LECTURE 1: BODY ORGANIZATION the presence of a continually changing

environment
• Human anatomy and physiology is the study ANATOMICAL TERMS
of the structure and function of the human
body. AXIAL- Pertaining to the central part of the body, the
• The coordinated function of all the parts of the head and trunk
human body allows us to detect stimuli, such as ● Cephalic- Pertaining to the head
observing a sunset; respond to stimuli, etc. ● Cranial- Pertaining to the portion of the skull
• Understanding the relationship between structure surrounding the brain
and function makes it easier to understand and ● Facial- face
appreciate anatomy. ● Frontal- forehead
• Systemic anatomy is the study of the body by ● Orbital- eye
systems and is the approach taken in this and ● Otic- ear
most other introductory textbooks. Examples of
● Nasal- nose
systems are the circulatory, nervous, skeletal, and
● Buccal- cheek
muscular systems.
● Oral-mouth
• Regional anatomy is the study of the
organization of the body by areas. Within each ● Mental-chin
region, such as the head, abdomen, or arm, all ● Occipital- back of head
systems are studied simultaneously. It is the ● Cervical- neck
approach taken in most medical and dental Thoracic- chest
schools. ● Sternal- breast bone
• Surface anatomy is the study of external ● Pectoral- chest
features, such as bony projections, which serve ● Mammary- breast
as landmarks for locating deeper structures. Abdominal- abdomen
(Microscopic, developmental, pathological and ● Umbilical- navel
radiographic anatomy). ● Coxal-hip
• Human physiology is the study of a specific Pelvic- pelvis
organism, the human, whereas cellular and ● Pubic- genital area
systemic physiology are examples of physiology
● Dorsal- back
that emphasize specific organizational levels.
● Scapular- shoulder blade region
• Renal physiology concerns kidney function and
● Vertebral- spinal column
urine production.
• Neurophysiology explains the workings of the ● Lumbar- area of the back between the lowest
nervous system. rib and buttocks
• Cardiovascular physiology explains the APPENDICULAR- limbs
operation of the heart and blood vessels. Upper Limb (Appendage)
• anatomy provides us with a static image of the ● Acromial- highest point of the shoulder
body's architecture, ● Axillary- armpit
• physiology reveals the body's dynamic and ● Brachial - arm
animated workings ● Antecubital- front surface of the elbow
• Anatomical terms describe body positions, body ● Olecranal- back surface of the elbow
regions, specific body areas, and landmarks. ● Antebrachial- forearm
● Carpal- wrist
ANATOMY ● Manual- hand
● the scientific discipline that investigates the ● Palmar- palm of the hand
structure of the body. The word “anatomy” ● Digital- digits or fingers
means to dissect, or cut apart and separate, Lower Limb (Appendage)
the parts of the body for study. ● Inguinal- groin where the thigh attached to the
● Systemic anatomy- study of the body organ pelvis
system ● Gluteal- buttocks
● Regional anatomy- study of the body by areas ● Femoral- thigh
● Surface anatomy- uses superficial structures ● Patellar- front surface of the knee
to locate deeper structures ● Popliteal - back surface of the knee
● Anatomical imaging- noninvasive method for ● Crural- front surface of the leg
examining deep structures ● Fibular or peroneal - lateral side of the leg
● Sural- back surface of the leg
PHYSIOLOGY ● Tarsal- ankle
● the scientific discipline that deals with the ● Pedal- foot
processes or functions of living things ● Plantar- sole foot
● (1) to understand and predict the body’s ● Calcaneal- heel
responses to stimuli ● Digital- digits/ toes
● (2) to understand how the body maintains
conditions within a narrow range of values in
 ● Caudal- closer to the tail than another
structure

Anatomical position - is the reference position PLANES

anatomists and people in medical fields use to
describe the location of body parts or regions. Sagittal plane- divides the body into left and right
• Supine position - the body is horizontal and parts
lying on the back. Transverse plane- divides the body into superior and
• Prone position - the body is horizontal and lying inferior parts
on the stomach Frontal plane- divides the body into anterior and
posterior parts.
Directional Terms- refer to the anatomical position,
Longitudinal section- divides an organ along its
regardless of the body's actual position. Used to
long axis
describe the position of structures in relation to other
Transverse section- cuts an organ at a right angle to
structures or body parts.
the long axis
● Right- Toward the body's right side
Oblique section- cuts across the long axis at an
● Left- Toward the body's left side
angle other than a right angle.
● Inferior- A structure below another
● Superior- A structure above another
● Anterior- Toward the front of the body
● Posterior- Toward the back of the body
● Dorsal- Toward the back (synonymous with
posterior)
● Ventral- Toward the belly (synonymous with
anterior)
● Proximal- Closer to the point of attachment to
the body than another structure
● Distal- Farther from the point of attachment to
the body than another structure
● Lateral- Away from the midline of the body
● Medial- Toward the middle or midline of the
body
● Superficial- Toward or on the surface
● Deep- Away from the surface, internal
● Cephalic- closer to the head than another
structure
 - Pelvic cavity is surrounded by the pelvic bones.
Contains urinary bladder, part of the large intestine
andthe internal reproductive organ.

Serous Membranes- secrete fluid that fills the space

between the parietal and visceral membranes.
Protect organs from friction.

- Trunk cavities are lined by serous membranes.

- Parietal part of a serous membrane lines the wall
of the cavity
- Visceral part covers the internal organs.
- Pericardial membrane surrounds the heart
- Pleural membranes surround the lungs
- Peritoneal membranes line the abdominopelvic
cavity and cover its organs.
- Mesenteries are parts of the peritoneum that hold
the abdominal organs in place and provide a
passageway for blood vessels and nerves to organs.
- Visceral peritoneum- covers many of the organs of
the abdominopelvic cavity
-Parietal peritoneum- lines wall of abdominopelvic
cavity and the inferior surface of the diaphragm.

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
● consists of organs including the skin, hair,
nails, sweat and sebaceous glands, and
BODY REGIONS associated muscle and nervous tissue
● The body can be divided into the limbs, ● provides a protective barrier for the body,
head, neck, and trunk. contains cutaneous sensory receptors, aids in
● The abdomen can be divided superficially into the production of vitamin D
four quadrants or nine regions that are ● important in regulating body temperature
useful for locating internal organs or ● plays a minor role in excretion and absorption
describing the location of a pain.
Epidermis- consists of a stratified squamous,
keratinized epithelium. F: Barrier that prevents water
loss and the entry of chemicals and microorganisms;

Dermis- the connective tissue layer that is firmly

attached to the epidermis by a basement membrane,
provides the avascular epidermis with nutrients, and
connects the epidermis to the underlying hypodermis.
F: responsible for structural strength and flexibility of
the skin

Hypodermis- a major storage site for adipose tissue.

• The quadrants or regions are used by clinicians F: attaches the dermis to the underlying structures.
as reference points for locating the underlying
organs. For example, the appendix is located in
the right lower quadrant, and the pain of an acute
appendicitis is usually felt there.

BODY CAVITIES
- Thoracic cavity is bounded by the ribs and the
diaphragm.
- Mediastinum divides the thoracic cavity into two
parts. Divided into right and left parts
- Abdominal cavity is bounded by the diaphragm
and the abdominal muscles. Contains the stomach,
intestine, liver, spleen, pancreas and kidneys.
 EPIDERMIS

A. Major Divisions of the Skin

The skin has two major divisions: the
superficial epidermis and the deep dermis.

Four types of cells are found in the epidermis:

1. Keratinocytes- comprise 90% of the cells of
the epidermis and produce keratin, a tough
fibrous protein that protects the skin and
deeper tissues from chemicals, microbes, and
heat. These cells also produce granules that
secrete a lipid-rich product that helps to
waterproof the skin.
2. Melanocytes- comprise 8% of the epidermal
cells and produce and secrete the pigment
melanin.
3. Langerhans cells- are immune system cells
that attack pathogens that enter the skin.
4. Merkel cells- are the least abundant cell type
and are found only in the deepest layer of the
epidermis. These cells function as touch
receptors and are associated with sensory
neurons.

The layers of the epidermis are in order from deepest

to most superficial:

1. Stratum basale- a single row of cells

attached to the basement membrane,
contains stem cells that divide to form new
keratinocytes. As new cells are formed, the
older cells are pushed toward the surface and
undergo a process called keratinization,
which produces tough, dead cells in the
superficial layer. Melanocytes, Langerhans
cells, and Merkel cells are also found within
the stratum basale.
2. Stratum spinosum- contains 8 to 10 rows of
cells, mainly keratinocytes. In prepared slides,
cells in this layer have thorn-like projections
caused by the tissue preparation process.
3. Stratum granulosum- his layer contains 3 to
5 rows of flattened keratinocytes that are
beginning to die. No dividing cells are present
in this layer or in more superficial layers.
4. Stratum lucidum- contains 3 to 5 rows of flat,
dead keratinocytes. This layer is translucent
in specimens of fresh skin, but in prepared
slides it may be clear or stained.
5. Stratum corneum- The outermost layer, is a
very thick layer containing 25 to 30 or more
rows of dead, squamous-shaped
keratinocytes. This layer is tough and
water-repellent. These cells continually slough
off and are replaced by cells in the adjacent
Skin is classified as an organ because it has many layer.
types of tissues that work together to perform specific
functions. The skin is also known as the integument The epidermis differs in thickness in thin and thick
or cutaneous membrane. skin.
Thick skin is found on the palms of the hands and
the soles of the feet and has all five strata.
Thin skin, which covers the rest of the body, does
not have a visible stratum lucidum and has a thinner Hairs are found all over the body with the exception
stratum corneum than thick skin. of the palms, soles, lips, and parts of the external
genitalia. Hair consists of dead, keratinized epithelial
DERMIS cells and has two main sections: the shaft, which
The dermis consists of two regions: the projects from the skin surface, and the root, which
papillary region and the reticular region. extends into the dermis of the skin and sometimes
the hypodermis.
Papillary region is a thin layer of areolar connective
tissue that is deep to the stratum basale of the Hair follicle, which surrounds the hair root, is formed
epidermis and the basement membrane. from epidermal layers that project into the dermis.
Dermal papillae are finger-like projections of the
papillary region that extend into the epidermis. In the Hair bulb contains the papilla of the hair and the
palms, fingers, soles, and toes, the dermal papillae matrix.
cause genetically determined whorls in the epidermis
called epidermal ridges that increase surface area, Papilla of the hair is a projection of connective
friction, and grip. tissue into the hair follicle and contains blood vessels
that provide nutrients to the dividing cells of the
Reticular layer is the deeper and much thicker matrix.
region of the dermis. It is composed mainly of dense,
irregular connective tissue whose collagen fibers Matrix, which is derived from the stratum basale of
provide the skin with strength and whose elastic the epidermis, forms new hair cells that are added to
fibers provide elasticity. Some adipose tissue is also the base of the hair root. Surrounding the hair follicle
found in the reticular region. is a connective tissue sheath composed of dermal
tissue.
B. Accessory Structures of the Skin
The accessory structures of the skin include Arrector pili is a bundle of smooth muscle cells
hairs, hair follicles, nails, sweat glands, sebaceous attached to the connective tissue sheath around the
glands, ceruminous glands, and mammary glands. All hair follicle. Contraction of the arrector pili muscle
of these are derived from epidermal tissue and moves the hair from its normal angle to a 90° angle
extend into the dermis. (perpendicular) with the skin surface, elevating the
skin surrounding the hair shaft and causing goose
Sebaceous Gland- secrete a watery substance that bumps. Arrector pili muscles contract in response to
is important in excretion and body temperature stress (including cold temperature).
regulation. There are two types of sudoriferous
glands: eccrine glands and apocrine glands. Nails, which are found on the distal ends of the
digits, assist in grabbing and manipulating objects,
Eccrine glands are the most common type of and protect the digits.
sudoriferous gland and are found on most areas of
the body. Ducts from the eccrine glands deposit their Nail body is the part of the nail that is visible
secretions, called sweat, on the epithelial surface. Free edge extends beyond the digit, and the root is
within the fold of skin at the proximal end of the nail
Apocrine glands are found only in the axilla, genital body.
area, and pigmented area around the nipples Lunula is the crescent-shaped area of the nail body
(areolae). Apocrine glands produce a secretion distal to the nail root.
similar in composition to sweat but more viscous. Cuticle or eponychium is the thickened epithelial
This secretion, which is deposited on the distal end of tissue along the proximal border of the nail body.
the hair root, is odorless until broken down by
bacteria.

Ceruminous glands are found in the ear canal and

secrete a waxy substance called cerumen that
prevents foreign substances (including insects) from
entering the auditory canal.

Mammary glands are found in the breasts and

synthesize and secrete milk after appropriate
hormonal stimulation.

Sebaceous glands or oil glands, are found

surrounding hair follicles and deposit sebum, an oily
substance that lubricates the skin and hair, into the Hyponychium or nail bed is deep to the free edge
neck of the follicle. and attaches the nail to the fingertip.
Nail matrix is the epithelial tissue deep to the nail Irregular bones - have a variety of shapes and
root that divides to produce new cells that are added include the facial bones of the skull, the vertebrae
to the nail body as it grows. and the pelvic bones
Sesamoid bones – are small bones that develop in
Fingerprints are useful for identifying unknown tendons for protection against wear and tear
bodies, missing children, adults with amnesia or
Alzheimer’s, or criminals. Short bones - are almost equal in length and width
and contain a thick interior of spongy bone covered
The practice of using fingerprints to identify someone by a thin veneer of compact bone
is called dactyloscopy. Sutural bones - develop between the joints (sutures)
of cranial bones (Figure (a)). Their number varies
Fingerprints are categorized into 3 generally between individuals.
recognized patterns,
Flat bones are relatively flat, but may be curved, and
1. Loops constitute about 65% of the total
contain a thin, spongy bone interior covered by a thin
fingerprint patterns,
veneer of compact bone. This group includes the
2. Plain whorls make up about 30% cranial bones (bones that protect the brain such as
3. Arches account for the other 5%. the parietal bone, Figure (b)), the sternum, the ribs,
and the scapulae.
Long bones are longer than they are wide, with a
thick compact bone exterior. A typical long bone
contains an elongated shaft, known as the diaphysis,
with two expanded, knoblike ends or epiphyses.
Examples of long bones include the bones in the arm
(humerus, Figure (c)), forearm (radius and ulna),
thigh (femur), and leg (tibia and fibula).
Irregular bones have a variety of shapes and
include the facial bones of the skull, the vertebrae
and the pelvic bones
Sesamoid bones (sesame = seed) are small bones
SKELETAL SYSTEM that develop in tendons for protection against wear
- includes all the bones of the body, along with and tear. The patella (kneecap, Figure (e)) is a
cartilage, tendons, and ligaments associated with the sesamoid bone found in all humans
articulations (joints)
- provide a rigid scaffolding that supports the body, Short bones are almost equal in length and width
protect vital organs and provide leverage for skeletal and contain a thick interior of spongy bone covered
by a thin veneer of compact bone. They include the
muscles to make body movements possible
bones of the wrist (carpal bones, Figure (f )) and
- Although it appears to be inactive, bone is actually a
ankle (tarsal bones).
vital tissue with many important functions, namely:
Typical bone- compact and spongy osseous tissue,
1. Provide a rigid scaffolding that supports the body.
cartilage, adipose tissue, blood cells, and connective
2. Protect vital organs. tissue (also blood vessels and nerves)
3. Provide leverage for skeletal muscles to make
body movements possible. GROSS AND ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF
LONG BONE
4. Produce blood cells and platelets.
Epiphyses - the enlarged proximal and distal ends of
5. Maintain normal blood levels of calcium and long bones
phosphate ions.
Diaphysis - the middle shaft area
6. Store lipids.
Metaphysis - the areas in an adult bone where the
epiphyses and diaphysis join
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES Articular cartilage - composed of hyaline cartilage,
covers both epiphyses
Sutural bones - develop between the joints (sutures)
of cranial bones Periosteum - a tough, connective tissue membrane
covering the rest of the bone exterior
Flat bones - relatively flat, but may be curved, and
contain a thin, spongy bone interior covered by a thin Medullary cavity - the hollow center of the bony
veneer of compact bone diaphysis
Long bones - have extended longitudinal axes so Endosteum - a connective tissue membrane lining
that the length of the bone is much greater than the the medullary cavity
width
Nutrient artery - a large artery that enters compact
bone near the middle of the diaphysis
Compact bone - composed of repeating units of
osteons - COMPACT BONE "cortical bone" ; composed of
repeating unit of osteons and each unit have central
Spongy bone - does not contain osteons but instead
has trabeculae canal (has blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and
nerves) which travels to periosteum -a dense regular
• The enlarged proximal and distal ends of long connective tissue , to the central canal through
bones are called epiphyses perforating (Volkmann) canals.
• The middle shaft area is called the diaphysis.
• Compact bone forms the exterior (or cortex) of - concentric lamellae ring-like of tree trunk; consists
long bones and most of the diaphysis.
of dark areas (lacunae) and thin lines extending
• A small layer of spongy bone lines the interior of
between lamellae (canaliculi)
the diaphysis.
- Canaliculi allow nutrients from the blood vessels in
• Spongy bone also forms the interior of the
epiphyses. the central canal to diffuse to the
• Metaphyses are the areas in an adult bone
where the epiphyses and diaphysis join. In a osteocytes embedded in the solid bone material
growing bone, the metaphyses contain a layer of osteocytes mature bone cells that reside in the
hyaline cartilage called the epiphyseal plate. lacunae
• Division of cartilage allows the bone to grow in - interstitial lamellae fill in the spaces between the
length. osteons
• Bone growth stops when the epiphyseal plate
cartilage becomes ossified and forms a bony SPONGY BONE "cancellous or trabecular bone" ;
structure called the epiphyseal line. contains trabeculae rather than osteons
• Articular cartilage composed of hyaline
cartilage, covers both epiphyses; and the rest of - trabeculae - flat plates with a lattice-like network of
the bone exterior is covered with a tough,
thin, bony columnslined with endosteum; have
connective tissue membrane, the periosteum.
lamellae, lacunae, osteocytes, and canaliculi spongy
• The hollow center of the bony diaphysis is called
bones have spaces filled with red marrow, which
the medullary cavity, and a small amount of
spongy bone is found in this cavity. provides the osteocytes with nutrients
• The medullary cavity is lined with a connective
tissue membrane called the endosteum. osseous tissues appr. 25% water, 25% collagen
• The endosteum also lines the cavities within the fibers, and 50% mineral salts
spongy bone of the epiphyses. collagen fibers a fibrous protein that provide tensile
• Both the periosteum and the endosteum contain strength and flexibility so that bone does not break
osteoblasts and osteoclasts for bone formation, with normal stress.
bone tissue repair, and bone remodeling. mineral salts consists mainly calcium phosphate and
• osteoblasts - bone marker/builder and calcium carbonate salts - giving bone hardness
• osteoclasts - bone breaker
• Yellow marrow is a fatty substance found within AS WE GET OLD collagen content decreases,
the medullary cavity. causing brittle bones and break easier
• Red marrow is found within the cavities of
spongy bone and produces blood cells.
decreased minerals - bones to soften and bend (eg.
• The nutrient artery is a large artery that enters a
Rickets)
compact bone near the middle of the diaphysis.
The nutrient artery immediately branches into
proximal and distal portions which supply blood to 206 BONES axial & appendicular
the inner layer of compact bone, spongy bone,
and red marrow. - axial skeleton 80 bones located in vertical line and
• The nutrient foramen is the foramen through longitudinal axis of the body ; supports head, neck
which the nutrient artery enters. and torso skull, hyoid bone, vertebral column,
• Compact (cortical) bone is composed of thoracic cage, ear ossicles (small bones)
repeating units of osteons, with each unit having - appendicular skeleton 126 bones that make up
a central (Haversian) canal running the upper limbs (or extremities), lower limbs, and the
longitudinally. bones of the girdles that attach the limbs to the axial
• The central canal contains blood vessels, skeleton
lymphatic vessels, and nerves that serve compact
bone tissue. AXIAL SKELETON
• Spongy (cancellous or trabecular) bone does
SKULL sutures, orbit of eye, bone markings,
not contain osteons but instead has trabeculae
paranasal sinuses, nasal septum, hard palate, and
(little beams)— flat plates with a lattice-like
fontanels in the fetal skull
network of thin, bony columns lined with
endosteum.
*Cranial bones 8 bones - form a bony cavity that
harbors and protects the brain and houses organs of
MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURES OF COMPACT AND hearing and equilibrium
SPONGY BONE
(2) Parietal bones - superior lateral walls of cranial carotid foramen (canal)—foramen for internal
cavity carotid artery
(2) Temporal bones - inferior lateral walls; house jugular foramen—foramen for jugular vein and
organs of inner ear cranial nerves IX, X, and XI
(1) Frontal bone - anterior portion of cranial cavity stylomastoid foramen—opening for an artery and
(1) Occipital bone - posterior wall and part of cranial cranial nerve VII
cavity floor internal auditory meatus—opening for cranial nerve
(1) Sphenoid bone - floor of cranial cavity posterior VIII
to ethmoid
(1) Ethmoid bone - anterior portion of cranial cavity occipital bone (1)
floor - foramen magnum—opening through which spinal
cord connects to lower brain
*Sutures immovable joints between bones of the - hypoglossal foramina—openings for cranial
skull nerves XII
Coronal - joins frontal and parietal bones - occipital condyles—rounded processes that
Sagittal - joins parietal bones articulate with the atlas (C1)
Lambdoid - joins both parietal bones with occipital - external occipital protuberance—projection at
bone base of skull posterior to foramen magnum
(2) Squamous - join temporal and parietal bones
ethmoid bone (1)
*Facial bones 14 facial bones - provide the shape of - cribriform plates—one on either side of crista galli;
the face, house the teeth, and provide attachments form roof of nasal cavity
for all the muscles of facial expression - crista galli— projection for attachment of
(2) Maxillae - fused upper jaw bones membranes covering brain
(2) Zygomatic bones - cheek bones - olfactory foramina—tiny holes in cribriform plates
(2) Lacrimal bones - portion of orbit of eyes near for cranial nerve I
nasal bones - perpendicular plate—forms superior part of nasal
(2) Nasal bones - bridge of nose septum
(2) Inferior nasal conchae or turbinate—forms - middle nasal conchae—scroll-like projections on
posterior lateral walls of nasal cavity each lateral wall of nasal cavity
(2) Palatine bones—fused bones that form posterior - superior nasal conchae—scroll-like projections on
part of hard palate each lateral wall of nasal cavity
(1) Mandible —lower jaw bone
(1) Vomer —inferior portion of nasal septum sphenoid bone (1)
- foramen ovale—openings for mandibular branch of
*Orbit of eye 7 different bones - 3 cranial bones cranial nerve V
(frontal, sphenoid, and ethmoid), and 4 facial bones - foramen rotundum—openings for maxillary branch
(maxilla, zygomatic, lacrimal, and palatine) of cranial nerve V
- sella turcica— bony projection that surrounds and
BONE SURFACE MARKINGS: IN CRANIAL BONES protects pituitary gland
- greater and lesser wings—form anterior and
frontal bone (1) lateral floor of cranial cavity
- supraorbital foramina (supra- = above; orbit = - optic foramina—openings for cranial nerve II
wheel rut; foram- = opening)—1 opening located - inferior orbital fissures—openings for blood
above the orbit of each eye for supraorbital nerve and vessels and nerves
artery - superior orbital fissures— openings for blood
- supraorbital ridges or margins—thickening of vessels and cranial nerves III, IV, V, and VI
frontal bone superior to orbit of each eye (ophthalmic branch)
- pterygoid processes (medial and
temporal bone (2) lateral)—wing-like projections on the base of the
- external auditory meatus— tube-like opening for skull in the middle section of the sphenoid bone
the ear canal
- mastoid process —rounded projection posterior to E.BONE SURFACE MARKINGS: FACIAL BONES
external auditory meatus; attachment for muscles
- styloid process—long, thin projection on inferior - maxillae (2)
skull surface; attachment for muscles and ligaments - alveoli—tooth sockets (alveolus, sing.)
of tongue and neck - palatine process—fused processes that form the
- zygomatic process—projection that articulates anterior part of hard palate
with the zygomatic bone
- mandibular fossa—depression for articulation with mandible (1)
condylar process (mandibular condyle) - alveoli—tooth sockets
- foramen lacerum— jagged opening filled with - body—curved, anterior portion of mandible
cartilage in a living person
- mental foramina—openings in chin for nerves and vertebral arch formed by the fusion of pedicles and
blood vessels laminae
- rami—posterior branches, one on either side of the Sacrum formed by the fusion of 5 sacral vertebrae
body of mandible and has a slightly curved, triangular shape
- condylar processes (mandibular condyles)— base - broad superior portion
rounded processes on rami that articulate with alae - two lateral wing-like
temporal bone at the mandibular fossa to form the sacral promontory - which protrudes anteriorly from
TMJ the base, is an important landmark in females during
- coronoid processes—triangular projections of rami labor and delivery.
anterior to the condylar processes sacral foramina - provide exits for spinal nerves
sacral canal - continuation of the vertebral canal,
lacrimal bone (2) sacral hiatus - inferior opening of the sacral canal
-lacrimal fossa—canal that houses lacrimal sac; coccyx tailbone; attached with ligament together with
formed from the maxilla and lacrimal bone sacrum
scoliosis bended vertebral column kyphosis
zygomatic bone (2) exaggerated thoracic curve that results in a hunched
- temporal process—projects posteriorly; temporal back with rounded shoulders.
process of zygomatic bone and lordosis exaggerated lumbar curve - swayback with
- zygomatic process of temporal bone form the abdomen protruding anteriorly
zygomatic arch
THORACIC CAGE
Paranasal sinuses cavities lined with mucous sternum narrow flat bone that is composed of three
membranes that are located near and have openings fused bones:
into the nasal cavities manubrium - superior portion of the sternum
suprasternal notch or jugular notch - concave
ethmoid, frontal, maxillary, and sphenoid contain superior portion
paranasal sinuses sternal angle - body of sternum and manubrium
xiphoid process - inferior portion of sternum
Nasal septum 2 bones and cartilage:
- vomer - inferior to the perpendicular plate of the true ribs or "vertebrosternal ribs" ; first 7 pairs
ethmoid bone. The septal cartilage is anterior to false ribs or "vertebrochondral ribs" ; last 5 ribs
these bones. floating ribs or "vertebral ribs" rib pairs 11 & 12 ; do
not have direct attachment
Hard palate roof of the mouth, is formed by the
fusion of 4 bones: 2 palatine processes of the intercostal space space between ribs main parts of a
maxillary bones and 2 palatine bones rib head - projects from the posterior part of the rib
and articulates with demifacets on the bodies of
Fetal and newborn skull thoracic vertebrae
- fontanels or "soft spots" - newborn skull is not
completely ossified; allow the cranial bones to neck - constricted part lateral to the head
compress during the journey through the birth canal, tubercle - small, knob-like projection close to the
and they also permit rapid growth of the brain and neck that articulates with the facet of a transverse
skull during the early years process
body - main part of the rib
HYOID BONE U-shaped and has the distinction of
not articulating with any other bones ; located in the APPENDICULAR SKELETON
anterior neck region between the mandible and four main areas: the pectoral girdles, the upper limbs
larynx extremities, the pelvic girdle,
and lower limbs
VERTEBRAL COLUMN protects the spinal cord and
provides attachment points for back and abdominal A. Pectoral girdle scapula (shoulder bone) and
muscles (26): 7 cervical; 12 thoracic; 5 lumbar; 1 clavicle (collar bone)
sacrum/sacral, and 1 coccyx/coccygeal body located
anteriorly; is the largest part of the vertebra pedicle clavicle sternal end—blunt, medial end
attached to and extends posteriorly on either side of acromial end—broader, flat, roughened, lateral end
the body scapula spine—sharp ridge located on posterior
transverse process extends laterally from each side
pedicle acromion—flattened process at lateral end of spine
lamina connects transverse processes to the spinous glenoid cavity or fossa— depression inferior to
process acromion
spinous process projects posteriorly from fused coracoid process—superior and medial to glenoid
lamina cavity; projects anteriorly
supraspinous fossa—depression superior to spine
infraspinous fossa—depression inferior to spine carpus "wrist" - 8 short bones ; lined up to form a
subscapular fossa—depression on anterior surface proximal and a distal row of bones articulate with
of scapula radius, not to ulna
lateral or axillary border—margin near axilla metacarpus 5 metacarpals bones ; numbered as
medial or vertebral border—margin near vertebral Roman numerals I to V from thumb ; articulate with
column the carpals proximally and with the phalanges
distally.
B.Upper limb (30) 1 humerus, 1 ulna, 1 radius, 27 phalanges "phalanx or digits" if singular ; also
carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges humerus numbered I to V from the thumb ( pollex)
head—rounded, proximal end Digits II through V each have proximal, middle, and
distal phalanges
anatomical neck—constriction immediately distal to
head BONE MARKINGS
greater tubercle—lateral projec tion distal to pelvic girdle 2 hip bones called ossa coxae (os coxa
anatomical neck if singular) - attach the lower limb to the axial
lesser tubercle—smaller, anterior projection distal to skeleton
anatomical neck
intertubercular sulcus—groove between the two ilium largest and most superior of the three
tubercles components of os coxa
surgical neck—constriction distal to the tubercles; iliac crest—superior border of ilium
fractured more frequently than anatomical neck anterior superior iliac spine—anterior end of iliac
deltoid tuberosity—raised area on lateral side crest
between the proximal and distal ends of humerus anterior inferior iliac spine—inferior to the anterior
trochlea —spool-shaped medial condyle on distal superior iliac spine
end posterior superior iliac spine—posterior end of iliac
capitulum—rounded, knob-like condyle lateral to crest
trochlea posterior superior iliac spine—posterior end of iliac
medial epicondyle—rough projection proximal and crest
lateral to trochlea greater sciatic notch—large, posterior notch
lateral epicondyle—rough projection proximal and iliac fossa—depression on anterior surface
lateral to capitulum; smaller than medial epicondyle
radial fossa—anterior depression on distal end that ischium inferior, posterior portion of os coxa
receives the radial head when forearm flexed
coronoid fossa—shallow anterior depression on ischial tuberosity—large, roughened projection on
distal end; receives coronoid process of ulna when inferior surface; hurts after sitting on hard surface for
forearm flexed prolonged period
olecranon fossa— largest depression on posterior, ischial spine—posterior projection between greater
distal end; receives olecranon process of ulna when and lesser sciatic notches
forearm flexed
ulna olecranon—large, curved, lip-like projection on lesser sciatic notch—smaller indentation between
posterior side of proximal end ischial spine and ischial tuberosity
coronoid process—smaller, curved, lip-like pubis anterior inferior portion of os coxa
projection on anterior side of proximal end; distal to pubic symphysis— joint where the two pubic bones
olecranon join anteriorly
trochlear notch—deep, curved area between
olecranon and coronoid process where trochlea of bone markings formed by ilium, ischium, and pubis
humerus articulates with ulna
styloid process—slender, pointed projection on acetabulum deep indentation, or cup, for head of the
distal end femur; formed by fusion of ilium, pubis, and ischium
radial notch—depression on proximal end where obturator foramen largest foramen in the skeleton;
head of radius articulates with ulna formed by fusion of pubis and ischium
radius head—flat, disc-shaped proximal end
radial tuberosity—rough, anterior projection on PELVIS: BONE MARKINGS
medial side just distal to the head
styloid process—slender, pointed projection; distal pelvic brim—divides the false pelvis from the true
end pelvis; begins at the sacral promontory and extends
shoulder joint connects the upper limb to the laterally and inferiorly to end at the pubic symphysis
pectoral girdle is formed by the head of the humerus false pelvis—portion of pelvis superior to pelvic brim;
elbow joint articulation of coronoid process and wide area extending to top of iliac crest
olecranon process (in ulna) into coronoid and true pelvis—portion of pelvis inferior to pelvic brim;
olecranon fossae of the humerus and by the trochlea surrounds the pelvic cavity
of the humerus and notch of ulna pelvic inlet—superior opening of true pelvis;
bordered by pelvic brim
pelvic outlet—inferior opening of true pelvis; fibula lateral leg bone that is important for muscle
bordered by the coccyx, ischial spines, and ischial attachment but not for bearing weight.
tuberosities lateral malleolus - distal and articulates with the
talus laterally ; forms lateral bump of ankle
male pelvis heavier and rougher, with larger bone head—proximal end
markings; more vertical and narrower, has a pelvic
inlet that is heart-shaped, and has a 90° or hip joint "coxal joint" ; formed by the acetabulum
less pubic arch angle articu lating with the head of the femur to form a
ball-and-socket joint.
female pelvis has more space in the true pelvis for
childbirth and is tilted backward. The pelvic inlet is knee joint formed by the articulation of the medial
round or oval, the angle of the pubic arch is generally and lateral condyles of the femur with the medial and
greater than 90°, and the angle of the sciatic notch is lateral condyles of the tibia
wider
tarsus "ankle" ; 7 tarsal bones of the foot, with 2 of
sacroiliac joints articulation of pelvic girdle with axial them being larger than the rest.
skeleton calcaneus - "heel bone" largest tarsal bone
talus - 2nd largest bone; articulates with the medial
LOWER LIMB: BONE MARKINGS malleolus of the tibia and lateral malleolus of the
fibula
lower limb 30 bones (4 thigh and leg & 26 foot and
ankle) ; femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsus 5 metatarsal bones ; numbered the
metatarsals, and the phalanges same way, I to V, from the great toe
phalanges "toes or digits" ; numbered I to V from the
femur largest and strongest bone in the human great toe
skeleton great toe - proximal and distal
head—large, rounded, knob-like proximal end digits II - V - proximal, middle, distal phalanges
neck—narrower, constriction distal to head joint or articulation connection of bone to another
greater trochanter—large and roughened superior bone, cartilage, or tooth
projection; lateral to neck
lesser trochanter- smaller, posterior-medial JOINT BASED ON CONNECTIVE TISSUE
prominence distal to greater trochanter
medial condyle—rounded, medial process on Fibrous joints dense fibrous connective tissue with
posterior surface of distal end strong collagen fibers that hold the joints firmly
lateral condyle—similar to medial condyle on lateral together with no synovial cavity little to no movement
side ; eg. Skull, sockets, distal joints of tibia and fibula
intercondylar fossa—deep fossa between medial
and lateral condyles Cartilaginous joints either hyaline cartilage or
medial epicondyle—bump-like projection superior to fibrocartilage connecting the bones with no synovial
medial condyle cavity small degree of movement ; eg. Intervertebral
lateral epicondyle—bump-like projection superior to joints, pubic symphysis, joint b/n manubrium and
lateral condyle; a little smaller body of sternum
gluteal tuberosity—posterior surface of body of
femur; roughened projection distal to lesser Synovial joints have a small synovial cavity that
trochanter permits a greater amount of movement eg. shoulder,
linea aspera—vertical ridge on posterior surface elbow, hip, and knee joints

patella "kneecap" ; triangular bone has an anterior JOINT BASED ON FUNCTIONS

surface that is smoother than the posterior surface synarthroses immovable joints ; eg. Skull and teeth
amphiarthroses slightly movable ; eg. Intervertebral,
tibia for bearing weight tibiofibular joint, and pubic symphysis
diarthroses freely movable
medial condyle—flattened, expanded medial
projection on proximal end BASIC STRUCTURE OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS
lateral condyle—similar to medial condyle on lateral synovial cavity small space between the two
surface articulating bones
tibial tuberosity—large, roughened projection on articular cartilage hyaline cartilage covering the
anterior surface, distal to condyles ends of the bones in the synovial cavity
anterior border (crest)—slender ridge on anterior articular capsule structure that encloses the
surface synovial joint and synovial cavity; has two layers: the
medial malleolus—medial process on distal end, fibrous membrane and synovial membrane
forms medial bump of ankle
fibrous membrane outer dense fibrous connective 6. Ramus - A small branch (rami, pl.) - Articulation
tissue layer of the articular capsule that is continuous 7. Spine -Pointed process - Articulation
with the periosteum of the bone; also forms ligaments
when fibrous bundles are parallel
synovial membrane inner layer of the articular
capsule; composed of areolar connective tissue
containing elastic fibers and adipocytes
synovial fluid secreted by the synovial membrane;
lubricates the articular cartilages to reduce friction
knee joint classified as a hinge joint, but when flexed
it also demonstrates gliding and rotation movements

accessory structures
medial meniscus—inside of joint cavity; cushions
knee joint
lateral meniscus—inside of joint cavity; cushions
knee joint
medial (tibial) collateral ligament—extracapsular
ligament; adds strength to joint medially
lateral (fibular) collateral ligament—extracapsular
ligament; adds strength to joint laterally
anterior cruciate ligament or ACL—intracapsular
ligament; attaches the femur and tibia anteriorly
posterior cruciate ligament or PCL—intracapsular
ligament; stabilizes joint posteriorly
patellar ligament—extension of tendon from
quadriceps muscle; connects patella to tibial
tuberosity and stabilizes the joint anteriorly
infrapatellar fat pad—cushion between patellar
ligament and synovial capsule
bursa—reduces friction; 13 bursae in knee

SIX TYPES OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS

Planar joint (gliding) flex your arm up and feel the
gliding movement at the acromioclavicular joint
Hinge joint flex and extend your elbow and your
knee as you feel this joint type
Pivot joints feel the proximal part of your forearm
until you locate the head of the radius.
Condyloid joints feel the joint between the 2nd
metacarpal and the 2nd proximal phalanx. Extend Selected Bone Surface Markings of the
Appendicular Skeleton MARKING DESCRIPTION
and flex, abduct and adduct, and circumduct this
PURPOSE
joint.
1. Foramen (Opening or hole) Opening for blood
Saddle joint the thumb joint is the only saddle joint in
vessels and nerves
the body. Feel the movement of trapezium bone 2. Fossa (Shallow depression) Muscle attachment or
(carpal bone) with the 1st metacarpal as you move articulation
this joint on two different axes. 3. Crest (Prominent ridge) Muscle attachment
Ball-and-socket joints feel your shoulder joint as 4. Condyle (Smooth, rounded) articular process
you move your arm in different motions. Make a full Articulation
circle with your shoulder joint 5. Epicondyle (Projection above a condyle) Muscle
attachment
Bone Markings 6. Head (Rounded articular projection supported on
Depressions or Openings the neck of a bone) Articulation
1. Fissure - Narrow slit or cleft in a bone - Opening 7. Line Long, narrow ridge (less prominent than a
for blood vessels and nerves crest) Muscle attachment
2. Foramen - Opening or hole (foramina, pl.) - 8. Trochanter (Very large projection) Muscle
Opening for blood vessels and nerves attachment
3. Fossa - Shallow depression (fossae, pl.) - Muscle 9. Tubercle (Small, rounded projection) Muscle
attachment or articulation (joint) attachment
4. Meatus -Tube-like passageway or opening (meati, 10. Tuberosity (Large, roughened projection) Muscle
pl.) - Passageway or canal for blood vessels and attachment
nerves Processes
5. Condyle - Smooth, rounded articular process -
Articulation
SKELETAL
5. Condyle (CON-dile) - Smooth, rounded articular
- includes all the bones of the body, along with process - Articulation
cartilage, tendons, and ligaments associated 6. Ramus (RAY-mus) - A small branch (rami, pl.) -
with the articulations (joints) Articulation
- provide a rigid scaffolding that supports the 7. Spine - Pointed process - Articulation
body, protect vital organs and provide
leverage for skeletal muscles to make body APPENDICULAR SKELETON
movements possible
1. Foramen - Opening or hole - Opening for blood
Sutural bones - develop between the joints (sutures) vessels and nerves
of cranial bones 2. Fossa - Shallow depression - Muscle attachment
Irregular bones - have a variety of shapes and or articulation
include the facial bones of the skull, the vertebrae 3. Crest - Prominent ridge - Muscle attachment
and the pelvic bones 4. Condyle - Smooth, rounded articular process -
Flat bones - relatively flat, but may be curved, and Articulation
contain a thin, spongy bone interior covered by a thin 5. Epicondyle - Projection above a condyle - Muscle
veneer of compact bone attachment
Sesamoid bones – are small bones that develop in 6. Head - Rounded articular projection supported on
tendons for protection against wear and tear the neck of a bone - Articulation
Long bones - have extended longitudinal axes so 7. Line - Long, narrow ridge (less prominent than a
that the length of the bone is much greater than the crest) - Muscle attachment
width 8. Trochanter - Very large projection - Muscle
Short bones - are almost equal in length and width attachment
and contain a thick interior of spongy bone covered 9. Tubercle - Small, rounded projection - Muscle
by a thin veneer of compact bone attachment
Epiphysis - the enlarged proximal and distal ends of 10. Tuberosity - Large, roughened projection -
long bones Muscle attachment
Diaphysis - the middle shaft area
Metaphysis - the areas in an adult bone where the ARTICULATIONS
epiphyses and diaphysis join
Articular cartilage - composed of hyaline cartilage, 1. Functional classification (degree of movement)
covers both epiphyses a. Synarthrosis : joints where no movement occurs
Compact bone - composed of repeating units of b. Amphiarthrosis : joints that have limited
osteons movement
Periosteum - a tough, connective tissue membrane c. Diarthrosis : joints that are freely movable
covering the rest of
Spongy bone - does not contain osteons but instead 2. Structural classification (type of articulation)
has trabeculae a. Fibrous joints: articulating bones are held
the bone exterior together by fibrous connective tissue
Medullary cavity - the hollow center of the bony b. Cartilaginous joints: articulating bones are held
diaphysis together by cartilage
Endosteum - a connective tissue membrane lining c. Synovial joints: a connective tissue capsule
the medullary cavity encloses a fluid-filled cavity between the articulating
Nutrient artery - a large artery that enters compact bones
bone near the middle of the diaphysis
TYPES OF MOVEMENT IN SYNOVIAL JOINTS
AXIAL SKELETON
A. GLIDING - Nearly flat bone surfaces slide or glide
● Depressions or Openings over each other.
B. ANGULAR
1. Fissure (FISH-er) - Narrow slit or cleft in a bone - - Flexion (flex- = to bend) - Decrease in the
Opening for blood vessels and nerves angle between bones of a joint; usually occurs
2. Foramen (for-AY-men) - opening or hole - Opening on a sagittal plane.
for blood vessels and nerves - Extension (exten- = to stretch out) - Increase
3. Fossa (FOS-sa) - Shallow depression (fossae, pl.) in the angle between bones of a joint; restore
- Muscle attachment or articulation (joint) to anatomical position.
4. Meatus (me-AY-tus) - Tube-like passageway or - Hyperextension (hyper- = excessive) -
opening (meati, pl.) - Passageway or canal for blood Excessive extension movement beyond
vessels normal anatomical position.
and nerves - Abduction (ab-= away; duct- = to lead) -
Move appendage away from the midline.
● Processes
 - Adduction (ad- = toward) - Move appendage Minor - Smaller muscle - Pectoralis minor
toward midline. Vastus - Great- Vasts lateralis
- Circumduction (circ- = circle) - Move a distal
part of an appendage in a circle. Shape: Relative Shape of Muscle
C. ROTATION (rota- = revolve) - Turn on a pivot with
a circle.
Deltoid Triangular Deltoid
D. SPECIAL JOINT MOVEMENTS
- Elevation - Upward movement raising body Trapezius Trapezoid Trapezius
part vertically.
- Depression - Downward movement lowering Serratus Saw-toothed Serratus
body part vertically. anterior
- Protraction (pro-= in front of: trahere = to Rhomboid Diamond-shaped Rhomboid
major
draw) - Move a body part forward or anterior Orbicularis Circular Orbicularis
on a horizontal plane. oris
- Retraction (retractare = to draw back) - Move Piriformis Pear-shaped
a body part backward or posterior. Piriformis
- Supination (supine = lying on the back) - Platys Flat
Turn palm of the hand to face forward, or, if Platysma
Gracilis Slender
arm is outstretched, turn palm upward.
Gracilis
- Pronation (pronate = lying face downward) -
Turn palm of the hand to face backward, or, if
arm is outstretched, turn palm downward. Action: Principle Muscle Action
- Inversion - Turn the sole of the foot inward.
- Eversion - Turn the sole of the foot outward. Flexor Decreases a joint angle Flexor
- Dorsiflexion - Point your toes upward; stand carpiradialis
Extensor Increases a joint angle
on your heels. Extensor carpi
- Plantar flexion - Point your toes downward; Abductor Moves a bone away from the ulnaris
midline
raise your heels. Adductor Moves a bone toward the Abductor pollicis
midline brevis
Levator Adductor magnus
Raises or elevates a body
MUSCULAR SYSTEM Depress part Levator scapulae
or
Lowers or depresses a body Depressor labii
Skeletal muscles - organs composed of skeletal Supinato part inferioris
muscle tissue and connective tissue r Supinator
Turns palm superiorly or
Pronator anteriorly Pronator
NAME/ DEFINITION/ EXAMPLE
Tensor Turns palm inferiorly or Tensor fasciae
posteriorly latae
Criteria for naming skeletal muscles
Makes a body part rigid
Direction: Orientation of Muscle Fibers Relative to
Body's Midline Number of origins: Number of tendons of origin

Rectus - Muscle fibers parallel to body midline -

Rectus abdominis Biceps Two origins Biceps brachii
Transverse - Muscle fibers perpendicular to body Triceps Three origins Triceps brachii
midline - Transverse abdominis
Oblique - Muscle fibers diagonal to body midline - Quadriceps Quadriceps Four origins
External oblique femoris

Size: Relative Size of Muscle Location: Structure near where muscle is located
Example: Frontalis is the muscle that is over the
Maximus - Largest muscle in a group - Gluteus frontal bone
maximus Origin and insertion: Location of origin and location of
Medius - Middle sized muscle in a group - Gluteus insertion
medius Example: Sternohyoid originates on the sternum and
Minimus - Smallest muscle in a group - Gluteus inserts on the hyoid bone
minimus
Magnus - Large muscle - Adductor magnus TABLE 14.2 Muscles of the Head and Neck
Brevis - Short muscle - Adductor brevis
Longus - Long muscle - Adductor longus Muscle of Facial Expression
Latissimus - Widest muscle - Latissimus dorsi
Longissimus - Longest muscle - Longissimus capitis
Occipitofrontalis Combination of frontalis and occipitalis
Major - Larger muscle - Pectoralis major
muscle muscles connected by an aponeurosis uneven) posterior scalenes--located in lateral
(a flat, broad tendon). neck deep to sternocleidomastoid
muscle.
Bilateral contraction flexes head and
Frontal belly Lies over the frontal bone. Raises elevates 1st and 2nd ribs during
eyebrows and wrinkles forehead. deep inspiration. Unilateral
contraction laterally flexes head and
Occipital belly Lies over occipital bone. Pulls scalp rotates head
posteriorly. to opposite side (as in saying no).

Orbicularis oculi Circular muscle that encircles the eye. Posterior Muscles
(orbicularis = little Closes eye.
circle; oculi = eye) Splenius capitis Posterior neck deep to trapezius.
Extends head when both muscles
Zygomaticus major Between zygomatic bone and corner of contract. Laterally flexes and rotates
(zygoma = bar) mouth; inferior to zygomatic minor. head to same side as contracting
Raises corners of mouth (smiling). muscle when only one muscle
contracts.
Between zygomatic bone and corner of
Zygomaticus minor mouth. Raises upper lips, exposing Trapezius (superior Superficial muscle of the upper back
upper teeth. portion) and posterior neck.
Extends head and elevates scapula.
Circular muscle that encircles the
Orbicularis oris (oris mouth. Closes and purses lips.
= mouth) Muscle that move hyoid bone
Wide, flat muscle that covers lower
Platysma (platy = mandible and entire anterior neck, and
flat) ends on chest. Tenses neck skin; Suprahyoid bone
depresses mandible (pouting).
Digastric
(di- - two; gastric - belly)
MUSCLES OF MASTICATION
Anterior belly Strap-like muscle under chin that
is parallel to midline of chin and
Superficial muscles extends from posterior belly.
Elevates hyoid bone and
Temporalis (tempora Lies over temporal bone. Elevates depresses mandible (as in
= temples) and retracts mandible. opening mouth.

Masseter (master = Anterior to ear between zygomatic Posterior belly Runs along posterior border of
chewer) arch and posterior portion of chin. Elevates hyoid bone and
mandible. depresses mandible (as in
Elevates and retracts mandible. opening mouth)
Deep Muscles
Buccinator (bucca = Stylohyoid Chin muscle, medial to posterior
cheek) Deep to masseter. Fibers run belly of digastric. Elevates hyoid
transversely and form fleshy part of bone and moyes it posteriorly.
cheek. Presses cheeks inward to
whistle, blow, and suck. Helps hold Mylohyoid Deep muscle of chin extending
food between teeth while chewing. from right side of mandible to left
Lateral pterygoid side. Elevates hyoid bone and
(pterygoid = like Deep to masseter and superior to floor of oral cavity and depresses
a wing) medial pterygoid. Transverse muscle mandible.
fibers between pterygoid process of
sphenoid and mandible. Protracts Infrahyoid Muscles
mandible, depresses mandible
(opening mouth), and moves it Omohyoid Lateral to sternohyoid. Depresses
sideways. hyoid bone.
Medial pterygoid
Deep to masseter and inferior to Sternohyoid (sterno - Runs along midline of anterior
lateral pterygoid. Vertical muscle sternum) neck. Depresses hyoid bone.
fibers
between pterygoid process of
sphenoid and mandible. Elevates and MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE ARM AT THE
protrudes mandible and moves it
sideways. SHOULDER JOINT

Deltoid (delta - triangle)

Muscles of the Head and Neck (continued)
Large, rounded, triangular shoulder muscle.
Anterior fibers: flex and medially rotate arm.
Anterior and Lateral Lateral fibers: abduct arm.
Muscles
Posterior fibers: extend and laterally rotate
Sternocleidomastoid( Strap-like muscle on anterior and arm.
sterno- lateral neck. Fibers run diagonally
breastbone; cleido - across the neck from the sternum
clavicle; and clavicle to the mastoid process. Pectoralis major (pectus - chest)
mastoid - mastoid Bilateral contraction flexes the head Large muscles on superior, anterior chest
process) (prayer muscle). Unilateral
contraction laterally flexes head and between sternum and arm.
rotates head to opposite side (as in Whole muscle adducts and medially rotates
sayina no).
arm, the clavicular head only flexes arm, and
sternocostal head only extends arm.

Scalenes (scalenos - Three muscles- anterior, middle, and

Deep Muscle Oblique muscles located between ribs deep to
Subscapularis external obliques. Fibers run obliquely up
On ventral side of the scapula in the toward the midline. Decrease thoracic
subscapular fossa. Medially rotates arm. diameter by depressing ribs during forced
expiration.

MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE SCAPULA Diaphragm

Serratus anterior (serratus - saw-toothed) Dome-shaped muscle that separates the
Serrated-looking muscles on the lateral trunk thoracic and abdominal cavities. Contains
inferior to arms and rib. openings for the esophagus, aorta, and vena
Abducts scapula and rotates it upward. This cava. Flattens, increasing length of thoracic
occurs when throwing a punch cage, during normal inspiration.
and is often called the hoxer's muscle.
MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE ARM AT THE
Pectoralis minor SHOULDER JOINT
Deep to pectoralis major attaching to 3rd
through 5th ribs. Muscles of Mastication
Abducts scapula and rotates it downward;
elevates 3rd throuah 5th ribs Superficial Muscles
during forced inspiration. TEMPORALIS - lies over temporal bone. Elevates
and retracts mandible
MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE ABDOMINAL WALL MASSETER - anterior to ear between zygomatic arch
and posterior portion of mandible. Elevates and
Superficial Muscles retracts mandible
Rectus abdominis (rectus - parallel fibers)
Midline abdominal muscles located between Deep Muscles
sternum and inguinal ligament. Flexes BUCCINATOR - deep to masseter. Fibers run
vertebral column and.abdomen. Does not transversely and form fleshy part of cheek Presses
laterally flex vertebral column cheeks inward to whistle, blow, and suck. Helps hold
External oblique food between teeth while chewing
Lateral and anterior sheet-like abdominal LATERAL PTERYGOID - deep to masseter and
muscles whose fibers run obliquely superior to medial pterygoid. Transverse muscle
down toward the midline (linea alba). Bilateral fibers between pterygoid process of sphenoid and
contraction flexes vertebral column and mandible Protracts mandible, depresses mandible
compresses abdomen. Unilateral contraction (opening mouth), and moves it sideways
laterally flexes and rotates vertebral column to MEDIAL PTERYGOID - deep between masseter and
the opposite side. inferior to lateral pterygoid. Vertical muscle fibers
between pterygoid process of sphenoid and
Deep Muscles mandible. Elevates and protrudes mandible and
moves it sideways
Internal oblique
Abdominal muscles deep to external oblique Muscles that Move the Head and Neck
whose fibers run obliquely up toward linea
alba. Bilateral contraction flexes vertebral Anterior and Lateral Muscles
column and compresses abdomen. Unilateral STERNOCLEIDOMASTOID - strap-like muscle on
contraction laterally flexes and rotates anterior and lateral neck Bilateral contraction flexes
vertebral column to the same side the head (prayer muscle). Unilateral contraction
laterally flexes head and rotates head to opposite
Transversus abdominis side (as in saying no)
Abdominal muscles deep to internal oblique SCALENES - three muscles-anterior, middle, and
whose fibers run transversely. Compresses posterior scalenes Bilateral contraction flexes head
abdomen and stabilizes trunk. and elevates 1st and 2nd ribs during deep inspiration.
Unilateral contraction laterally flexes head and
MUSCLES USED IN BREATHING rotates head to opposite side (as in saying no)

Deep Muscles Posterior Muscles

External intercostals (inter- between; costal - ribs) SPLENIUS CAPITIS - posterior neck deep to
Oblique muscles located between ribs trapezius. Extends head when both muscles contract.
superficial to internal intercostals. Fibers run Laterally flexes and rotates head to same side as
obliquely down toward the midline. Increase contracting muscle when only one muscle contracts
thoracic diameter by elevating ribs during TRAPEZIUS - superficial muscle of the upper back
inspiration. and posterior neck. Extends head and elevates
Internal intercostals scapula
 Muscles that Move the Abdominal Wall

Superficial Muscles
RECTUS ABDOMINIS - midline abdominal muscles
located between sternum and inguinal ligament
Muscles that Move Hyoid Bone Flexes vertebral column and compresses abdomen.
Does not laterally flex vertebral column
Suprahyoid Muscles
DIGASTRIC EXTERNAL OBLIQUE - lateral and anterior
ANTERIOR BELLY - strap-like muscle under chin sheet-like abdominal muscles whose fibers run
that is parallel to midline of chin and extends from obliquely down toward the midline (linea alba)
posterior belly. Elevates hyoid bone and depresses Bilateral contraction flexes the vertebral column and
mandible (as in opening mouth) compresses the abdomen. Unilateral contraction
POSTERIOR BELLY - runs along posterior border of laterally flexes and rotates the vertebral column to the
chin. Elevates hyoid bone and depresses mandible opposite side.
(as in opening mouth)
STYLOHYOID - chin muscle, medial to posterior Deep Muscles
belly of digastric. Elevates hyoid bone and moves it INTERNAL OBLIQUE - abdominal muscles deep to
posteriorly external oblique whose fibers run obliquely up toward
MYLOHYOID - deep muscle of chin extending from linea alba. Bilateral contraction flexes the vertebral
right side of mandible to left side. Elevates hyoid column and compresses the abdomen. Unilateral
bone and floor of oral cavity and depresses mandible contraction laterally flexes and rotates vertebral
column
Infrahyoid Muscles TRANSVERSUS ABDOMINIS - abdominal muscles
OMOHYOID - lateral to sternohyoid. Depresses hyoid deep to internal oblique whose fibers run
bone transversely. Compresses abdomen and stabilizes
STERNOHYOID - runs along midline of anterior trunk
neck. Depresses hyoid bone
Muscles used in Breathing
MUSCLES OF THE ANTERIOR TRUNK AND
SHOULDER Deep Muscles
EXTERNAL INTERCOSTALS - oblique muscles
Muscles that Move the Arm at the Shoulder Joint located between ribs superficial to internal
intercostals. Fibers run obliquely down toward the
Superior Muscles midline. Increase thoracic diameter by elevating ribs
DELTOID - large, rounded, triangular shoulder during inspiration
muscle INTERNAL INTERCOSTALS - oblique muscles
Anterior fibers: flex and medially rotate arm located between ribs deep to external obliques.
Lateral fibers: abduct arm Fibers run obliquely up toward the midline. Decrease
Posterior fibers: extend and laterally rotate thoracic diameter by depressing ribs during forced
arm expiration
PECTORALIS MAJOR - large muscles on superior, DIAPHRAGM - dome-shaped muscle that separates
anterior chest between sternum and arm. Whole the thoracic and abdominal cavities. Contains
muscle abducts and medially rotates arm, clavicular openings for the esophagus, aorta, and vena cava.
head only flexes arm and sternocostal head only Flattens, increasing length of thoracic cage during
extends arm normal inspiration

Deep Muscle MUSCLES OF THE POSTERIOR NECK, TRUNK,

SUBSCAPULARIS - on the ventral side of the AND SHOULDER
scapula in the subscapular fossa. Medially rotates
arm Muscles that Move the Arm at the Shoulder Joint

Muscles that Move the Scapula Superficial Muscles

SERRATUS ANTERIOR - serrated-looking muscles DELTOID - large, rounded, triangular shoulder
on the lateral trunk inferior to arms and rib. Abducts muscle. Posterior portion of deltoid extends and
scapula and rotates it upward. This occurs when laterally rotates arm
throwing a punch and is often called the boxer’s INFRASPINATUS - located in infraspinous fossa and
muscle partially covered by deltoid. Laterally rotates and
PECTORALIS MINOR - deep to pectoralis major adducts arm
attaching to 3rd through 5th ribs. Abducts scapula TERES MINOR - inferior to infraspinatus and partially
and rotates it downward; elevates 3rd through 5th covered by deltoid. Laterally rotates, extends, and
ribs during forced inspiration adducts arm
TERES MAJOR - inferior to teres minor and partially FLEXOR DIGITORUM SUPERFICIALIS - deep to
covered by deltoid. Extends, adducts, and medially tendons of flexor carpi radialis, palmaris longus, and
rotates arm flexor carpi ulnaris. Flexes hand and proximal and
LATISSIMUS DORSI - main large, flat muscle of middle phalanx of each finger
middle and lower back that runs laterally and
attaches to superior portion of humerus. Extends,
adducts, and medially rotates arm (if arm is elevated Deep Muscle of Anterior (flexor) Compartment
over head, it brings it down) FLEXOR POLLICIS LONGUS - inferior and lateral to
flexor digitorum superficialis. Flexes distal phalanx of
Deep Muscles thumb
SUPRASPINATUS - located in supraspinous fossa
and totally covered by deltoid. Assists deltoid muscle Muscles that Move the Vertebral Column
in abducting arm ERECTOR SPINAE - group of muscles next to the
vertebral column deep to the trapezius, latissimus
Muscles that Move the Scapula dorsi, and scapula. Extend the vertebral column and
maintain erect posture when both muscles contract.
Superficial Muscle Laterally flexes vertebral column when only one
TRAPEZIUS - diamond-shaped muscle of posterior muscle
neck and upper back that extends from the skull and
vertebral column to spine of scapula and lateral MUSCLES OF THE ARM
clavicle. Superior portion elevates scapula and
extends head, middle portion adducts scapula, Anterior Surface
inferior portion depresses scapula BICEPS BRACHII - large muscle with 2 heads.
Flexes and supinates forearm and flexes arm
Deep Muscles BRACHIALIS - deep to biceps brachii and anterior to
LEVATOR SCAPULAE- posterior to humerus
sternocleidomastoid and runs diagonally from
posterior head to scapula. Elevates scapula and Flexes forearm
rotates it down Posterior Surface
RHOMBOID MINOR - deep to trapezius in upper TRICEPS BRACHII - large muscle with 3 heads
back located between the vertebrae and scapula, and (Long head: superficial muscle on medial side,
superior to rhomboid major. Elevates and adducts Medial head: deep muscle on medial side, Lateral
scapula and rotates it downward, stabilizes scapula head: lateral) . All 3 heads extend forearm and help
RHOMBOID MAJOR - inferior to rhomboid minor. extend arm
Elevates and adducts scapula and rotates it
downward, stabilizes scapula MUSCLES OF THE POSTERIOR FOREARM

MUSCLES OF THE ANTERIOR FOREARM Muscles that Moves the Radius and Ulna
SUPINATOR - posterior portion is deep to lateral
Muscles that Move the Radius and Ulna muscles of posterior forearm. Supinates forearm
Superficial Muscles Muscles that Move the Hand. Superficial Muscles of
BRACHIORADIALIS - large, superficial lateral Posterior (extensor) Compartment (medial to lateral)
muscle. Flexes forearm and pronates and supinates EXTENSOR CARPI ULNARIS - lateral to flexor carpi
forearm to neutral position ulnaris. Extends and adducts hand
PRONATOR TERES - lateral to brachioradialis with EXTENSOR DIGITORUM MINIMI - lateral to
oblique muscle fibers that cross antecubital fossa. extensor carpi ulnaris. Extends hand and proximal
Pronates and weakly flexes forearm phalanx of 5th digit
EXTENSOR DIGITORUM - lateral to extensor
Deep Muscle digitorum minimi. Extends hand and proximal, middle,
SUPINATOR - anterior portion is deep and distal phalanges
brachioradialis. Supinates forearm EXTENSOR CARPI RADIALIS BREVIS - lateral to
extensor digitorum. Extends and abducts hand
Muscles that Move the Hand EXTENSOR CARPI RADIALIS LONGUS - lateral to
Superficial Muscles of Anterior (flexor) Compartment extensor radialis brevis. Extends and abducts hand
(lateral to medial) Deep Muscle of Posterior (extensor) Compartment
FLEXOR CARPI RADIALIS - medial and inferior to EXTENSOR POLLICIS LONGUS - deep to lateral
pronator teres and medial to brachioradialis in extensor muscles on posterior forearm. Extends
forearm. Flexes and abducts hand distal phalanx of thumb and first metacarpal of thumb
PALMARIS LONGUS - medial to flexor carpi radialis. and abducts hand
Weakly flexes ABDUCTOR POLLICIS LONGUS - lateral to ulna on
FLEXOR CARPI ULNARIS - small part of muscle is posterior forearm. Abducts and extends thumb at
seen anteriorly; most medial muscle muscle of carpometacarpal of joint and abducts hand at wrist
posterior forearm. Flexes and adducts hand joint
 SEMITENDINOSUS - medial to biceps femoris and
MUSCLES OF THE BUTTOCKS AND THIGH superficial to semimembranosus.
Anterior Surface
(lateral to medial)
TENSOR FASCIAE LATAE - small lateral hip muscle
with fascia lata that extends down thigh. Flexes and Flexes leg and extends thigh
abducts thigh SEMIMEMBRANOSUS - most medial of the
QUADRICEPS FEMORIS - group of 4 muscles on hamstrings; ; (remember ‘m’ for medial). Flexes leg
anterior thigh and extends thigh
RECTUS FEMORIS - located along midline of thigh.
Extends leg and flexes thigh MUSCLES OF THE LEG AND FOOT
VASTUS LATERALIS - lateral to rectus femoris. Lateral and Anterior Surfaces
Extends leg Superficial muscles
VASTUS MEDIALIS - medial to rectus femoris. TIBIALIS ANTERIOR - lateral to the anterior crest of
Extends leg the tibia. Dorsiflexes and inverts foot
VASTUS INTERMEDIUS - deep to rectus femoris EXTENSOR DIGITORUM LONGUS - lateral to
and intermediate to vastus lateralis and vastus tibialis anterior. Dorsiflexes foot and extend toes.
medialis. Extends leg FIBULARIS (PERONEUS) LONGUS - lateral to the
SARTORIUS - diagonal muscle. Extends from extensor digitorum longus. . Plantar flexes and everts
anterior superior iliac spine to medial surface of tibia foot
Flexes leg and flexes, abducts, and laterally rotates
thigh (allows us to flex and cross our legs) Posterior Surface
ILIOPSOAS - combination of psoas major and iliacus Superficial muscles
PSOAS MAJOR - small portion of these muscles are GASTROCNEMIUS - large superficial muscle on
observed in anterior/medial compartment of thigh posterior leg. Plantar flexes foot and flexes leg
inferior to inguinal ligament
ILIACUS - “Together flex thigh, rotate thigh laterally, Deep muscles
and flex trunk SOLEUS - deep to gastrocnemius and posterior to
PECTINEUS - medial to iliopsoas fibularis (peroneus) longus . Plantar flexes foot only
FLEXOR DIGITORUM LONGUS - deep to soleus,
Adducts and flexes thigh medial muscle. Plantar flexes foot and flexes toes
ADDUCTOR LONGUS - medial to pectineus. FLEXOR HALLUCIS LONGUS - deep to soleu,
Adducts and flexes thigh and medially rotates thigh lateral muscle. Plantar flexes foot and flexes great
ADDUCTOR MAGNUS - observed medial and toe
inferior to adductor longus. A larger portion of this.
muscle is deep to the adductor longus. Adducts and When a skeletal muscle contracts, it typically exerts a
medially rotates thigh. Anterior portion flexes thigh force, called muscle tendon, on an object.
and posterior portion extends thigh
ADDUCTOR BREVIS - deep to adductor longus, it is The object in turn exerts an opposing force, known as
totally covered by superficial muscles. Adducts and the load, which resists the muscle tension.
flexes thigh and medially rotates thigh
GRACILIS - medial to adductor magnus; straight When a muscle acts on an object, a contraction
muscle on inside of thigh. Adducts and medially occurs. The type of contraction depends on the
rotates thigh. Flexes leg relationship between the muscle tension and load.

Posterior Surface During an isotonic contraction, the length of the

GLUTEUS MAXIMUS - largest buttocks muscle. muscle will change when muscle tension rises. There
Extends and lateral rotates high are types of isotonic contractions:
GLUTEUS MEDIUS - Observed superior to gluteus
maximus but is partially covered by it During a concentric contraction, muscle tension
exceeds load The muscle shortens when it contracts
Abducts and medially rotates thigh and performs work by moving an object from one
GLUTEUS MINIMUS - deep muscle covered by position to another.
gluteus medius
During an eccentric contraction, the load exceeds
Abducts and medially rotates thigh muscle tension. The muscle lengthens when it
PIRIFORMIS - deep muscle to gluteus minimus; contracts but does not typically move an object.
important landmark for sciatic nerve, which passes
deep to piriformis. Lateral rotates and abducts thigh During an isometric contraction, muscle tension is
HAMSTRINGS - three muscles on post unable to overcome the load exerted by the object.
BICEPS FEMORIS - most lateral hamstring. Flexes As tension increases, muscle length remains
leg and extends thigh constant and the object does not move.
Although isometric contractions do not actually move - Structure: One cell process that divides into
an object, they have other important functions. two branches: both branches are axons;
receptive endings of peripheral branch are
dendrites
- Function: Sensory neurons for s (touch,
NERVOUS SYSTE, pressure, temperature, pain, proprioception)
- Location: Sensory ganglia for spinal nerves;
Central Nervous System (CNS) most cranial nerve ganglia
• Brain Anaxonic
• Spinal cord - Structure: Many Cell processes: all are the
dendrites
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) - Location: Various region on the brain
• Cranial nerves
• Spinal nerves Neuroglial Cell Types

Sensory receptors A. Neuroglia in the CNS

- Respond to changes in external and internal 1. Astrocytes- Cell processes form a supporting
environment network that connects neurons to blood
Visceral sensory receptors vessels; help to form the blood-brain barrier,
- Respond to sensations in internal organs which prevents the passage of potentially
Somatic sensory receptors harmful substances from the blood to brain
- Respond to s in body wall tissue; and help to regulate levels of oxygen,
Special sensory receptors carbon dioxide, and nutrients.
- Respond to smell, taste, hearing, balance, 2. Microglia (microglial cells)- Act as
and vision phagocytes; protect the CNS from
Visceral sensory receptors disease-causing microorganisms and clear
- Respond to sensations in internal organs away cellular debris.
3. Ependymal cells (ependyma)- Modified
Sensory information detected and integrated; motor epithelial cells that line the ventricles of the
impulses sent to motor neurons brain and central canal of the spinal cord;
facilitate the circulation of cerebrospinal fluid
Motor division in the ventricles.
- Motor (efferent) neurons transmit motor 4. Oligodendrocytes- Produce the myelin
information from CNS to muscles and glands sheath around axons in the CNS.
Somatic nervous system
- Voluntary motor commands B. Neuroglia in the PNS
- Skeletal muscle 1. Satellite cells- Surround neuron cell bodies
Autonomic nervous system in peripheral ganglia and regulate levels of
- Involuntary motor commands oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nutrients.
- smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, glands 2. Schwann cells- Produce the myelin sheath
Effector organs around axons in the PNS.
- Activities change when they receive motor
commands Nervous tissue is found in the organs of the nervous
system—the nerves, brain, and spinal cord—and
The Four Types of Neurons contains cells that enable the nervous system to
generate and transmit electrical signals called nerve
Multipolar impulses or action potentials.
- Structure: Many cell processes: one axon, The nervous system senses changes in our internal
multiple dendrites and external environments, coordinates and
- Function: Motor neurons for voluntary and integrates data, and initiates and transmits action
involuntary movement; interneurons that form potentials. It is organized into two basic components:
fiber tract links between brain and spinal cord the central nervous system (CNS), which consists
regions of the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral
- Locations: Cerebral cortex; cerebellar cortex; nervous system (PNS). The PNS contains an
gray matter in spinal cord afferent division composed of sensory receptors and
Bipolar sensory neurons, and an efferent division composed
- Structure: Two cell processes: one axon, one of motor neurons.
dendrite Sensory receptors detect changes in the environment
- Function: Sensory neurons for vision, hearing, and transmit this information along sensory or
equilibrium, and smell afferent nerves to the CNS. The CNS coordinates
- Location: Retina of the eye; inner ear; and integrates information received from sensory
olfactory epithelium in nasal cavity receptors and initiates responses that are transmitted
Unipolar by neurons to effectors (neurons, muscle cells, or
glands). Motor nerves transmit impulses from the
CNS to effectors in the PNS. The nervous system is
streamlined to send rapid signals from cell to cell to
maintain homeostasis and coordinate body organs
and functions.

The structural and functional unit of the nervous

system is the neuron, or nerve cell. A typical neuron
has a cell body that contains a large, round nucleus
with a well-defined nucleolus. In the surrounding
cytoplasm, the most prominent organelles include
mitochondria, the Golgi apparatus, and Nissl
(chromatophilic) bodies, which are clusters of
rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and free
ribosomes. Extending from the cell body are two
types of processes: dendrites and axons. Dendrites,
along with the cell body, serve as contacts to receive
impulses from other
 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

GLAND HORMONE TARGET CELLS HORMONE FUNCTIONS

Anterior Human growth Cartilage, bone, skeletal, muscle, Stimulates secretion of hormones that
Pituitary hormone liver, and other body, tissues stimulate body growth and metabolism
thyroid-stimulating Stimulates of growth of thyroid gland and
hormone Thyroid gland secretion of its hormone
follicle-stimulating Stimulates sperm production. stimulate
hormone Testes, Ovaries oocyte production and estrogen secretion
Stimulates secretion of testosterone. Triggers
luteinizing hormone Testes, Ovaries ovulation
prolactin Mammary gland Stimulates production and secretion of milk
adrenocorticotropic Stimulates secretio of hormones by adrenal
hormone Adrenal cortex cortex
melanocyte-stimulati
ng hormone Skin darken skin pigmentation
Posterior decrease water lost in urine by returning
Pituitary antidiuretic hormone Kidneys water to the blood
Stimulates urine contractions and milk
oxytocin Uterus and mammary glands ejection during suckling
increases metabolism and basal metabolic
Thyroid Gland thyroxine Most body cells rate (BMR)
increases metabolism and basal metabolic
triiodothyronine Most body cells rate (BMR)
Decrease blood calcium levels by inhibiting
calcitonin Osteoclast cells in bones osteoclasts
Parathyroid increase blood calcium levels by stimulating
Gland parathyroid hormone Osteoclast cells in bones osteoclasts to break down the bone matrix
Adrenal decrease sodium and water loss in urine by
cortex aldosterone Kidneys returning sodium and water to the blood
Liver, muscle, and cells involved, increase resistance to stress, increase blood
cortisol in body defenses glucose levels, and decrease inflammation
Uterus, mammary glands, and insignificant in males; increase sex drive in
androgens other body cells involved in females
Adrenal Body cells involved in fight or
Medulla epinephrine flight response promotes fight or flight response
Body cells involved in fight or
norepinephrine flight response promotes fight or flight response
decrease blood glucose levels by transporting
Pancreas insulin most body cells glucose into body cells
Liver, muscle, and cells involved, increases blood glucose levels by stimulatinh
glucagon in body defenses liver to break down glycogen inti glucose
uterus , mammary glands, and
estrogen, other body cells involved female stimulates development of female sex
Ovaries progesterone sexual characteristics characteristics; helps regulate menstrual cycle
Testes, muscle and other body stimulates development of male
cells involved in male sexual characteristics; stimulates male sex drive;
Testes Testosterone characteristics regulates sperm production
Pineal Gland melatonin brain helps to set biological clock
T cells (type of white blood cells promotes the maturation of T cells for the
Thymus Thymusin involved in immune response immune response
ABBREVIATION NAME
ATCH Adrenocorticotropic hormone (corticotropin)
ADH Antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin)
ANP Atrial natriuretic peptide
CRH Corticotropin-releasing hormone
DHEA Dehydroepiandrosterone
EPO Erythropoietin
FSH Follicle-stimulating hormone
GH Growth hormone (somatotropin)
GHRH Growth hormone-releasing hormone
GnRH Gonadotropin-releasing hormone
IGFs Insulin-like growth factors (somatomedins)
LH Luteinizing hormone
NE Norepinephrine
OT Oxytocin
PIH Prolactin-inhibiting hormone (dopamine)
PRH Prolactin-releasing hormone
PRL Prolactin
PTH Parathyroid hormone (parathormone)
T3 Triiodothyronine
T4 Thyroxine (tetraiodothyronine)
TH Thyroid hormone (Ty and Ta)
TRH Thyrotropin-releasing hormone
TSH Thyroid-stimulating hormone
Anatomical Terms
Directional Terms Body planes and sections
Human brain sections
Human Skeleton
Body cavities
SKIN and Epidermis
Skin Nail
Features of Long Bone Microscopic Features of Bone
Compact & Spongy Bone

Lateral view of skull

Lateral view of skull
Anterior view of Skull
Superior view of cranial
cavity
Inferior view of skull
 Superior view of skull

Orbit of the eye

Nasal septum
Parts of typical vertebra
Thoracic cage
Right pectoral girdle Right hand and wrist
Right Humerus
Right ulna and radius
Right femur
Right tibia, fibula and patella