Syria (Archaeology)

In the 5 th and 4 th millennia BC, complex societies developed in Eastern Anatolia, Northern (Upper) Mesopotamia, and Southern (Lower) Mesopotamia. This paper examines the available evidence for the emergence of complex societies in Upper Mesopotamia from the Ubaid through the LC4 periods at key sites in the Euphrates, Balikh, Khabur, and Tigris drainages. Evidence from the sites of Hacınebi and Tell Zeidan is compared with data from Tell Brak, Hamoukar, Gawra, and Grai Resh. The currently available evidence suggests two main conclusions. First, the development of complexity was a gradual process, beginning with economic ranking and incipient stratification in the Ubaid period, and reaching its culmination with the emergence of true urbanism and centralized leadership in the LC2 and LC3 periods. Second, the development of complexity in Upper Mesopotamia took place in a time of minimal interaction with southern Mesopotamia, strongly suggesting that urbanism and centralized political leadership in Upper Mesopotamia developed independently and by pathways different from those in the south. Tab 1 -Comparative Chalcolithic chronology of Upper Mesopotamia.

Prospection géophysique à al-Rawda et urbanisme en Syrie au Bronze ancien Abstract The site of al-Rawda, which has been excavated since 2002 by a franco-syrian team, is situated in the Shamiyeh, on the very edge of Early Bronze Age settlements in the steppe lands. The presence of wellpreserved archaeological levels of the latter part of the Early Bronze Age just beneath the mound's present surface has led us to carry out a geophysical survey on the tell of al-Rawda during autumn 2003 in order to understand urbanism at this site. This survey reveals a regular, dense settlement plan, organised around a concentric road network, which is the result of careful planning and certainly of a political will. The domestic and monumental buildings (which include at least two temples in antis) respect the general organisation of the town. One of the temples has been discovered as a result of the geophysical survey without any excavation. The organisation of the buildings and the road network reveals an elaborate urban plan which was not subjected to any later disturbance ; we can probably speak of a new town, even if it was built over earlier structures for which we have some evidence, but whose nature and extent remain to be defined.

Research on interregional networks during the Early Bronze Age in Northern Mesopotamia and Syria developed from the latter half of the twentieth century with large scale archaeological excavations in the region. Details of the politico-economic history, religious practices and cultural history in the region have been revealed not only by the archaeological finds but also by the study of the textual findings from urban sites such as those in Mari and Ebla. With an overwhelming number of archaeological finds representing the material culture, we can assume the state of interregional networks included small settlements. However, previous studies often dealt with large-scale networks relating to the exchange of luxury goods and unique/special finds, and sometimes overlooked small-scale interregional networks and their significance. This paper discusses the interregional network during the Early Bronze Age focusing on the case of the small site of Tell Ali al-Hajj on the Middle Euphrates.

Back in the 1990s we were returning to Damascus from the TalSalhap Sugar plant. We had made a proposal for a steam boiler for the sugar factory, and we were returning. Our guide, our representative from Syria, wanted to show an ancient Armenian church in the valley. We toured the church, inside it was a thousand years of magnificent woodcarvings all around.

The paper focuses on the funerary customs attested in Middle Bronze Age (MBA) Mesopotamia, addressing the issue of common or distinctive characteristics and searching for potential evidence of assimilation of a new tribal-rooted identity. Specific burial practices, such as residential burials, use of vaulted chamber tombs and post-entombment rituals, were widely disseminated throughout the whole area during this period. Occurrence of donkey burials appears to be another distinctive trait in Upper Mesopotamia. Moreover, certain characteristic elements of these practices have been noted beyond Mesopotamia, in the Levant and as far as the eastern Nile Delta (Tell Daba’a), where they are associated with the Hyksos period. A puzzling resemblance between MBA funerary assemblages from Tell Arbid in upper Mesopotamia and the material from the distant region of Tell Daba’a (Avaris) was noted. This prompted a deeper study and presentation of the Mesopotamian MBA burials in a broader sociopolitical context, addressing issues of the character of similarities and discrepancies through comparison of relevant ritual variables throughout the area discussed. It confirmed a broad emergence of parallel mortuary behaviors focusing on kinship and ancestor commemoration. However, several areas do not fit this seemingly coherent picture of funerary customs, revealing distinctive regional identities. The changes in burial customs coincide with a sociopolitical transformation in Mesopotamia, resulting in the establishment of Amorite kingdoms and a profusion of pastoral tribes. It would seem, therefore, that the adoption of a new mortuary ideology and new constructed group identity was an answer to these sociopolitical developments.

A cache of artifacts, recovered in 2014 by the cultural heritage squadron of the Guardia di Finanza (Gruppo Tutela Patrimonio Archeologico of the Nucleo Polizia Tributaria di Roma), included two Mycenaean stirrup jars among the pottery illegally brought into Italy from the Northern Levant. The stirrup jar has one of the most distinctive shapes of the Mycenaean repertoire and is found throughout the Mediterranean around the end of the Late Bronze Age. Even if removed from their original context, both of these stirrup jars can be ascribed to a distinctive cultural milieu within a specific chronological range, based upon morphological and stylistic parameters. Furthermore, their good state of preservation suggests that the original context of deposition may have been a tomb. Comparison with stirrup jars found at key sites in the Eastern Mediterranean allows us to re-contextualize them as part of the wide diffusion of Mycenaean luxury goods in the Levant.

Hailing from the Syrian city of Palmyra, a woman named Zenobia (also Bathzabbai) governed territory in the eastern Roman empire from 268 to 272. She thus became the most famous Palmyrene who ever lived. But sources for her life and career are scarce. This book situates Zenobia in the social, economic, cultural, and material context of her Palmyra. By doing so, it aims to shed greater light on the experiences of Zenobia and Palmyrene women like her at various stages of their lives. Not limiting itself to the political aspects of her governance, it contemplates what inscriptions and material culture at Palmyra enable us to know about women and the practice of gender there, and thus the world that Zenobia navigated. It reflects on her clothes, house, hygiene, property owning, gestures, religious practices, funerary practices, education, languages, social identities, marriage, and experiences of motherhood, along with her meteoric rise to prominence and civil war. It also ponders Zenobia's legacy in light of the contemporary human tragedy in Syria.

chapter 45 the aramean states during the iron age ii-iii periods stefania mazzoni Syria in the Iron Age presents a multifaceted political, social, and cultural landscape; architecture and sculpture exhibit a strong variety of forms mirroring the articulation in city-states or petty states, each characterized by local traditions and various peoples. Syria is just part of a Near East transformed by the emergence of new components (Arameans and Phoenicians, Philistines, Caldaeans and Hebrews, Ammonites and Moabites, Arabs and Iranians, Urartians, Phrygians, and Ionians) interacting with powerful states (Assyria, the Hittites, and Egypt). Th is process not only changed the geography of the (already fl exible) political borders of the area but also introduced diff erent mechanisms for intercultural interaction; overseas and trans-desertic circulation of goods and tradesmen, military occupation and administrative empire control, and the deportation and forced relocation of populations were new factors that had a tremendous impact, increasing multiculturality and symbiotic processes and prompting manifold national identities and ethnic forces to develop. Th ese trends reached their climax between the 10th and 8th centuries bc , a crucial phase not least because the then emerging societies of the western Mediterranean became familiar with this scenario. Syria, owing to its long-lasting heritage, was a formative component of this landscape. Diff erent terms are used to label this period and its manifestations: Syro-Hittite, Neo-Hittite, Aramean, and Neo-Syrian, each stressing the signifi cant components involved and the orientation towards continuity or renewal . It is worth noting, however, that it was precisely the dynamic interlace of these many identities with their individual traits and regional orientations that generated the urban growth and cultural development of the period that archaeology defi nes as Iron I-III.

This is a study of the water-raising wheels of western Syria from the aspects of sources, terminology, typology, origin, history, technology and architecture, and gives a survey of these installations, discussing their present state of conservation. By making use of historical, architectural and iconographical material, the study shows that Syrian water-wheels constitutes a particular type of water-architecture, which successfully combines the functional with the aesthetic and displays sophisticated forms of construction. These devices are visually impressive, present a variety of shapes and are of great historical, environmental and iconographical importance, being of extraordinarily accurate and detailed design. An attempt is made to present evidence of their ancient origin, and to gain an understanding of how their design evolved over time, the reasons for their significance and uniqueness, and for their great concentration in Syria.

The late Antique mosaic of Orpheus decorated a small room, approximately 18 m2 in area, connected with two even smaller ones, in 4 m2 and the other 2 m2 in area, belonging most likely to a small funerary chapel (or tomb) discovered in the ancient necropolis by the Damascene Gate in Jerusalem; it was discovered in 1901 by H. Vincent.
The author proposes a new interpretation of the iconographic program of the Orpheus myth used by wealthy Christians in a sepulchral context (see Olszewski M.T. «Orphée endeuillé de la mosaïque funéraire de Jérusalem», in Rey Mimoso-Ruiz, B. ed., Actes du colloque «Orphée entre Soleil et ombre», à l’Institut Catholique de Toulouse du 16 au 17 novembre 2007, Inter Lignes, numéros spécial – mars 2008, pp. 205-214, 226). He also proposes a new interpretation of the role Orpheus played in Roman funerary art, concentrating on the importance of the play on words and the visual and textual punning that was popular in ancient art and especially in funerary art. He rejects the popular interpretation of Orpheus as Christ in the Roman catacombs and proposes to interpret the image as that of Orpheus, bard of the departed souls, without any ahistorical connection with Christ. The program of the mosaic from Jerusalem is thus explained as a play on the words Orpheus-orphanos and Chiron (Chi-Rho) and Pan [Παν(τοκράτωρ)].The frequently used Christian funerary formula of resting in peace, Christ or the Lord corresponds
perfectly with the mood created around the mythical bard.
Orpheus’ universal role as singer and musician moving even the most stony of hearts, extolling the beloved departed, is absolutely justified in the context of a 6th-century Christian tomb. Orpheus is a popular and neutral figure, meaning that in effect it does not constitute a threat to Christian theology and can be tolerated by the educated Christians of Jerusalem.

One of the largest and most important palatial houses of late 18th- and early 19th-century Damascus belonged to the Farhi family, who served as financial administrators to successive Ottoman governors in Damascus and Acre. The conversion of Bayt Farhi to a hotel provided a unique opportunity to make a detailed examination of its architecture, which
is comparable to those of affluent Christians and Muslims, and decorated with high quality materials in the latest styles.

Bayt Farhi’s outstanding architecture and decoration is documented and presented in this first comprehensive analysis of it and Damascus’ other prominent Sephardic mansions Matkab ‘Anbar, Bayt Dahdah, Bayt Stambouli, and Bayt Lisbona. The Hebrew poetic inscriptions in these residences reveal how the Farhis and other leading Sephardic families
perceived themselves and how they presented themselves to their own community and other Damascenes. A history of the Farhis and the Jews of Damascus provides the context for these houses.

Lavishly illustrated with extensive color photographs, plans, and reconstruction drawings, the book contributes to the study of the architectural development of the monumental Damascene courtyard house and brings to life the home environment of a lost elite of Ottoman Damascus.

https://www.isdistribution.com/BookDetail.aspx?aId=90163

This lecture series tells the story of Syrian civilisation under the great Islamic dynasties of the Middle Ages. It presents the historic monuments and artistic achievements of Syria from the Umayyads to the Ottomans, with an introductory session exploring the Greek and Roman legacy in Syria. The focus is on the area of the present Syrian Arab Republic, although takes in the wider historic regions of Bilad al-Sham and al-Jazira when relevant. The lecture series makes full use of the world-class collections of the Museum of Islamic Art in Doha, and seeks to provide a meaningful context for the objects on display, including a gallery tour of the Syrian objects on the last day. The course further aims to provide a context for sites and monuments damaged or destroyed in the ongoing conflict, examining their place in Syrian civilisation and highlighting their continuing cultural importance.

More than 20 years after presenting his first interpretation of the mosaic from the House of Aion in a paper entitled “Uwagi na temat mozaiki z Domu Aiona w Nea Paphos (Cypr)” (Meander 9/10, 1987, p. 421-438, in Polish, and translated to English: « The Immortality of the Human Soul and the Dionysiac Mysteries in the 4th Century Allegory [in Connection with the Interpretation of the Mosaic from the “House of Aion” at Paphos in Cyprus]»), where he proposed reading the five mythological panels (1. Leda and Zeus; 2. Dionysus on Mount Nysa; 3. The Dionysian thiasos; 4. Apollo and Marsyas; 5. The Apotheosis of Cassiopeia) as an allegory of the destiny of the human soul and body, starting with conception and ending with the liberation of the soul and its apotheosis, the author now enhances his initial interpretation with numerous reflections concerning the historical context of this work of art, created in the years 320-360.
If, according to the author, the mosaic is a “Hymn” in honour of the pagan gods, Man (his soul) and his place in the (pagan) universe, then at the same time it polemicises with the Christian faith and its God, Jesus Christ.
The author puts forward numerous new solutions relating to the mosaic’s iconography and iconology. Analysis of the mosaic also leads him to propose a solution to the as-yet unanswered question regarding the absence of images of the crucified Christ in Christian art of the 3rd and 4th centuries, up until 420/430, when the first images of Christ on the cross appear.
CONTENTS:
Introduction
1. Research to-date (recap)
2. Description of mosaic (recap)
2.1. Composition of five mythological scenes
2.2. Brief iconographic description of mythological panels
2.3. Outline of individual iconographic elements and their respective roles
2.4. The pagan gods’ air of majesty and dignity as an expression of piety
3. A few words about the pagan reaction
4. An apology of pious human life according to pagan principles and a polemic on the Christian model of Man and his theological idol, Jesus Christ
4.1. Divine intervention in the act of human conception (allusion to/polemic on the Annunciation to the Virgin Mary)
4.2. The Epiphany of Dionysus (an allusion to the Epiphany of Christ – Theou Pais)
4.3. The procession and dissemination of Dionysian order (allusion to/polemic on Christ’s entry into Jerusalem)
4.4. The error of Marsyas (polemic on/allusion to the error of Jesus the Messiah): arrest, sentencing for arrogance and lack of piety (asebeia) and condemnation to a martyr’s death
4.5. The anabasis (or anagoge psyches) of a ‘beautiful soul’ (allusion to/polemic on the Ascension of Christ)
5. A few words on the mosaic programme prior to final conclusions
Final conclusions

This chapter provides an historical review of Andrew Moore and colleagues’ Abu Hureyra excavations in the early 1970s, placing the results of the project in the wider context of the Later Epipalaeolithic (possibly Natufian) Levant. This is followed by critical consideration of how Abu Hureyra (and broadly contemporary sites in Syria and elsewhere) has been regarded as being on the “periphery” of a Natufian “homeland”, in an outdated and empirically unfounded asymmetrical “core-periphery” model.

Keywords: Abu Hureyra, Epipalaeolithic, Natufian, “core-periphery”, historicism

Early balance weights have been found at several Early Dynastic/Akkadian/Ur III sites in southern Mesopotamia since the late 19th century but not all were identified as such and very few have been published adequately. The existence of weight metrology already in the Chalcolithic period cannot be verified so far. In Syria, a steadily increasing number of weights have come to light in excavations at Early Bronze Age sites in the last decades. In a recent comprehensive and not yet published study, the author has assembled nearly 2000 third-millennium balance weights from 163 sites between the Aegean and western India, and discussed them under chronological, contextual and metrological aspects. In this contribution, some results concerning Mesopotamia and western Syria will be presented.

An assessment of the damage sustained to Syrian archaeological sites until late 2014 via satellite imagery.
Bjørgo, E., Boccardi, G., Cunliffe, E., Fiol, M., Jellison, T., Pederson, W., and Saslow, C. 2014. Satellite-based Damage Assessment to Cultural Heritage Sites in Syria. UNITAR/UNOSAT. http://www.unitar.org/unosat/chs-syria

The objective of this paper is to show the importance of the architectural and artistic heritage of Aleppo, particularly the Umayyad Mosque. Aleppo is the second largest city in Syria (after the capital Damascus) and is the commercial capital of Syria. Aleppo has a long history, extending from the third millennium BC to the Islamic era. The remains and monuments are evidence from those great civilizations. Many pieces of literature mention that the Amorites were the first inhabitants in Aleppo during the third millennium BC. In 223 BC, the Greek commander (Seleucus Nikator) re-organized and planned the city.  Later, Islamic rulers made Aleppo great by re-building its walls, gates, towers and citadel. The Muslims also built mosques, schools, inns, markets, hospitals, bathrooms, and public facilities. Consequently, Aleppo flourished and became a very important station for the Silk Road; the third largest city in the Ottoman Empire after Istanbul and Cairo. In 1986, UNESCO added Old Aleppo City to the World Heritage List. In 715 Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid built the Great Umayyad Mosque to demonstrate the development of Islamic art and architecture this time period. Until now the Umayyad Mosque has been considered one of Aleppo’s main city symbols. Since 2012 the much of Syria’s architectural heritage in have been destroyed due to internal war.  In Aleppo the losses in both the ancient and modern parts of the city have been tremendous. The Umayyad Mosque has been particularly damaged and many massive parts destroyed such as the Minaret, the arcades, the main hall, and the courtyard. This paper will highlight some recommendations to protect and restore the Umayyad Mosque in Aleppo for future use.

Remarkable Eye Idols were dug up in Tell Brak, an ancient city in Northern Syria.
In 1937 Max Mallowan began to excavate this city and there he found a ruin that he called ‘Eye Temple’ because thousands of these ‘Eye Idols,’ were found there.
I suppose that these Idols represent various deities, such as the mother goddess Asherah and the father god ʼĒl.
And I also suppose that some of them represent temples.

French rule over Syria and Lebanon was premised on a vision of a special French protectorate established through centuries of cultural activity: archaeological, educational and charitable. Initial French methods of organising and supervising cultural activity sought to embrace this vision and to implement it in the exploitation of antiquities, the management and promotion of cultural heritage, the organisation of education and the control of public opinion among the literate classes. However, an examination of the first five years of the League of Nations-assigned mandate, 1920-1925, reveals that French expectations of a protectorate were quickly dashed by widespread resistance to their cultural policies, not simply among Arabists but also among minority groups initially expected to be loyal to the French. The violence of imposing the mandate 'de facto', starting with a landing of French troops in the Lebanese and Syrian coast in 1919 - and followed by extension to the Syrian interior in 1920 - was met by consistent violent revolt. Examining the role of cultural institutions reveals less violent yet similarly consistent contestation of the French mandate. The political discourses emerging after World War I fostered expectations of European tutelages that prepared local peoples for autonomy and independence. Yet, even among the most Francophile of stakeholders, the unfolding of the first years of French rule brought forth entirely different events and methods. In this book, Idir Ouahes provides an in-depth analysis of the shifts in discourses, attitudes and activities unfolding in French and locally-organised institutions such as schools, museums and newspapers, revealing how local resistance put pressure on cultural activity in the early years of the French mandate

`This excellent study is a welcome addition to the scholarship on the inter-war mandates of Syria and Lebanon. Ouahes focuses on the cultural institutions through which the French authorities imposed their rule, ably demonstrating the ways in which the mandate system was transformed into a political and cultural framework akin to colonialism. While tracing the disillusion and contestations that ensued, he nonetheless discusses the impact and disparate legacy of the period on both the French and the diverse populations of the two mandates.' - Patricia M.E. Lorcin, Professor of History and Samuel Russell Chair in Humanities, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities, `Resisting the imposition of French imperial control in 1920s

'Syria was never solely a matter of violent opposition. Ranging from classrooms and museums, to archaeological sites and vernacular journalism, in this richly evocative text Idir Ouahes reveals how Syrians contested the imposition of French Mandate rule in the realms of cultural heritage, educational provision and print media.' - Martin Thomas, Professor of Imperial History, University of Exeter

This book presents a new model for understanding the collection of ancient kingdoms that surrounded the northeast corner of the Mediterranean Sea from the Cilician Plain in the west to the upper Tigris River in the east, and from Cappadocia in the north to western Syria in the south, during the Iron Age of the ancient Near East (ca. 1200 to 600 BCE). Rather than presenting them as homogenous ethnolinguistic communities like "the Aramaeans" or "the Luwians" living in neatly bounded territories, this book sees these polities as being fundamentally diverse and variable, distinguished by demographic fluidity and cultural mobility. The Syro-Anatolian City-States sheds new light via an examination of a host of evidentiary sources, including archaeological site plans, settlement patterns, visual arts, and historical sources. Together, these lines of evidence reveal a complex fusion of cultural traditions that is nevertheless distinctly recognizable unto itself. This book is the first to specifically characterize the Iron Age city-states of southeastern Turkey and northern Syria, arguing for a unified cultural formation characterized above all by diversity and mobility and that can be referred to as the "Syro-Anatolian Culture Complex."

Simpson, E., ed. The Adventure of the Illustrious Scholar: Papers Presented to Oscar White Muscarella. Leiden: Brill, 2018.

The Adventure of the Illustrious Scholar: Papers Presented to Oscar White Muscarella, edited by Elizabeth Simpson, is a Festschrift celebrating the career of one of the foremost archaeologists of the ancient Near East. Oscar Muscarella is a former curator at the Metropolitan Museum of Art and a formidable scholar who has excavated at sites in Turkey, Iran, and the United States. He has published eight books and nearly 200 articles, excavation reports, and reviews on topics ranging from the arts of antiquity and the importance of connoisseurship, to the difficulties of dating and the problems of forgeries, the looting of ancient sites, and the antiquities trade. The forty-seven contributors are experts in the areas of Muscarella's interests and are major scholars in their fields. This volume constitutes an unusual, important, and timely addition to the archaeological and art historical literature.