Advanced Numerical Modeling of Cracked Tubular

K Joints: BEM and FEM Comparison

L. Borges1; S. P. Chiew, M.ASCE2; A. Nussbaumer, M.ASCE3; and C. K. Lee, M.ASCE4

Abstract: A critical aspect in the design of tubular bridges is the fatigue performance of the structural joints. The estimation of a fatigue
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crack life using the linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) theory involves the calculation of stress intensity factors (SIF) at a number of
discrete crack depths. The most direct way is to carry out modeling by either the finite-element method (FEM) or the boundary-element
method (BEM). For tubular joints commonly found in tubular bridges and off-shore structures, due to the complicated geometry resulting
from the tube intersections and welding, the construction of the numerical model often becomes a complex process. This paper presents two
different model construction techniques that have been developed independently at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (EPFL) and the
Nanyang Technological University (NTU), Singapore, that are based in the BEM and the FEM, respectively. The SIF values obtained by these
two methods are compared. It is found that as long as consistent geometric models are employed, compatible SIF values can be obtained by
both approaches. The best and the most consistent values are obtained for the deepest point along the crack front and should be used for
fatigue-life computations. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)BE.1943-5592.0000274. © 2012 American Society of Civil Engineers.
CE Database subject headings: Finite element method; Cracking; Stress; Welded connections; Bridges; Joints.
Author keywords: Boundary elements; Finite elements; Fracture mechanics; Stress intensity factors; Welded joints; Tubular bridges;
K joints.

Introduction difficulty in creating a complicated model of the weld profile

and the doubly curved crack surface for accurate estimations of
The need for aesthetics and architectural transparency has impelled the SIF value. Lee and Bowness (2002) proposed an indirect
engineers and architects to search for innovative solutions. A ra- method to estimate the SIFs for CHS K joints based on plate-
tional use of hollow sections leads to cleaner and more spacious to-plate–welded T joints. However, their results are found to be
structures. This is also true for bridge designs (Eekhout 1991). very conservative.
The relatively new concept of steel–concrete composite circular Several published studies have focused on simplified methods
hollow section (CHS) truss bridges presents the designer with that allow for fatigue-life estimation. The most popular approached
new challenges, particularly with respect to the fatigue design of is the hot-spot stress (HSS) method [Comité International pour le
the CHS joints. Recent design and construction of many welded Developpement et l’Etude de la Construction Tubulaire (CIDECT)
tubular truss bridges in Europe (Fig. 1) have highlighted specific 2001; AASHTO/American Welding Society (AWS) 2010; AWS
concerns about the behavior of the CHS joints subjected to cycle
2008]. In many cases, in order to avoid building a complex
loading. The CHS K-joint configuration has been widely encoun-
FEM model to extrapolate the hot-spot stress, empirical equations
tered and many researchers are interested in studying the fatigue
of the stress concentration factor (SCF) can be used. Appropriate
and crack growth behavior of these joints to predict the service life.
S-N design curves are then considered for fatigue-life estimation.
The prediction of the fatigue life of cracked CHS K joints depends
Some shortcomings of this approach when applied to welded tubu-
very much on the accuracy of its stress intensity factors (SIFs).
Although many researchers have carried out extensive work on lar bridges include:
SIFs, reliable and accurate formulas of SIFs for cracked K joints • The bridge geometries may fall out of the validity range for the
SCF equations, requiring an important effort to build a detailed
are seldom found in the literature. This is largely due to the
numerical model of the joint in order to estimate the SCF of the
1 joint under different service loading.
BG Consulting Engineers, Avenue de Cour 61, CP 241, 1001,
Lausanne, Switzerland (corresponding author). E-mail: luis.borges@ • The only parameters considered are the extrapolated structural
bg-21.com stress range at the plate surface and the thickness of the poten-
2
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang tially cracked plate. This tends to oversimplify the complexity of
Technological Univ., 50, Nanyang Ave., Singapore 639798. the joint geometry and does not differentiate among the different
3
EPFL, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology of Lausanne, stress gradients through the plate thickness (Borges 2008).
ICOM—Steel Structures Laboratory, School of Architecture, Civil and • The HSS method is strictly only applicable to tubular joints
Environmental Engineering, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland. without any surface cracks and it cannot estimate the remaining
4
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technolo- fatigue life for a cracked tubular joint on any existing bridge.
gical Univ., 50, Nanyang Ave., Singapore 639798.
Once a visible surface crack is observed on a tubular joint,
Note. This manuscript was submitted on October 25, 2010; approved on
the linear fracture mechanics should be employed for fatigue-
May 24, 2011; published online on May 26, 2011. Discussion period open
until October 1, 2012; separate discussions must be submitted for indivi- life reestimation (Borges 2008; Lee et al. 2005).
dual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Bridge Engineering, The previously mentioned reasons and the need to search for
Vol. 17, No. 3, May 1, 2012. ©ASCE, ISSN 1084-0702/2012/3-432– a more realistic and economic (but safe) fatigue assessment pro-
442/$25.00. cedure, especially for cracked structures, led the Steel Structures

432 / JOURNAL OF BRIDGE ENGINEERING © ASCE / MAY/JUNE 2012

J. Bridge Eng., 2012, 17(3): 432-442

 Weld Geometry

The weld geometry has a big influence on the stress concentration

at the weld toe and thus on the SIFs for surface cracks. Therefore,
the welds should be modeled as close as possible to the reality. As
it is a difficult task to simulate the weld profile realistically, most
previous investigations did not consider it. However, according to
Lee and Wilmshurst (1995), an underestimation of the fatigue life
up to 20% could result if the weld profile geometry is not modeled.
Furthermore, it should be mentioned that the welding residual
stresses can be shown to be highly tensile (but still well below
the yield stress of the material) in the zone between the braces
(Acevedo and Nussbaumer 2009), a fortiori at the weld toe. The
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Fig. 1. Cais das pedras viaduct (1997, Oporto, Portugal) applied loading on the critical tubular joint also causes tension
in the chord and tension in the brace next to the cracking (joints
under compression are less failure-critical). Thus, the crack is
Laboratory (ICOM) of the the Swiss Federal Institute of Technol- always open, even under the minimum load; in other words, the
ogy (EPFL) and the School of Civil and Environmental Engineer- cycles are fully effective, at least for a crack size up to half the
ing at the Nanyang Technological University (NTU) to perform chord wall thickness. Thus the SIF can be computed without con-
collaborative research in this domain. The investigations, which sideration for either the residual stresses or the applied stress ratio.
were carried out independently, included both numerical and exper-
imental studies. For numerical studies, two different methodologies EPFL Weld Geometry
were implemented and validated with the experiments. The first In the EPFL model (Borges 2008), the weld was defined using the
methodology is based on the boundary-elements method (BEM) following three auxiliary curves for each brace–chord intersec-
code BEASY (BEASY 2003) and was implemented at EPFL in tion (Fig. 3):
the framework of a study on size effects on the fatigue behavior 1. The intersection of the inner boundary of the diagonal with the
of tubular joints (Borges 2008). The second methodology is based chord outer boundary;
on the FEM code ABAQUS (ABAQUS 2006) and was imple- 2. The intersection of the outer boundary of the diagonal with the
mented at NTU (Lie et al. 2001; Lee et al. 2005; Lie et al. chord, shifted by [T W1 cosðθbr Þ, 0, T W1 sinðθbr Þ];
2005a, b). In the following section, a brief description of the as- 3. The intersection of the chord with an imaginary cylinder with
sumptions made to model a K joint for proper SIF determination the same angle θbr as the diagonal but a diameter equal to d
¼
is given. The modeling techniques are then briefly summarized. d þ 2 T W2 and translated by (T W3 , 0, 0).
The model of the weld closely represents the real weld geometry
and both meet the AWS and AASHTO (AASHTO/AWS 2010)
Joint Elements requirements (Nussbaumer and Borges 2008).
Fig. 2 shows the geometry of a gapped CHS K joint and the NTU Weld Geometry
following parameters are used to characterize the joint: In the NTU model, the weld model was defined differently but
also complied with the AWS specifications (Lie et al. 2001). Figs. 4
β ¼ d b ∕d c γ ¼ d c ∕2tc τ ¼ t b ∕t c α ¼ 2Lc ∕d c ð1Þ and 5 show the basic geometry and the plan view for the weld path
of a welded joint, respectively. The welded model is obtained by
Both the EPFL and the NTU models consider the equations of modifying the original inner and outer intersecting curves. The
cylinder intersections to derive the tubes' geometry and intersec- original contact thickness T 1 is defined as the thickness at a par-
tions. In the current study, symmetry was not used. This choice ticular section normal to the intersection at the joint. To model the
was made because it makes the current model more versatile weld toe W o , a shift of a distance T 2 from Ao is made (Fig. 6). The
and valuable for an extension of the present study to asymmetrical equations for the outer intersecting curve (weld toe) can be written
cracks. as (Lie et al. 2001)

db

Brace member

g H/2
tb crown heel crown toe

tc
dc saddle
b b
e

Chord member
Lc

Fig. 2. Geometric dimensions defining K joint made of CHS

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Fig. 3. Weld geometry according to EPFL model

Fig. 6. Enlarged view of geometry and modeling of the weld path

The weld root is formed by shifting a distance T 3 from Ai toward

the inside, resulting in W i (Fig. 6); the equations for the weld root
can be expressed as (Lie et al. 2001)
8
> Z W i ¼ Z Ai þ T 3 cos β o
>
<
Y W i ¼ Y Ai þ T 3 sin β o ð3Þ
>
> qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
: X ¼ R2  Y 2
Wi 1 Wi

where Ai ðX Ai ; Y Ai ; Z Ai Þ is on the inner intersecting curve.

The weld thickness T W is defined as the sum of T 1 , T 2 , and T 3 .
Lie et al. (2001) studied the actual welding thickness of full-scale
tubular T and Y joints and found that their weld model provided
consistent and reasonably conservative weld thickness predictions.

Fig. 4. Definition and geometry of a welded tubular Y joint Crack Geometry

When a crack initiates from the surface of the chord of a welded

tubular joint, it will propagate through the chord thickness in a
specific direction in which the energy requirement is minimal.
The crack front will propagate on three-dimensional (3D) curves
that form the crack surface on which the crack front lies. The crack
propagates along a critical plane that is normal to the principal
stress or von Mises stress. This critical plane is difficult to find
analytically as it involves finding the angle at which the stress is
maximized. In the present study, the crack shape and critical plane
are taken from experimental observations.
Stress analyses of the uncracked joint identified that the crown
toe is where high stress concentration exists. Supported by exper-
imental evidence (Schumacher 2003; Schumacher and Nussbaumer
2006; Borges 2008), only cracks starting at the crown toe are con-
sidered in the present study. In both FEM and BEM analyses,
cracks are grown until they reach half the thickness. From this
Fig. 5. Inner and outer curves intersecting with the weld path depth the boundary element model would need time-consuming
remeshing until the through thickness is attained. As most of
the fatigue life is consumed during small crack stages, the half-
chord-thickness crack depth can be considered a reasonable limit.
8
>
> Z ¼ Z AO þ T 2 cos β o EPFL Crack Surface Model
> WO
<
Y W O ¼ Y AO þ T 2 sin β o ð2Þ The EPFL crack geometry is defined by the surface that contains
>
> qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi both the weld toe (i.e., the intersection between the weld and the
>
: X W O ¼ R21  Y 2W
O chord) and the crack front corresponding to the crown toe. The
crack front is obtained by projecting a semiellipse over a conic
where Ao ðX AO ; Y AO ; Z AO Þ is on the outer intersecting curve. surface, the directrix of which is the weld toe curve and the apex

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J. Bridge Eng., 2012, 17(3): 432-442

 belongs to the xoz plane (Fig. 7). The crack angle, ϕcrack , deter- Hence, the crack front equation is first defined on a normalized
mines the x coordinate of the apex. The crack faces belong to space and then mapped onto the crack surface (Fig. 10; Lee et al.
the conic surface and the crack front is doubly curved (see Fig. 8). 2005).
This complex geometry makes modeling of the crack propagation a
complicated task.
FE and BE Models
NTU Crack Model
In the NTU crack model, the surface is formed by joining a series Introduction
of straight lines W o D along the weld path (Fig. 9). W o D passes The estimation of a fatigue crack life using the theory of linear elas-
through the z-axis. W o ðX W o ; Y W o ; Z W o Þ is on the outer chord face. tic fracture mechanics (LEFM) involves the calculation of SIFs at
D is located on the inner chord face so that jW~o Dj ¼ t C ¼ R1  R2 a number of discrete crack depths. Different methods can be used
and the line W~o D will pass through the z-axis (Lie et al. 2001). to estimate SIFs. Most of them involve the use of expressions
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Full-scale test results on the T, Y, and K joints (Lie et al. 2003; deduced from parametric studies on specific geometry ranges.
Chiew et al. 2004; Lie et al. 2005b) have shown that the crack front A more complex way involves advanced modeling of the crack
shape resembles a semiellipse on a normalized u0  v0 plane. by finite-element or boundary-element codes.

Fig. 7. K-joint surface crack geometry definition

Fig. 8. K-joint surface crack mesh (BEM)

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J. Bridge Eng., 2012, 17(3): 432-442

 The finite-element method has been widely used in fracture The BEM includes approximately 8,100 mesh points and 2,300
mechanics applications. Recent investigations applied the finite- elements (a total of approximately 30,000 degrees of freedom)
element method to simulate the crack behavior in CHS joints (Shao distributed in 8 zones, as shown in Fig. 11. Zones are groups of
2005). An intrinsic feature of the finite-element method, common elements that can be considered as substructures of the component.
to all of these formulations, is the need for continuous remeshing Among these 8 zones, zone 2 (Fig. 11), where the crack is located
of the three-dimensional volume to follow the crack extension; this and the stress is highly nonlinear, has a dense mesh (Fig. 12); zones
is a practical disadvantage of this method (Mellings et al. 2003). 6, 7, and 8 are rigid rings for the external force introduction.
In the boundary-element method, only the boundary of the do-
main of interest is discretized (Hartmann 1989). One disadvantage
of this method is that it can only be used for linear elastic problems. Zo n
e8
However, this is not an issue in modeling fatigue life in the long life
region (the opposite from oligocyclic fatigue).
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e7
Zon
EPFL BEM Model

e4
Restrained

Zon
in x/y/z
In order to create a boundary-element model simulating a cracked

Zo
uniplanar K joint, different aspects have to be considered. First, the

ne
Rigid rings e1
Zo n

3
geometry of the boundaries that define the joint elements and
respective intersections have to be parameterized. e 2
Zon
The crack path, or in 3D, the surface defining crack faces, also
has to be defined. A number of zones are created to confine regions e5
Zon
of similar mesh density and material properties (Fig. 11). The mesh

Zon
e
discretizing the boundaries is chosen and the external forces and

6
boundary conditions are applied to mesh points. In the present
study, the proportions of the joint elements may change and it is Fig. 11. Boundary model zones
therefore very important to ensure that the results reflect the effect
of size changes and not the effect of meshes being somewhat differ-
ent. The following paragraphs describe the joint and crack meshing.

Fig. 9. Formation of cracked surface in the chord thickness according

to NTU model Fig. 12. K-joint surface crack mesh detail (BEM)

Fig. 10. Mapping of 2D normalized plane to a 3D cracked surface

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 An Excel workbook was prepared to generate the mesh point co- The manual crack growth corresponds to the calculation of a set
ordinates, elements (including the weld profile and crack), and of models with built-in cracks of different given shapes and depths.
zones definitions. The entire model is meshed with reduced quad- The SIFs are computed using the crack opening displacement
ratic four-sided elements Q38 wherever possible or with triangular (COD) method (Cisilino and Aliabadi 2004). As in the case of
quadratic elements. Tests have shown that these elements provide FEM, extensive validation was performed by comparison to alter-
highly accurate solutions and reduce modeling time and disk re- nating current potential drop (ACPD) (Lie 2005b) test results and
quirements (BEASY 2003). The mesh of the crack surface has mesh convergence tests were conducted (Borges 2008).
to be carefully chosen. A good quality mesh depends on the shape NTU FE Model
of the elements defining the crack surface. The mesh points are
calculated to suit the curved shape. BEASY automatically remeshes In the NTU FE model, to ensure the quality of the final mesh, the
whole tubular joint is always first divided into several zones before
the area near the crack to optimally adapt the crack mesh within the
the mesh generation is started (Lie et al. 2001). Tailor-made pro-
existing joint mesh (see Fig. 12).
grams were created so that the meshes for different zones are
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Although BEASY software provides a crack growth tool

generated independently (Fig. 13). After the meshes of all the zones
allowing for automatic crack propagation from an initial crack, have been generated, they are then merged together to form the
manual, stepwise crack modeling was preferred. The following mesh of the entire structure. This approach makes it much easier
reasons justify this option: to generate mesh with different grading in different zones. To save
• Due to the sharp weld toe geometry, automatic crack growth analysis time, small-size elements will be created for the zones with
requires a very small step size so that the crack path remains high stresses while coarse mesh will be created at low-stress
at the weld toe; regions.
• The substantial amount of time spent automatically growing a To obtain a good estimation of the SIF near the crack front, the
crack from a0 to T∕2 and the model sizes would have made it mesh should be highly refined and of a high quality near the crack
impossible to perform a parametric study in a reasonable mouth. To achieve such condition, five types of elements, namely
amount of time; tetrahedral, hexahedral, prism, pyramid, and the quarter-point ele-
• Identical crack paths for the different basic load cases are ments, which are available in the ABAQUS program, were used to
needed to make it possible to isolate/superpose their influence; simulate a good quality mesh along the crack front (Lee et al. 2005;
and Lie et al. 2003). Fig. 14 shows different types of elements used to
• Manual crack growth allows the control of the crack shape, model a typical surface crack. A typical K-joint mesh normally
a ¼ c, evolution and thus an indirect inclusion of the coales- consist of 20,000 elements and 15,000 nodes and the SIF values
cence phenomenon. are obtained by using the well-established and validated J-integral
technique (Lee et al. 2005; ABAQUS 2006). The convergence,
accuracy, and reliability of NTU’s mesh generation procedure
has been validated extensively (Lie et al. 2003, 2005a, b) and it
was found that slightly conservative SIF values, when compared
with experimental measurements, could be predicted in virtually all
cases.

Evaluation of Stress Intensity Factors

Introduction
To compare the results obtained using both techniques, two cases
Fig. 13. Finite-element mesh of cracked K joint
were selected. In case 1, the joint is subjected to a balanced brace

Tetrahedral Elements Surface Crack Front

Prism Elements

SFBLOCK-A

Second ring – (Prism

Elements)
Pyramid Elements Face to be
connected to
First ring (Quarter- DCUBE-A
Point/Crack Elements)

Fig. 14. Different types of elements used to model the surface crack

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J. Bridge Eng., 2012, 17(3): 432-442

 F F Table 2. Nondimensional Parameters for Case 1 and Case 2 Geometries
β γ τ α
T= [-] [-] [-] [-]
D = 1 2.
1 3 5m
9. 7 m Case 1 0.5 6.8 0.63 15.4
60 mm
Case 2 0.5 5.4 0.75 43.3

to experimental SIF or Lee and Bowness’s mixed mode SIF formu-

T=20.0mm
D=273.0mm

las (Lee and Bowness 2002) as the introduced error remains

negligible compared to the precision of those measures.

Case 1: K Joint under Balanced Axial Loads

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Fig. 15. K joint under balanced axial loadings (Case 1)

Case 1 considers a K joint with each of the brace lengths equal to
1,610 mm and a chord length of 2,100 mm under balanced axial
loadings (Fig. 15). Both extremities of the chord are restrained. The
gap clearance g is 40 mm. A semielliptical surface crack is placed at
KI / nom (mm1/2)
16 a/c=0.16 (BEM)
the weld toe crown. All K I results for case 1 are normalized by
a/c=0.16 (BEM) a/c=0.16 (FEM)
a/c=0.16 (FEM)
a/c=0.25 (BEM)
a/c=0.25 (BEM) a/c=0.25 (FEM)
a/c=0.25 (FEM) dividing them by the nominal stress K I ∕σnom .
14
a/c=0.50 (BEM)
a/c=0.50 (BEM) a/c=0.50 (FEM)
a/c=0.50 (FEM) An initial crack depth a ¼ 10 mm and c ¼ 60 mm (a∕T ¼ 0:5
12 and a∕c ¼ 0:167) is located at the crown. Table 3 compares the
10 normalized stress intensity K I ∕σnom factor results at the deepest
point and the crack tips obtained using the Lee and Bowness equa-
8
tions (Lee and Bowness 2002) or the FEM and BEM methods as
6 described in previous sections. Both FEM and BEM results con-
4 verge while the Lee and Bowness equations give a higher limit
for this kind of joint. SIFs at the crack tips tend to be 20%–
2
50% different than the values at the deepest point. This result
0 has to be considered with some caution as it may reflect a numerical
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 perturbation linked to the mesh quality in this very sensitive area
Fig. 16. SIF along the crack front of K joints with crack depth due to the singular geometry in the neighborhood, as explained in
a ¼ 10 mm remaining constant the next paragraph.
Fig. 16 shows the stress intensity factors along the crack front
for different crack shapes keeping the crack depth constant and
equal to 10 mm or a∕T ¼ 0:5. It can be observed that both the
axial load and is restrained in the chord extremities (see Fig. 15), BEM and FEM model values are perturbed near the crack tips
while in case 2 the joint is under balanced axial load and bending (i.e., extremities) and not always with the same tendency. This
moment (and one brace extremity is restrained). Case 2 reproduces wave is believed to be due to the singular geometry at these points
an experimental test conducted at NTU (Lie et al. 2005a, b). and also due to the fact that the mesh is relatively coarse and not
Tables 1 and 2 show dimensions and the nondimensional param- designed specifically to fit these areas (for simple fatigue life
eters for case 1 and case 2, respectively. For case 1, crack geometry calculation, the deepest point is usually sufficient) and possibly
“EPFL” (only BEM) and crack geometry “NTU” (BEM and FEM) due to the fact that at crack tips the semielliptical crack shape is
were modeled and results compared. For case 2, only crack geom- not adapted to simulate reality (i.e., the coalescence phenomenon).
etry, “NTU” (BEM and FEM) was modeled. The analysis of case 1 In order to increase the reliability and accuracy of these results, a
explores the stress intensity factor results along the crack front, the mesh refinement is suggested. Results at crack tips require a finer
influence of crack shape and geometry, and the influence of the mesh and are less reliable than the results at the deepest point for
weld size, whereas case 2 compares numerical results with exper- equivalent meshes due to the singular geometry point at crack tips
imental results and solutions from the literature at different crack (resulting from the curved intersection of three curved surfaces).
depths. This numerical problem raises doubts on the feasibility of
For the geometries and load cases considered, independent stud-
ies (Lee et al. 2005; Borges 2008) show that the SIF for opening Table 3. Comparison of Normalized Stress Intensity Factor Results at the
mode 1, K I is much larger than K II and K III for K joints with a Deepest Point and at the Crack Tips (a ¼ 10 mm and c ¼ 60 mm)
surface crack at the crown, and effects of K II and K III could be Stress Stress
ignored for practical purpose. Therefore, for simplicity, only results intensity factors intensity factors
for K I are presented. Numerical results for K I are directly compared at deepest point at crack tips
(mm 1∕2) (mm 1∕2)

Table 1. Geometry Parameters for the Joints Analyzed Lee and Bowness (2002) 13.5 20.1
Finite-element method (DEa) 9.0 11.3
dc db tc tb e g Lc H θ
Finite-element method (J-integral) 8.6 13.1
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (°)
Boundary-elements method (crack 9.4 7.5 and 9.0
Case 1 273.0 139.7 20.0 12.5 54 58.7 2,100 1,780 60 opening displacement)
Case 2 273.1 141.3 25.4 19.1 0 73.3 5,911 3,459 45 a
Displacement extrapolation.

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J. Bridge Eng., 2012, 17(3): 432-442

 KI / nom (mm1/2) automatic crack propagation using incrementwise routines to
12
propagate the crack automatically, as the following increment will
10 reflect the perturbed results at the previous step and this can lead to
no convergence issues or unreal crack propagations. Furthermore,
8 and as expected, Fig. 16 shows that as the crack-shape ratio a∕c
decreases, the stress intensity values increase at the deepest point
6 and decrease at the crack tips.
Fig. 17 shows the SIF results along the crack front observed
4 a/T=0.3 (BEM) a/T=0.3 (FEM) when keeping the crack length c ¼ 60 mm constant, and consid-
a/T=0.5 (BEM) a/T=0.5 (FEM) ering different depths a. Stress intensity factor results for BEM
2 models with the considered mesh can be obtained for a crack as
deep as T∕2 at most. For deeper cracks numerical problems arise,
0
linked to the ratio between the element size and the distance be-
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0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

tween the boundary elements. If results were needed for deeper
Fig. 17. SIF along the crack front of K joints with crack depth SIFs then the mesh would have to be refined both for tube and crack
c ¼ 60 mm remaining constant boundary elements. These results show a good agreement between
BEM and FEM models. In this case, as the crack length is kept
constant, the SIF values increase with the crack depth. The SIF
KI / (mm1/2)
at the crack tips increase more than the SIFs at the deepest point
nom
12 as a consequence of the a∕c increasing with a (c is constant).
Given a defined geometry, assumptions to define the weld and
10 crack geometry/shape were made independently at NTU and EPFL.
A sensitivity analysis using BEM models allows for an estimation
8 of the influence of the “modeler” judgment when compared to the
influence of measurable/objective/univocal geometric parameters
6
such as weld size. To understand the influence of the crack geom-
FEM
FEM(NTU crack)
(NTU crack) etry, both EPFL and NTU crack geometries were modeled using
4 BEM
BEM(EPFL crack,weld
(EPFL crack, weldsize0)
size0) BEM. Comparison of results for EPFL crack and NTU crack geom-
BEM (NTU crack, weld size1)
2 etries (when modeled in BEM) are shown in Fig. 18. Additional
BEM (NTU crack, weld size2)
BEM (NTU crack, weld size3)
models with variable weld sizes are also plotted for comparison
0 of the differences obtained when the crack shape and weld geom-
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 etry are not explicitly given or have to be estimated. Comparison
shows that the weld size can play a role as important as crack
Fig. 18. Comparison of the relative influence of the “modeler” versus
geometry. These can be associated with the “modeler” judgment
the weld size (Case 1: a∕T ¼ 0:50; c ¼ 60 mm)
influence—thus the “modeler” influence is estimated at approximately

Fig. 19. K joint under bending and axial loadings (Case 2)

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J. Bridge Eng., 2012, 17(3): 432-442

 KI /σnom (mm1/2) a/c (-)
12 0.24

0.21
10
0.18
8
0.15

6 0.12

0.09 Experimental
Experimental
4 FEM
FEM
Numerical models
BEM (NTU crack, weld size 6) 0.06
2 BEM (NTU crack, weld size 7)
0.03
φ/π a/T (-)
0 0.00
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
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Fig. 20. SIF along crack front for a∕T ¼ 0:53, a ¼ 13:5 mm, and Fig. 21. Relationship between crack shape a∕c and relative crack depth
c ¼ 63 mm a∕T used in numerical modeling (from experimental measures)

Table 4. Weld Size Definitions SIF (N mm-3/2)

1200
Weld size ID T W1 (mm) T W2 (mm) T W3 (mm) θw;ch (°)
1000
Weld size 0 15.0 12.0 8.0 44
Weld size 1 10.0 6.7 3.3 43 800
Weld size 2 8.0 5.3 2.7 43
Weld size 3 6.0 4.0 2.0 43 600
Weld size 6 22.0 19.0 4.0 22
400 FEM J-integral
FEM J-integral
Weld size 7 25.0 22.0 5.0 22
BEM COD (NTU crack, weld size 7)
200 Lee & Bowness (2001)
Experimental
a/T (-)
35%. This value is in the range of precision of simplified methods 0
such as Lee and Bowness (2002). 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Fig. 22. Comparison between the numerical and experimental SIF

Case 2: K Joint under Balanced Axial Loads and
values for the second K-joint specimen
Bending Moment
Case 2 reproduces the joint tested at NTU for which extensive
ACPD results are available (Lie et al. 2005b). The braces angle
is 45°. In this case only one brace is loaded while the other one FEM models provide through thickness stress/strain results and the
is restrained (see Fig. 19). possibility to consider nonlinear behavior. The strategy developed
Fig. 20 shows the SIF results for BEM (with weld sizes 6 and 7, at NTU is more flexible in terms of mesh generation (FEM),
respectively; see Table 4) and FEM models. The three model results making it easier for the modeler to refine or change the mesh grade.
compare well, with the differences being bigger in the crack The generally accepted advantages of BEM for LEFM against FEM
tip area. are limited in the case of tubular structures (the thinner the tubes
In order to reproduce the crack propagation at defined crack are, the more penalized the BEM would be) since the element size
depths and compare SIF values to experimental values, the crack is a function of the minimum distance between boundaries. BEM
shapes for the corresponding crack depths are taken from experi- would be more advantageous for massive pieces as “cubes” or
mental evidence (Lie 2005b; see Fig. 21) and reproduced numeri- “spheres,” where the FEM has to mesh the volume and BEM
cally. When compared to experimental results (see Fig. 22), Lee has to model only the surfaces and not necessarily with fine mesh,
and Bowness (2002) SIFs for this type of joint are up to 40% as the distance between opposite boundaries is relatively big.
higher, leading to very conservative estimations of the fatigue crack
propagation life (less than half the measured lives). BEM and FEM
results are also higher than the experimental values but a good Summary and Conclusions
agreement is found between these. Note that the experimental curve
should be seen as indicative and not as an exact curve. Measures The present paper discusses two different techniques to simulate
in different joints would lead to different values with variations welded CHS K-joint cracking: FEM and BEM. The numerical re-
up to 20% (Borges 2008), even when the macroscopic geometry sults obtained show that both techniques give similar results when
and loading conditions and measuring instrumentation are similar. modeling is properly conducted. In terms of modeling effort
This is due to the influence of random factors involved in crack needed, it was found that meshing of model and crack, in particular
nucleation such as the steel grain or the welding flaws that lead when the geometry is curved, is more difficult in the FEM than in
to different crack angles and shapes. the BEM. However, advantages of FEM include meshing versatility
The presented models are compatible and lead to similar results once tools for modeling were created and the possibility to include
that are also very close to experimentally measured values. Both straight-forward nonlinear behavior.
techniques present advantages and disadvantages. On one hand, More importantly, the numerical results obtained from both
the meshing effort in BEM is less than for FEM. On the other hand, models are consistent with the experimental data and with each

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J. Bridge Eng., 2012, 17(3): 432-442

 other. Furthermore, both modeling techniques lead to lower and X Wo = x-coordinate of a point of the weld profile;
better estimations of SIF when compared with those conservative Y Cr = y-coordinate of a point along the crack front;
formulas (Lee and Bowness 2002), and this implies that more ac- YD = y-coordinate of a point on a circle;
curate fatigue life estimation could be obtained if such advanced Y Wo = y-coordinate of a point of the weld profile;
modeling procedures, which are currently outside the standard Z Cr = z-coordinate of a point along the crack front;
design code requirement (CIDECT 2001; AASHTO/AWS 2010; Z Wo = z-coordinate of a point of the weld profile;
AWS 2008), are employed in practice. Moreover, the numerical β = ratio of brace diameter to chord diameter;
results also highlighted the influence of major geometric parame- ΔK = stress intensity factor range;
ters and the modeling assumptions adopted by the modeler. In ρ = given unknown;
particular, it is shown that modeler preference could influence τ = ratio of brace thickness to chord thickness; and
the results by up to 35%, especially near the crack tips. However, ϕ = angle along the crack front.
it should be noted that this value is in the range of precision of
simplified methods (Lee and Bowness 2002). Finally, it was also
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found that the reliability quality of the SIF at the deepest crack
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 = plane strain elastic modulus;
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