DC to DC

CONVERTER
(CHOPPER)
UNIT.1&2, 7&8
Presentation By

Mr. Reddyprasad.R,
Assistant Professor
Department of Electrical and Electronics
Engineering
Sri Venkateshwara College of Engineering
Bengaluru, Karnataka-562157
Tel: 9494747497

E-Mail: [email protected]
Website:www.spotturns.blogspot.in

1
 DC to DC CONVERTER
(CHOPPER)
• General
• Buck converter
• Boost converter
• Buck-Boost converter
• Switched-mode power supply
• Bridge converter
• Notes on electromagnetic compatibility
(EMC) and solutions.

2
 DC-DC Converter
(Chopper)
DEFINITION:
Converting the unregulated DC input to a
controlled DC output with a desired
voltage level.

• General block diagram:

DC supply
(from rectifier-
DC output LOAD
filter, battery,
fuel cell etc.)

Vcontrol
(derived from
feedback circuit)

• APPLICATIONS:
– Switched-mode power supply (SMPS), DC
motor control, battery chargers
 Linear regulator
• Transistor is operated
in linear (active)
mode. + VCEce − IL

+
• Output voltage Vin
RL Vo

Vo = Vin − Vce
LINEAR REGULATOR

• The transistor can be

conveniently + Vce −
IL
modelled by an
RT
equivalent variable +
RL Vo
resistor, as shown. Vin
−

• Power loss is high at

EQUIVALENT
high current due to: CIRCUIT

Po = I L 2  RT
or
Po = Vce  I L
4
 Switching Regulator

• Transistor is operated
in switched-mode:
+ Vce − IL
– Switch closed:
Fully on (saturated) +
– Switch opened: Vin
RL
Vo
Fully off (cut-off)
−

SWITCHING REGULATOR
– When switch is open,
no current flow in it IL
– When switch is
closed no voltage SWITCH
+
drop across it. Vin
RL Vo
−

• Since P=V.I, no losses

occurs in the switch.
– Power is 100% EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
transferred from Vo
source to load. Vin
– Power loss is zero
(ON) (OFF) (ON)
(for ideal switch): closed open closed

DT T

• Switching regulator is OUTPUT VOLTAGE

the basis of all DC-DC
converters

5
 Buck (step-down) converter

S L

+
Vd D C RL
Vo

CIRCUIT OF BUCK CONVERTER

iL
S + vL −
+
Vd D RL Vo

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS CLOSED

S iL

+ vL −
+
Vd RL Vo
D

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS OPENED

6
 Switch is turned on (closed)
• Diode is reversed + vL -
biased.
S iL +
+
C Vo
• Switch conducts Vd VD RL
− −
inductor current

vL
• This results in
positive inductor Vd−Vo
voltage, i.e: opened opened
closed closed
t
v L = Vd − Vo

• It causes linear −Vo

increase in the iL
inductor current
iLmax
di IL
vL = L L iLmin
dt
1
 iL =  v L dt DT T
t
L
7
 Switch turned off (opened)

+ vL -
• Because of inductive
energy storage, iL S iL +
continues to flow. Vd C RL Vo
D
−
• Diode is forward
biased vL

Vd−Vo
• Current now flows opened opened
(freewheeling) closed closed

through the diode. t

• The inductor voltage

can be derived as: −Vo
iL

vL = −Vo iLmax
IL
iLmin

(1-D)T
t
DT T

8
 Analysis
When the switch is closed (on) :
di
v L = Vd − Vo = L L vL
dt
di V − Vo Vd− Vo
 L= d closed
dt L t
Derivative of iL is a positive
constant.T herefore iL must
increased linearly. iL

From Figure iL max

diL iL iL Vd − Vo
= = = IL iL
dt t DT L
 V − Vo 
 (iL )closed =  d
iL min
  DT
 L  t
DT T
For switch opened,
di
v L = −Vo = L L
dt
di −V
 L= o
dt L
di i iL −V
 L= L= = o
dt t (1 − D)T L
 −V 
 (iL )opened =  o   (1 − D)T
 L 
9
 Steady-state operation

iL
Unstable current

iL Decaying current

iL Steady-state current

Steady - state operation requires that iL at the

end of switching cycle is the same at the
begining of the next cycle. That is the change
of iL over one period is zero, i.e :
(iL )closed + (iL )opened = 0
 Vd − Vo   − Vo 
   DT −
s    (1 − D)Ts = 0
 L   L 
 Vo = DVd
10
 Average, Maximum and
Minimum Inductor Current
iL

Imax
IL iL

Imin

Average inductor current = Average current in R L

V
 IL = IR = o
R
Maximum current :
iL Vo 1  Vo 
I max = I L + = +  (1 − D)T 
2 R 2 L 
 1 (1 − D) 
= Vo  + 
 R 2 Lf 
Minimum current :
iL  1 (1 − D) 
I min = I L − = Vo  − 
2 R 2 Lf 
Inductor current ripple :
iL = I max − I min
11
Continuous Current Mode (CCM)
iL

Imax

Imin t
0

From previous analysis,

iL  1 (1 − D) 
I min = I L − = Vo  − 
2 R 2 Lf 
For continuous operation, I min  0,
 1 (1 − D) 
Vo  − 0
R 2 Lf 
(1 − D)
 L  Lmin = R
2f
This is the minimum inductor current to
ensure continous mode of operation.
Normally L is chosen b be  Lmin

12
 Output voltage ripple
KCL, Capacitor current :
ic = iL + iR L iL iR

The charge can be witten as : +

iC
Q = CVo Vo

 Q = CV −

Q
 o Vo =
C imax
iL
Use triangle area formula :
iL=IR
1  T  i 
Q =   L  Vo/R imin
2  2  2 
0
TiL iC
=
8
Ripple voltage (Peak - to peak)0
TiL (1 − D)
 Vo = =
8C 8 LCf 2
So, the ripple factor,
V (1 − D)
r= o =
Vo 8 LCf 2
Note : Ripple can be reduced by :
1) Increasing switching frequency
2) Increasing inductor size
3) Increasing capacitor size.
13
 Basic design procedures
SWITCH L

Lmin= ?
RL
L = 10Lmin
Vd Po = ?
f=? D
(input C Io = ?
D=? ripple ?
spec.)
TYPE ?

• Calculate D to obtain required output voltage.

• Select a particular switching frequency (f) and device

– preferably f>20KHz for negligible acoustic noise
– higher fs results in smaller L and C. But results in higher losses.
Reduced efficiency, larger heat sink.
– Possible devices: MOSFET, IGBT and BJT. Low power MOSFET can
reach MHz range.
• Calculate Lmin. Choose L>>10 Lmin
• Calculate C for ripple factor requirement.
– Capacitor ratings:
• must withstand peak output voltage
• must carry required RMS current. Note RMS current for
triangular w/f is Ip/3, where Ip is the peak capacitor current given
by iL/2.
• ECAPs can be used

• Wire size consideration:

– Normally rated in RMS. But iL is known as peak. RMS value
for iL is given as:
2
2  i 2 
I L, RMS = I L +  L 
 3 

14
 Examples
• A buck converter is supplied from a 50V battery source. Given
L=400uH, C=100uF, R=20 Ohm, f=20KHz and D=0.4.
Calculate: (a) output voltage (b) maximum and minimum
inductor current, (c) output voltage ripple.

• A buck converter has an input voltage of 50V and output of

25V. The switching frequency is 10KHz. The power output is
125W. (a) Determine the duty cycle, (b) value of L to limit the
peak inductor current to 6.25A, (c) value of capacitance to limit
the output voltage ripple factor to 0.5%.

• Design a buck converter such that the output voltage is 28V

when the input is 48V. The load is 8Ohm. Design the converter
such that it will be in continuous current mode. The output
voltage ripple must not be more than 0.5%. Specify the
frequency and the values of each component. Suggest the power
switch also.

15
 Boost (step-up) converter
L D

Vd C +
S
RL Vo

−
CIRCUIT OF BOOST CONVERTER
iL L D
+ vL −

Vd +
S C
RL Vo
−

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS CLOSED

L
D
+ vL -
+
Vd C RL
S Vo

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS OPENED

16
 Boost analysis:switch closed
iL
L D
+ vL −
+
Vd C vo
S
−

v L = Vd Vd

di
=L L v L
CLOSED
dt
t
diL Vd
 = V d− V o
dt L
diL iL iL
= = i iL
t DT
L

dt
di V
 L = d
dt L DT T t

V DT
(iL )closed = d
L
17
 Switch opened
iL
D
+ vL -
+
Vd C vo
S
-

v L = Vd − Vo
diL
=L Vd
dt
di V − Vo vL
 L= d OPENED

dt L t

diL iL V d− V o
=
dt t
iL iL
= iL
(1 − D)T
( 1-D )T
t
diL Vd − Vo DT T

 =
dt L
(Vd − Vo )(1 − DT )
 (iL )opened =
L
18
 Steady-state operation

(iL )closed + (iL )opened = 0

Vd DT (Vd − Vo )(1 − D)T
+ =0
L L
Vd
 Vo =
1− D

• Boost converter produces output voltage that is

greater or equal to the input voltage.
• Alternative explanation:
– when switch is closed, diode is reversed. Thus
output is isolated. The input supplies energy to
inductor.
– When switch is opened, the output stage
receives energy from the input as well as from
the inductor. Hence output is large.
– Output voltage is maintained constant by
virtue of large C.

19
Average, Maximum, Minimum
Inductor Current

Input power = Output power

Vo 2
Vd I d =
R
2
 Vd 
  2
−
Vd I L =   =
(1 D ) Vd
R (1 − D) 2 R
Average inductor current :
Vd
 IL =
(1 − D) 2 R
Maximum inductor current :
i Vd Vd DT
 I max = I L + L = +
2 (1 − D) 2 R 2L
Minimum inductor current :
i Vd Vd DT
 I min = I L − L = −
2 (1 − D) 2 R 2L

20
 L and C values

For CCM,
I min  0 Vd
vL
Vd Vd DT
2
− 0
(1 − D) R 2L
D(1 − D )2 TR
Lmin = Vd−Vo
2 Imax

D(1 − D )2 R
iL
= Imin
2f

Ripple factor iD Imax

V 
Q =  o  DT = CVo
Imin

R
Io=Vo / R
Vo DT Vo D
Vo = =
RCf RCf ic

V D
r= o =
Vo RCf
Q

DT T
21
 Examples
• The boost converter has the following parameters: Vd=20V,
D=0.6, R=12.5ohm, L=65uH, C=200uF, fs=40KHz. Determine
(a) output voltage, (b) average, maximum and minimum
inductor current, (c) output voltage ripple.

• Design a boost converter to provide an output voltage of 36V

from a 24V source. The load is 50W. The voltage ripple factor
must be less than 0.5%. Specify the duty cycle ratio, switching
frequency, inductor and capacitor size, and power device.

22
 Buck-Boost converter

S
D
+

Vd C
L RL Vo
−
RL

CIRCUIT OF BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER

S D
+ +

Vd iL vL Vo
− −

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS CLOSED

S D
+ +
Vd iL vL
Vo
−
−

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS OPENED

23
 Buck-boost analysis
Vd
Switch closed vL
di
v L = Vd = L L
dt
diL Vd Vd−Vo
 =
dt L Imax

iL iL Vd iL
= = Imin
t DT L
V DT
 (iL ) closed = d Imax
L iD
Switch opened Imin

di
v L = Vo = L L Io=Vo / R
dt
diL Vo
 = i
c
dt L
iL iL Vo Q
= =
t (1 − D)T L DT T
Vo (1 − D)T
 (iL ) opened =
L
24
 Output voltage
Steady state operation :
 iL (closed ) +  iL (opened ) = 0
V DT Vo (1 − D)T
 d + =0
L L
Output vol tage :
 D 
 Vo = −Vs  
1 − D 

• NOTE: Output of a buck-boost converter either be

higher or lower than input.
– If D>0.5, output is higher than input
– If D<0.5, output is lower input

• Output voltage is always negative.

• Note that output is never directly connected to load.

• Energy is stored in inductor when switch is closed

and transferred to load when switch is opened.

25
 Average inductor current

Assuming no power loss in the converter,

power absorbed by the load must equal
power supplied the by source, i.e.
Po = Ps
Vo2
= Vd I s
R
But average source current is related to
average inductor current as :
Is = ILD
Vo2
 = Vd I L D
R
Substituti ng for Vo ,
Vo2 Po Vd D
 IL = = =
Vd RD Vd D R (1 − D) 2

26
 L and C values
Max and min inductor current,
iL Vd D Vd DT
 I max = I L + = 2
+
2 R (1 − D) 2L
iL Vd D Vd DT
 I min = I L − = −
2 R (1 − D) 2 2L
For CCM
Vd D Vd DT
2
+ =0
R (1 − D) 2L
(1 − D) 2 R
 Lmin =
2f
Output vol tage ripple,
 Vo 
Q =   DT = CVo
R
V DT Vo D
Vo = o =
RC RCf
V D
r= o =
Vo RCf
27
 Converters in CCM: Summary
Buck
Vo
S L =D
V + Vd
D C RL
Vo Vo 1 − D
=
d

− Vo 8 LCf 2
(1 − D) R
Lmin =
2f

L Boost
D
Vo 1
=
V + Vd 1 − D
C Vo
S Vo D
=
d
RL − Vo RCf
D (1 − D ) 2 R
Lmin =
2f

S Buck − Boost
Vo D
D + =−
V C Vo
Vd 1− D
L RL
d
− Vo D
=
Vo RCf
(1 − D) 2 R
Lmin =
2f
28
 Control of DC-DC converter:
pulse width modulation (PWM)

Vo (desired)
+ Vcontrol Switch control
signal
Vo (actual) Comparator
-
Sawtooth
Waveform Sawtooth
Waveform

Vcontrol 1
Vcontrol 2

Switch
control
ton 2 signal

ton 1
T

29
 Isolated DC-DC Converter
• Isolated DC-DC requires isolation transformer
• Two types: Linear and Switched-mode

• Advantages of switched mode over linear power

supply
-Efficient (70-95%)
-Weight and size reduction

• Disadvantages
-Complex design
-EMI problems

• However above certain ratings,

SMPS is the only feasible choice

• Types of SMPS
-Flyback
-forward
-Push-pull
-Bridge (half and full)

30
Linear and SMPS block diagram
Basic Block diagram of linear power supply
C E
Vce=Vd-Vo +Vo DC Regulated
DC Unregulated
B +
+
Base/gate RL
Vd Drive Vo
Line
Input -
1 / 3 -
Rectifier/ Error Vo
50/60 Hz Filter Amp.
Isolation
Transformer
Vref

Basic Block diagram of SMPS

DC-DC CONVERSITION AND
DC ISOLATION
DC
Unregulated Regulated
High
RECTIFIER Frequency
EMI
AND
FILTER rectifier Vo
FILTER
and
filter
Vref

Base/
PWM error
gate
Controller Amp
drive

31
 High frequency transformer
Basic function :
1) Input - output electrical isolation
2) step up/down ti me - varying voltage
Basic input - output relationsh ip
v1 N1
= ;
v2 N 2
i1 N 2
=
i2 N1
Models :
i1 N1 N2 i2
+ +
V1 V2 Ideal model
− −

i1 N1 N2 i2
+ +
Lm Model used for
V1 V2
−
most PE application
−

32
 Flyback Converter

+
C R Vo
Vd LM
−

Flyback converter circuit

iD
iS i1 N1 N2
+
+ − + vD −
iLM v2 iC iR Vo
v1
Vd
− + −
+ vSW − i2

Model with magnetising

inductance

33
 Operation: switch closed
0 N1 N2
is=iLM
− +
+
iLM v2
v1 Vo
Vd +
− −
v1=Vs 0

diLm
v1 = Vd = Lm
dt
diLm iLm iLm Vd
= = =
dt dt DT Lm

(
 iLm
closed
= )
Vd DT
Lm
On the load side of the transform er,
 N2   N2 
v2 = v1   = Vd  
 N1   N1 
N 
v D = −Vo − Vd  2   0, i.e. diode turned off
 N1 
Therefore,
i2 = 0 and i1 = 0
34
 Switch opened
iD
N1 N2
+ +
−
iLM v1 v2= −VS Vo
Vs − + −
+ vSW −

N 
v1 = −Vo  1 
 N2 
But v2 = −Vo
N  N 
 v1 = v2  1  = −Vo  1 
 N2   N2 
di N 
v1 = Lm L m = −Vo  1 
dt  N2 
diL m iL m iL m −V  N 
= = = o  1 
dt dt (1 − D )T Lm  N 2 
V (1 − D)T  N1 
 (iL m )open = − o  
Lm  N2 
Voltage across the switch :
N 
vSW = Vd + Vo  1 
 N2 
35
 Output voltage

For steady - state operation,

(
iLm )closed (
+ iLm )opened =0

Vd DT Vo (1 − D )T  N1 
 −   = 0
Lm Lm  N2 
 D  N 2 
 Vo = Vd   
 1 − D  N1 

• Input output relationship is similar to buck-boost

converter.

• Output can be greater of less than input,depending

upon D.

• Additional term, i.e. transformer ratio is present.

36
 Flyback waveforms

Ps = P0 Vs

V0 2 v1
Vd I s =
R
I s is related to I Lm as : -V(N1 /N2)

Is =
I Lm DT
T
( )
= I Lm D
iLm
iLM

Solving for I Lm
is

( )
Vd I Lm D =
V02
R
t
2
V0
 I Lm =
Vd DR iD

I Lm can writte n as :
2 iC
Vd D  N2 
I Lm = 
2 N 

(1 − D) R  1 
−Vo/ R
V0  N 2 
DT T t
=  
(1 − D) R  N1 

37
 Max, Min inductor current
iLm
I Lm = I Lm +
,max 2
2
Vd D  N 2  V d DT
= 
2 N 
 +
(1 − D) R  1  2 Lm
iLm
I Lm ,min = I Lm −
2
2
Vd D  N 2  Vd DT
= 
2 N 
 −
(1 − D) R  1  2 Lm
For CCM, I Lm , min = 0
2
Vd D  N2  Vd DT Vd D

2 N 
 = =
(1 − D) R  1  2 Lm 2 Lm f
2
V (1 − D) R  N1  2
 ( Lm )min = d  
2f  N2 
Ripple calculatio n is similar to boost,
V0 D
r= =
V0 RCf
38
 Example
The Flyback converter has these specifications:
DC input voltage: 40V
Output voltage: 25V
Duty cycle: 0.5
Rated load: 62.5W
Max peak-peak inductor current ripple:
25% of the average inductor current.
Maximum peak-peak output voltage: 0.1V
Switching frequency: 75kHz

Based on the abovementioned specifications, determine

a) Transformer turns ratio
b) Value of magnetizing inductor Lm.
c) Maximum and minimum inductor current.
d) Value of capacitor C.

39
 Full-bridge converter

SW1 SW3
Lx
+ + +
NS vx Vo
C R
− −
vp
VS
NS
−

SW4 SW2

SW1,SW2

DT T
SW3,SW4

T T
+ DT
VP 2 2
VS

-VS
Vx
N 
VS  S 
 NP 

DT T T T
+ DT
2 2

40
 Full bridge: basic operation
• Switch “pair”: [S1 & S2];[S3 & S4].

• Each switch pair turn on at a time as shown. The

other pair is off.

• “AC voltage” is developed across the primary.

Then transferred to secondary via high frequency
transformers.

• On secondary side, diode pair is “high frequency

full wave rectification”.

• The choke (L) and (C ) acts like the “buck

converter” circuit.

• Output Voltage

 Ns 
Vo = 2Vs   D
Np 
 

41