INTRODUCTION

ANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGY
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

•Two branches of science—anatomy and

physiology—provide the foundation for
understanding the body’s parts and
functions.
• Anatomy is the science of body structures and the
relationships among them. It was first studied by dissection,
the careful cutting apart of body structures to study their
relationships. Today, a variety of imaging techniques also
contribute to the advancement of anatomical knowledge.
• Whereas anatomy deals with structures of the body,
physiology is the science of body functions—how the body
parts work.
 SUBSPECIALTIES OF ANATOMY
• Embryology: The study of the first eight weeks of development following
fertilization of an egg(in humans).
• Developmental biology: The study of the complete development of an individual
from fertilization of an egg to death.
• Cell biology: The study of Cellular structure and functions.
• Histology: The study of Microscopic structure of tissues.
• Surface anatomy: The study of Surface markings of the body to understand
internal anatomy through visualization and palpation (gentle touch).
• Gross anatomy: Study of Structures that can be examined without using a
microscope.
• Systemic anatomy: Study of Structure of specific systems of the body such as the
nervous or respiratory systems. Structure of specific systems of the body such as
the nervous or respiratory systems.
Cont’d
• Regional anatomy: Study of Specific regions of the body such as the
head or chest.
• Clinical Anatomy: study of the structures or parts of the body in
relation to the practice of medicine.
• Functional anatomy: study of structures in relation to their functions.
• Surface anatomy : study of the internal body parts in relation to the
corresponding external surface area of the body.
 SUBSPECIALTIES OF PHYSIOLOGY

• Neurophysiology: Study of Functional properties of nerve cells.

• Endocrinology: Study of Hormones (chemical regulators in the blood) and
how they control body functions.
• Cardiovascular physiology: Study of Functions of the heart and blood
vessels.
• Respiratory physiology: Study of Functions of the air passageways and
lungs.
• Renal physiology: Study of Functions of the kidneys.
• Exercise physiology: Study of Changes in cell and organ functions as a
result of muscular activity.
• Pathophysiology: Study of Functional changes associated with disease and
aging.
 Body Positions
• Descriptions of any region or part of the human body assume
that it is in a specific stance called the anatomical position.
• In the anatomical position:
• The subject stands erect facing the observer, with the head level
and the eyes facing directly forward.
• The feet are flat on the floor and directed forward, and the upper
limbs are at the sides with the palms turned forward
• In the anatomical position, the body is upright.
• Two terms describe a reclining body. If the body is lying face
down, it is in the prone position. If the body is lying face up, it
is in the supine position.
 Regional Names
• The human body is divided into several major regions that can be identified externally.
The principal regions are the head, neck, trunk, upper limbs, and lower limbs.
• The head consists of the skull and face. The skull encloses and protects the brain; the
face is the front portion of the head that includes the eyes, nose, mouth, forehead,
cheeks, and chin.
• The neck supports the head and attaches it to the trunk.
• The trunk consists of the chest, abdomen, and pelvis.
• Each upper limb attaches to the trunk and consists of the shoulder, armpit, arm
(portion of the limb from the shoulder to the elbow), forearm (portion of the limb from
the elbow to the wrist), wrist, and hand.
• Each lower limb also attaches to the trunk and consists of the buttock, thigh (portion of
the limb from the buttock to the knee), leg (portion of the limb from the knee to the
ankle), ankle, and foot. The groin is the area on the front surface of the body marked by
a crease on each side, where the trunk attaches to the thighs.
Directional Terms

• To locate various body structures, anatomists use specific

directional terms, words that describe the position of one
body part relative to another.
• Several directional terms are grouped in pairs that have
opposite meanings, such as anterior (front) and posterior
(back).
•
 Anatomical Planes and Sections
• You will also study parts of the body relative to planes, imaginary flat surfaces that pass through the body
parts
• A sagittal plane is a vertical plane that divides the body or an organ into right and left sides. More
specifically, when such a plane passes through the midline of the body or an organ and divides it into equal
right and left sides, it is called a midsagittal plane or a median plane.
• The midline is an imaginary vertical line that divides the body into equal left and right sides. If the sagittal
plane does not pass through the midline but instead divides the body or an organ into unequal right and left
sides, it is called a parasagittal plane ( para- near).
• A frontal or coronal plane divides the body or an organ into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions.
• A transverse plane divides the body or an organ into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions. Other
names for a transverse plane are a cross-sectional or horizontal plane.
• Sagittal, frontal, and transverse planes are all at right angles to one another.
• An oblique plane, by contrast, passes through the body or an organ at an angle between a transverse plane
and a sagittal plane or between a transverse plane and a frontal plane. When you study a body region, you
often view it in section. A section is a cut of the body or one of its organs made along one of the planes just
described. It is important to know the plane of the section so you can understand the anatomical relationship
of one part to another.
 Body cavities
• Body cavities are spaces within the body that help protect, separate, and support
internal organs.
• Bones, muscles, ligaments, and other structures separate the various body cavities
from one another. Here we discuss several of the larger body cavities
• The cranial bones form the cranial cavity, which contains the brain. The bones of the
vertebral column (backbone) form the vertebral (spinal) canal, which contains the
spinal cord. Three layers of protective tissue, the meninges line the cranial cavity and
the vertebral canal.
• The major body cavities of the trunk are the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.
The thoracic cavity or chest cavity is formed by the ribs, the muscles of the chest,
the sternum (breastbone), and the thoracic portion of the vertebral column
(backbone). Within the thoracic cavity are the pericardial cavity a fluid-filled space
that surrounds the heart, and two fluid-filled spaces called pleural cavities, one
around each lung.
• The central part of the thoracic cavity is an anatomical region called
the mediastinum media- middle; -stinum partition).
• It is between the lungs, extending from the sternum to the vertebral
column and from the first rib to the diaphragm. The mediastinum
contains all thoracic organs except the lungs themselves. Among the
structures in the mediastinum are the heart, esophagus, trachea,
thymus, and several large blood vessels.
• The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle that separates the thoracic
cavity from the abdominopelvic cavity.
• The abdominopelvic cavity extends from the diaphragm to the groin
and is encircled by the abdominal wall and the bones and muscles
Body movements
 Terms used to describe anatomical
movements.
• Flexion: involves 2 flexor surfaces coming into
approximation with each other such that the angle at the
joint is reduced.
- Or movement that decreases the angle between two parts
of the body.
• Extension: there is approximation of the extensor surfaces
such that the angle at the joint is increased.
- or movement that increases the angle between two parts of
the body.
• Abduction : movement away from the median plane.
• Adduction: movement towards the median plane
• Rotation: movement around the long axis of bone.
• Pronation: Rotation of the forearm (radius bone)
inwards (medially),causing the palm to face
downwards
• Supination: Rotation of the forearm (radius bone)
outwards (laterally),causing the palm to face upwards
• Rotation refers to turning around the a central longitudinal axis for
example turning the head to left and right as in saying No. It can be
medial or lateral rotation.
• Planter flexion : Pushing or pointing the toes and the ball of the foot
downwards.
• Dorsiflexion:Standing on the heel of the foot with the toes pointing
up.
• Inversion
• Eversion
• Circumduction.