interstitial fluid that enters lymphatic vessels; this fluid
d. Transitional (varying shapes that can stretch)
contains WBCs, which bathes and nourishes the tissues of the body.
- classified by arrangement of cell into one or more layers:
a. Simple epithelium - a single layer of cells
C. MUSCLE TISSUE
b.

Stratified epithelium - epithelium consisting of multiple layers a. Skeletal Muscle tissue – attaches to bones; also called striated or
c. Pseudostratified epithelium – a single layer of cells of different voluntary;
size, giving the appearance of being multilayered. – control voluntary striations apparent when
● Simple Squamous Epithelium – single layer of scalelike cells adapted viewed under microscope
for transport (e.g., absorption)
● Stratified Squamous Epithelium – several layers of closely packed cells
specializing protection.
- Type of tissue forming the epidermis
● Simple Columnar Epithelium – tall, column-like cells arranged in a
single layer, contain mucus producing goblet cells;
specialized for absorption
 b. Cardiac Muscle Tissue – also called striated involuntary; composes
heart wall; ordinarily cannot control contractions; Protection – provided against infection by microbes, physical damage,
with intercalated disc. harmful chemicals and ultraviolet radiation.

Sensation – provided by nerve endings for touch, pain , and heat

keeping the body informed of changes in its environment.

Thermoregulation – supported through the sweating and regulation

of blood flow through the skin.

Synthesis of vitamin D – occurs in the skin

c. Smooth Muscle Tissue – also called nonstriated (visceral) or Excretion – salts and small amounts of wastes (ammonia and urea)
involuntary; no cross striations; found in blood
vessels and other tube-shapes organs. occurs with the production of sweat.
II. LAYERS OF THE SKIN
D. NERVOUS TISSUE A. The Epidermis
- functions as rapid communication between body structures and control ● consists of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium.
of body function.
4 cell types are present:
- specialized for conducting electrical impulses
- concentrated in the brain and spinal cord Keratinocytes produce keratin, a protein that hardens and
- Neuron
waterproofs the skin. Mature keratinocytes at the skin
a. Conduction cells the surface are dead and filled almost entirely with keratin.
b. All neurons have cell body and 2 - most important cells in the epidermis
types of processes: Melanocytes produce melanin, a pigment that protects cells
(1) Axon (one) carries nerve impulse
away from cell body from ultraviolet radiation. Melanin from the melanocytes
(2) Dendrites (1 or more) carry nerve is transferred to the keratinocytes. Melanin is also the
impulse toward the cell body basic determinant of skin color.

Langerhans Cells are phagocytic macrophages that interact

- Glia (neuroglia) – supportive and connecting cells. with white blood cells during an immune response.
- maintain physical structure of tissue
- repair tissue framework after injury Merkel Cells occur deep in the epidermis at the epidermal- dermal
- perform phagocytosis boundary. They from Merkel discs, which, in
- provide nutrients to neurons association with nerve ending, serves as sensory function.
- regulate the composition of the interstitial fluid
surrounding neurons.
● There are several layers making up the epidermis. “Thick Skin”
found on the palms of the hands and soles of the feet, consists of
5 layers while “Thin Skin” consists of only four layers
5 layers of epidermis:

Stratum Corneum contains many layers of dead, anucleate

keratinocytes are completely filled with keratin. The
the outermost layers are constantly shed.

Stratum Lucidum contains 2-3 layers of anucleate cells. This layer is

found only in “thick skin” such as the palm/ sole of the foot

Stratum Granulosum contains 2-4 layers of cells held

SAS
together by desmosomes. These cells contain keratohyalin
3:
granules, which contribute to the formation of keratin in
the upper layers of the epidermis.

Stratum Spinosum contains 8-10 layers of cells connected by

desmosomes. These cells are moderately active in mitosis.

Stratum Basale (stratum germinativum) contains a single

THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
layer of columnar cells actively dividing by mitosis to
produce cells that migrate into the upper epidermal layers
and ultimately to the surface of the skin.

B. The Dermis
● The 2nd layer of the skin consists of various connective tissues.

● it contains fibroblasts and macrophages within a gelatinous matrix

containing collagen, elastic, and reticular fibers.
● The structure provides strength, extensibility (ability to be
stretched), and elasticity (ability to return to its original form)
● It is in the dermis where we find the capillaries and many nerve
endings. Major blood vessel are found the hypodermis

Papillary Layers – a thin outer layer of areolar connective tissue

with fingerlike projection called dermal papillae that protrude
into the epidermis. In the hands and feet, the dermal papillae
generate epidermal ridges (sweat from the epidermal ridges
leaves fingerprints)
I. THE SKIN AND ITS FUNCTION
Reticular Layer – a thick layer of dense irregular connective tissue. It
● considered an organ because it consists of all 4 tissue types.
lies deep to the papillary layers and makes up most of the dermis.
● consists of accessory organs (glands, hair, and nails, thus making up the C. The Hypodermis
integumentary system) ● The hypodermis (subcutaneous layer, or superficial fascia) lies
● Consists of 2 primary layers, the epidermis and the underlying dermis. between the dermis and underlying tissues and organs. It consists
of mostly adipose tissue and is the storage site of most body fat.
Although technically not part of the skin, the hypodermis (subcutaneous
layer, or superficial fascia) lies beneath the dermis. ● Technically, this is not part of the skin because it only attaches
● The skin performs a variety of functions. (fastens) the skin to the bones and muscles.
 2. Basal Cell Carcinoma
● It also provides thermal insulations, and absorbs shocks from
impacts to the skin. ● Most common type of skin cancer

● Found beneath the dermis described as a loose layer of skin rich ● Originates in cells at base of epidermis – often on upper face
in fat and areolar tissue.
● Lesion begin as small raised areas that erode in center, bleed, and
III. ACCESSORY ORGANS OF THE SKIN crust over.
The following accessory organs (skin derivates) are embedded in the ● Less likely to metastasize than other skin cancer types
skin:
3. Malignant Melanoma
● Hair are elongated filaments of dead/keratinized epithelial cells
● Most serious form of skin cancer
that arise and emerge from the skin of mammals. Hair is composed
of the following structures: ● May develop from benign, pigmented moles or excess UV
radiation
Hair shaft is the portion of the hair that is visible on the surface of
the skin

Hair root is the portion of the hair that penetrates the skin 4. Kaposi Sarcoma
(epidermis and dermis)
● A rare form of skin cancer frequently associated with AIDS and
Hair follicle is the sheath that surrounds the hair in the skin other immune deficiencies.

Bulb base of the hair follicle B. Causes

● Genetic predisposition
Matrix is the bottom of the hair follicle (located within the bulb).
Here , the cells are actively dividing, producing new hair cells. As ● Sun’s UV radiation damages skin cell DNA, causing mistakes
these cells differentiate, they produce keratin and absorb during mitosis
melanin nearby melanocytes. As younger cells are produced
below them, the more mature cells are pushed upward, where
they eventually die. The keratin they leave behind contributes to
the growth of the hair. The color of the hair determined by the
pigments absorbed from the melanocytes.

Arrector pili is a smooth muscle that is attracted to the hair follicle.

When the muscle contracts, the hair become erect; in humans,
“goose bumps” are produced.
● Nails are dead/keratinized
epithelial cells. The semilunar
lighter region of the nail, the
lunula is the area of new nail
growth. Below the lunula, the
nail matrix is actively producing
nail cells, which contribute to the
growth of the nail.

● Sudoriferous (sweat) glands secrete sweat. Sweat consists of

water with various salts and other substances. There are four kinds
of sudoriferous glands:

Merocrine (eccrine) glands occur under most skin surfaces and

secrete a watery solution through pores(opening at the skin
surface), which serve to cool the skin as it evaporates.
- Perspiration glands with the role in temperature control

Apocrine glands occur under the skin surfaces of the armpits and
pubic region and, beginning with puberty, secrete a solution in
response to stress or sexual excitement. The solution,, more viscous
and more odorous than that secreted by eccrine glands, is secreted
into hair follicles.
- Less numerous type of perspiration-producing gland mainly in
the pubic and axillary regions.

Ceruminous glands secrete a cerumen (earwax) into the external

ear canal. Wax helps to impede the entrance of foreign bodies.

Mammary glands produce milk that is secreted through the nipples

of the breasts.

● Sebaceous (oil) glands secrete sebum (an oily substance) into hair
follicles or sometimes through skin surface pores. Sebum inhibits
bacterial growth and helps prevent drying of hair and skin.
- Produces an accumulation of oily material that is known as SAS 4: BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES
blackheads.

IV. SKIN CANCER

A. Types
1. Squamous Cell Carcinoma
● Common type of skin cancer

● Slow growing
BONES
● Lesions begin as painless, hard, raised nodules ● often stereotyped as simply a protective and supportive
framework for the body
● Will metastasize (spread to other sites in the body)
 ● a very dynamic organ that is constantly remodeling and - Cell type called chondrocyte (responsible for production of collagen)
changing shape to adapt to the daily forces placed upon it - Matric is ge-like and lack blood vessels
I. Function of Bones - Has the flexibility of a firm plastic rather than the rigidity of bone.
● Consists of bones, cartilage, and the membrane that lines the
bones.
● Each bone is an organ that includes nervous tissue, epithelial
tissue (within the blood vessels), and connective tissue (blood,
bone, cartilage, adipose, & fibrous connective tissue).
● Functions of the bones
➢ Support: provides a framework for the attachment of
muscles and other tissues.
➢ Protection: skull and ribcage protect internal organs from
injury.
➢ Movement: enables body movement by acting as levers
and points of attachments for muscle.
➢ Mineral storage: serves as a reservoir for calcium and
phosphorus, essential minerals for various cellular activities
throughout the body.
➢ Blood cell production: hematopoiesis (production of blood
cells) occurs in the red marrow found within the cavities of IV. Structure of Bones
certain bones. A.
➢ Energy storage: lipids, such as fats, stored in adipose cells
of the yellow marrow serve as an energy reservoir.
● All these functions make the approximately 206 bones of the
human body an organ that is essential to our daily existence.
II. Types of Bones
● Four major types, according to overall shape of the bone:
➢ Long: longer than they are wide; length of the bone or
shaft, provides strength
widens at the extremities (ends)
ex. humerus (arm)
➢ Short: cubelike, about as long as they are wide. Provides
stability and support.
ex. carpals (wrist)
➢ Flat: thin or flattened, protect the organs
ex. frontal (skull), parietal, ribs
➢ Irregular: have specific shapes, unlike other type of bones
ex. vertebrae (spinal cord), facial bones, hip bones
● The following 2 types of bones are usually classified separately:
➢ Sesamoid bone (round bones) - found embedded within
certain tendons. Relieves tension within muscles and
tendons.
ex. patella (kneecap)
➢ Sutural - occur between satures (joints) of the cranial
bones of the skull. Marker of congenital disorders.
ex. wormian bones Structure of Long Bones
➢Diaphysis (dye-AF-i-sis), or shaft
- A hollow tube made of hard,
compact bone, hence a rigid and
strong structure light enough in
weight to permit easy movement.
➢Medullary cavity
- The hollow area inside the diaphysis
bone
- Contains soft yellow bone marrow,
an inactive, fatty form of marrow
found in the adult section
➢Ephiphyses (eh-PIF-i-seez)
- The ends of the bone - red bone
marrow fills in small spaces in the
III. Microscopic Structure of Bone and Cartilage spongy bone composing the epiphyses.
A. Bone - hard, inelastic, tough organ
➢ Spongy
- Less dense and helps lessen the weight of bones while still ➢Articular cartilage
providing strength. - A thin layer of cartilage covering each epiphysis
- Porous bone in the end of the long bone/ - Function like a small rubber cushion would if it were placed over
- Texture results from needle-like threads of bone called the ends of bones where they form a joint.
trabeculae surrounded by a network of open spaces. ➢Periosteum
- Found in epiphysis of bones - A strong fibrous membrane covering a long bone everywhere
- spaces contain red bone marrow except at joint surfaces, where it is covered by articular cartilage.
➢ Compact - Contains blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels that
- provides strength and protection nourish compact bone.
to bones. ➢Endosteum
- Outer layer; hard & dense; - A thin membrane that lines the medullary cavity.
appears to be solid to the naked
eye. B. Structure of Short, Flat and Irregular Bones
- Structural unit is osteon -
calcified matrix arranged in
multiple layers of rings called
concentric lamellae.
- Bones cells are called osteocytes
and are found inside spaces called

lacunae, which are connected by tiny - In short and irregular bones, spongy bone tissue is
tubes called canaliculi. encircled by a thin layer of compact bone tissue.

B. Cartilage - soft, elastic and flexible

connective tissue
- Both resembles and differs from bone
 - In flat bones, the spongy bone tissue is sandwiched
between two layers of compact bone tissue. The spongy
bone tissue is called diploë

FAQs
1. How much do all bones in the body weigh?
- Bones make up about 15% of a person’s total
body weight.
2. Are teeth considered bones?
- This misconception might rise from the fact that
both contain calcium. More than 99% of your
body’s calcium can be found in your bones and
teeth. And 1% in your blood.

Bones Teeth

● living tissues ● not living tissue

● made up of protein collagen ● comprises 4 different
and mineral calcium tissues: detin, enamel,
phosphate. cementum, and pulp.
● Strong but flexible ● More fragile and can’t repair
● can repair and heal nor heal themselves.
themselves

SAS 6: THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

I. Division of Skeleton
A. The Axial Skeleton
- Bones of the center/axis of the body.
- bone of head and trunk
- forms longitudinal axis of body
- has 80 bones:

Skull
- 8 cranial bones, 14 face bones, and 6 tiny middle ear tiny bone
- Provides protection for the brain and the organs of vision, taste,
hearing, equilibrium, and the smell.
- Provides attachment for the muscles
that move the head and control
facial expression and chewing

Cervical vertebrae

➢ Spine (Vertical Column)

- Consists of a series of
separate bones, or
vertebrae, connected in
such a way that they form
a flexible curve.
- protects the spinal cord

5 vertebral regions:
 ➢ Upper Limb
Coccyx
- Consists of the arm, forearm, hand
■ mature coccyx consists of three to five fused coccygeal
vertebrae Lower Extremities
■ attaches ligaments and a constricting muscle of the anus

➢ Thorax
- 12 pairs of ribs, sternum
(breastbone), and the
thoracic vertebrae form
the bony cage known as
the thorax or chest.
* 7 pairs = true ribs, are
attached to the sternum
by costal cartilage.
* 8-10 = false ribs,
attached to the cartilage
of the 7th rib.
* 11-12 = floating ribs,
not attached to any
costal cartilage

➢ Hyoid Bone
- located in the neck and is isolated
from all other bones
- Connected by ligaments to the
styloid process of the temporal
bones
- Makes up superior aspect of larynx
- Muscles form the tongue, neck,
pharynx, and larynx that attach to
the hyoid bone contributes to the
movement involved in swallowing and speech.
- general functions:
- supports the larynx
- attaches muscles of larynx, pharynx, and tongue
- serves as a moveable base for the tongue

B. Appendicular Skeleton
- bones of the upper & lower extremities or appendages make up the
appendicular skeleton.
- bones that support the limbs and bone girdles
- includes 60% of bone in the body.

➢ Pelvic (hip) girdle

- transfers the weight of the upper body to the legs
- consists of a pair of coxal bones (hip bones). each of which contains
3 fused bones: the ilium, ischium, pubis
- Together with the sacrum and coccyx, the pelvic girdle forms a
bowl-shaped region (pelvis), that protects internal reproductive
organs, the urinary bladder, and the lower part of the digestive
tract.
➢ Lower Limb
- Thigh, leg, and foot constitute the lower limb.
- The bones are considerably larger and stronger than the upper
limbs because the lower limb must support the entire weight of
the body while walking, running, or jumping.

Upper Extremities
➢Pectoral (shoulder)
girdle
- provides bases for
arms movement
- Each of the 2 pectoral
girdles consists of
2 bones: S-shaped
clavicle and the
flat, triangular
scapula.
- The clavicle
articulates with
the sternum and
the scapula. In
turn, the scapula
articulates with
the humerus of
the arms.
SAS 7: ARTICULATIONS (JOINTS) AND DISORDERS OF THE ➔ Nerve and blood vessels
SKELETAL SYSTEM - synovial joints are richly supplied with sensory nerve
fibers that innervate the capsule.
- some of these fibers detect pai, as anyone who has suffered
joint injury is aware, but most monitor joint position and
stretch.
- synovial joints are also richly supplied with blood vessels,
most of which supply the synovial membrane. There,
extensive capillary beds produce the blood filtrate that is
basis of synovial fluid.
I.Classifying of Joints ➢ Types of Synovial Joints
● Joint (Articulation) - Pivot Joint ( between C1 and C2 vertebrae)
- occurs wherever the bones meet. - Hinge Joint (elbow)
- classifies both structurally and functionally - Saddle Joint ( between trapezium carpal bone and 1st
II.Functional Classification metacarpal bone)
- degree to which the joint permits movement - Plane Joint ( between tarsal joint)
➢ Synarthrosis (sin-arthrō '-sis) - Condyloid Joint (between the radius and carpal bones of
- joint permits no movement. wrist)
- structurally, may be fibrous or cartilaginous joint. - Ball-and-socket joint (hip joint)
➢ Amphiarthrosis (am-f'e-ar-th-r-ó -sis) III. Disorder of the Skeletal System
- joint permits slight movement ● a common disorder of the skeletal system may be
- structurally, may be fibrous or cartilaginous joint. categorized as disorders of bones or disorders of joints.
➢ Diarthrosis (di-ar-thró -sis) ● Orthopedics (or-tho-pe-diks)
- joint is freely movable - branch of medicine that specializes in treating diseases
- structurally, may be a synovial joint. and abnormalities of the skeletal system.
III. Structural Classification A. Disorder of Bones
- based on the material that holds joints together whether 1. Fractures
or not a cavity is present in the joint - are broken bones
➢ Fibrous Joints (fig. 1) - most common type of bone injury
- held together by fibrous connective tissue - categorized as either complete or incomplete.
- no joint cavity - subtypes of fracture (fig. 5)
- may be immovable or slightly movable ● Complete
➢ Cartilaginous Joints (fig. 2) - break is completely through the bone
- held together by cartilage (hyaline or ● Compound
fibrocartilage) - broken bone pierces the skin
- no joint cavity ● Simple
- may be immovable or slightly movable - bone does not pierce the skin
➢ Synovial Joints ● Comminuted
- characterized by a synovial cavity (joint cavity) - bone is broken into several pieces
containing synovial fluid ● Segmental
- freely movable and characterized most joints in - only one piece is broken out of the bone
the body ● Spiral
- features of synovial joints - fracture line spirals around the bone
➔ Articular Cartilage ● Oblique
- glassy-smooth hyaline cartilage covers the - break angles across te bone
opposing bone surfaces as articular ● Transverse
cartilage . - break is at right angles to the long axis of the bone
- 1mm thin or less thin but spongy cushions ● Incomplete
absorb compression placed on the joint and - bone is not broken completely through
thereby keep the bones from being crushed. ● Green stick
➔ Joint (articular) cavity - break is only one one side of te bone, and the bone is
- unique feature to synovial joints. bowed.
- contains small amount of synovial fluid. ● Fissured
- potential space because it is normally almost - break is a lengthwise split in the bone.
nonexistent, but can expand once fluid 2. Osteomyelitis
accumulates (inflammation) - inflammation of bone and bone marrow caused by
➔ Articular capsule bacterial infection.
- joint cavity is enclosed by two-layered - treatable witth antibiotics but not easily cured
articular capsule or joint capsule. 3. Osteoporosis (os-te-o-po-ro-sis)
- tough external fibrous layer is composed of - weakening of bones due to the removal of calcium
dense irregular connective tissue that is salts
continuous with the perioste of the - common problem in older persons due to inactivity
articulating bones. and a decrease in hormone production.
- strengthens the joints so that the bones are - more common in postmenopausal women because of
not pulled apart. the lack of estrogen.
- synovial membrane - estrogen (hormone replacement therapy) and
- composed of lose connective tissue. calcium are often prescribed for postmenopausal
- found in the internal of joint/articular capsule women to hel prevent osteoporosis.
- funciton is make synovial fluid. 4. Rickets
➔ Synovial fluid - disease of children that is characterized by a
- small amount of slippery synovial fluid deficiency of calcium salts in the bones.
occupies all free spaces within the joint - affected children have a bowlegged appearance due
capsule. to the bending of weakened femurs, tissue, and
- has a viscous egg-white consistency fibulae.
(ovum=egg) due to hyaluronic acid secreted - rickets results from a dietary deficiency of calcium
by cells in the synovial membrane, but it thins and/or vitamin D. It is rare in industrialized nations.
and become less viscous during joint activity.
- also found within the articular cartilages, B. Disorders of Joints
provides a slippery, weight-bearing film that 1. Arthritis (ar-thri-tis)
reduces friction between cartilages. - general term for many different diseases of joints
- without this lubricant, rubbing would wear that are characterized by inflammation, swelling
away joint surfaces and excessive friction (edema), and pain
could overheat and destroy joint tissues. - Rheumatoid and Osteoarthritis are the most
➔ Reinforcing fluid common types.
- synovial joints are reinforced and strengthened by a ● Rheumatoid (r-u-mah-toid) arthritis
number of bandlike ligaments (connective tissues that - most painful and crippling type.
connect bone to bone). - synovial membrane thickens, synovial fluid
- often, these are capsular ligaments, which are thickened accumulates causing swelling, and articular
parts of the fibrous layer. cartilages are destroyed.
- they remain distinct and are found outside the capsule ( as - joint is invaded by fibrous connective tissue that
extracapsular ligaments) or deep to it (as intracapsular ultimately ossifies, making the joint immovable
ligaments) -
 Osteoarthritis
●
- most common type
- a degenerative disease that results from aging and
wear.
- articular cartilage gradually disintegrates which
causes pain and restricted movement.
● Gouty Arthritis
- Inflammation of joints caused by a deposition of
urate crystal from the blood
- Can usually be controlled with diet.
2. Dislocation
- displacement of bones forming a joint.
- pain, swelling, and reduced movement are
associated with a dislocation

3. Herniated Disk
- condition in which an intervertebral disk protrudes
beyond the edge of a vertebra.
- ruptured, or slipped, disk refers to the same problem.
- caused by excessive pressure on the vertebral column,
which compresses a disk and causes it to bulge
outward.
- a protruding disk may place pressure on a spinal nerve
and cause considerable pain.
4. Spinal Curvature
- usually congenital disorders. there are 3 major
types:
● Scoliosis
- an abnormal lateral curvature of the vertebral
columns.
- it is more common in adolescent girls.
● Kyphosis (ki-fo-sis)
- an excessive thoracic curvature of the
vertebral column, which produces a
humpback condition
● Lordosis
- excessive lumbar curvature of the vertebral
column, which produces swayback condition
5. Sprains
- result from tearing or excessive stretching of the ligament
at a joint without a dislocation.
 SAS 9: MUSCLE TISSUE SKELETAL MUSCLE

MUSCLES
Skeletal and smooth muscles are elongated and are called muscle
fibers.

● main functions:
○ producing movement
○ maintaining posture and body position
○ supporting soft tissues (protect internal organs)
○ guarding body entrances and exits
■ openings of the digestive and urinary tracts are closed
with sets of skeletal muscles, providing voluntary
● Myofibrils control over the passage of food and waste
○ Lengthwise subdivisions within a muscle fiber ○ maintaining body temperature
○ Responsible for muscle contraction ○ storing nutrients
○ Made of bundles of protein filaments (myofilaments) ■ stores Glucose in the form of Glycogen
○ Two types of myofilaments
● Structural characteristics:
■ Thin filaments
– Composed primarily of actin ○ most are attached by tendons to bones
■ Thick filaments ○ cells are multinucleated
– Composed primarily of myosin ○ striated
■ have visible banding
○ voluntary
■ subject to conscious control
○ cells are surrounded and bundled by connective
○ tissue = great force, but tires easily
○ are enormous compared to other cells
○ develop by fusion of embryonic cells (myoblasts)
● organization of skeletal muscle tissue:
○ skeletal muscle tissue (primarily)
○ connective tissues
○ blood vessels
○ nerves

● contains 3 layers of connective tissues:

Prefix Terminologies ○ Epimysium
myo = muscles ■ layer of collagen fibers that surrounds the muscle
mys = muscles ■ connected to deep fascia (band of connective tissue
sarco = flesh found below the skin)
■ separates muscle from surrounding tissues
MUSCLE TISSUE ○ Perimysium
Muscle Tissue ■ surrounds muscle fiber bundles (fascicles)
● cells are specialized for contraction ■ contains:
➢ collagen fibers
● skeletal muscles move the body by pulling on bones ➢ elastic fibers
● cardiac and smooth muscles control movements inside the body ➢ blood vessels
● common properties: ➢ nerves
○ excitability (responsiveness) ○ Endomysium
■ surrounds individual muscle cells (muscle fibers)
○ contractility (ability of cells to shorten)
■ contains:
○ extensibility (stretching) ● capillary networks
○ elasticity (recoil) ● myosatellite cells (stem cells) that repair damage
● main functions: ● nerve fibers
○ producing movement ● Collagen fibers of epimysium, perimysium, and
○ maintaining posture and body position endomysium come together at ends of muscles to form:
○ Stabilizing joints ○ a tendon (bundle)
○ Generating heat (Maintaining body temperature) ○ or aponeurosis (sheet)
Consists of 3 types: ○ to attach skeletal muscles to bones
● Skeletal muscle
● Cardiac muscles
● Smooth muscle
 CARDIAC MUSCLE SAS 10:THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM
● Cardiac muscle tissue occurs only in the heart, where it MUSCLES
constitutes the bulk of the heart walls. ■ responsible for all types of body
movement – they contract or
shorten and are the machine of
the body
■ Characteristics of Muscles:
● Responsible for keeping the heart pumping through ○ Muscle cells are elongated
involuntary movements. (muscle cell = muscle fiber)
● Structural characteristics of cardiac muscle tissue: ○ Contraction of muscles is due
○ cardiac muscle cells are small to the movement of
○ Has striations and Involuntary microfilaments
○ typically branched with a single nucleus ■ Movement is attained due to a muscle moving an attached
○ Almost totally dependent on aerobic metabolism bone
■ Contain lots of myoglobin (iron-containing protein ■ Muscles are attached to at least two points
pigment in muscles that is similar to hemoglobin), ○ Fixed point of attachment of a muscle to bone is the
many mitochondria origin
○ Contact each other via intercalated discs ○ Movable point of attachment is the insertion
● Intercalated discs ○ The body of the muscle is the part between the origin
○ Specialized connections and insertion.
○ Join sarcolemmas (specialized plasma membrane) of TYPES OF MUSCLES
adjacent cardiac muscle cells by gap junctions and Agonist (Prime mover)
desmosomes ■ mostly responsible for
○ Functions include: producing a particular
■ Stabilizing positions of adjacent cells movement
■ Maintaining three-dimensional structure of tissue ○ Biceps brachii is an
■ Allowing ions to move from one cell to another so agonist that produces
cardiac muscle cells beat in rhythm flexion at the elbow
Antagonist
■ opposes movement of a
particular agonist
○ The triceps brachii is an
agonist that extends the
elbow. For this reason, it
is an antagonist of the
biceps brachii.
Synergist
■ muscle that aids a prime
mover in a movement and
SMOOTH MUSCLE... helps prevent rotation
○ During forearm flexion
(bending the elbow),
such as lifting a cup, a
muscle called the biceps
brachii is actually the
prime mover; however,
● Functions: because it can be assisted
○ Integumentary system by the brachialis, the
■ Arrector pili muscles erect brachialis is called a synergist in this action. Also
hairs involved is the brachioradialis which assists the
○ Cardiovascular and respiratory brachialis, and is also considered a synergist.
systems
■ Regulates blood pressure and TYPES OF ORDINARY BODY MOVEMENTS
airflow Flexion and extension are
○ Digestive and urinary systems movements in the anterior–
■ Forms sphincters (ring- posterior plane
shaped muscle that relaxes or ■ Flexion – decreases angle
tightens to open or close a of joint and brings two
passage or opening in the bones closer
body) together(bending).
■ Moves materials along and out of the body ■ Extension - opposite of
○ Reproductive system flexion; Increases angle
■ Transports gametes and expels fetus between articulating bones
● Structural characteristics of smooth muscle (stretching).
○ Long, slender, spindle shaped cells ■ Hyperextension -
○ Single, central nucleus Extension past anatomical
○ No myofibrils, or sarcomeres (nonstriated muscles) position
○ Involuntary – no conscious control
○ Found mainly in the walls of hollow organs Abduction and adduction are
○ Slow, sustained and tireless movements in the frontal plane
○ No tendons or aponeuroses ■ Abduction - Movement away
from longitudinal axis
■ Adduction - Movement
toward longitudinal axis

■
Circumduction
- a complete
circular
movement
without
rotation
 ■ Rotational Movement - rotation in reference to anatomical
position
Ex: left/ right rotation of head (shaking head “no”)
○ Limb rotation is relative to longitudinal axis of body
➢ Medial rotation (internal rotation toward long
axis)
➢ Lateral rotation (external rotation away from
body
○ Pronation
● Rotates forearm so that radius rolls
across ulna
● Results in palm facing posteriorly
○ Supination
● Turns palm anteriorly
● Forearm is supinated in anatomical
position.
■ Special Movements
○ Inversion
● Twists sole of foot medially
○ Eversion
● Twists sole of foot laterally
○ Dorsiflexion
● Flexion at ankle (lifting toes)
○ Plantar flexion
● Extension at ankle (pointing toes)

NAMING SKELETAL MUSCLES

Location of the muscle
○ Example: many muscles are named for bones (e.g.,
temporalis)
Number of origins
○ Example: triceps (three heads)
Direction of muscle fibers
○ Example: rectus (straight)
Relative size of the muscle
○ Example: maximus (largest)
Location of the muscles origin and insertion
○ Example: sterno (on the sternum)
Shape of the muscle
○ Example: deltoid (triangular)
Action of the muscle
○ Example: flexor and extensor (flexes or extends a bone)

DISORDERS OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

 SAS 4: BONES AND SKELETAL TISSUES

SAS 6: THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

SAS 11: NERVOUS TISSUE

SAS 12: THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

SAS ACTIVITIES