Spatial ability

Mental rotation is a spatial skill in which men outperform women. The present research tested a motivational explanation of this gender difference with the hypothesis that positive beliefs will in women favor use of spatial strategies, which in turn will lead to improved MRT performance. Spatial strategy use and two beliefs, namely incremental theory and self-perception of ability in stereotypically masculine (i.e., requiring spatial ability) tasks, were assessed in a sample of 120 women. Two groups of solvers-one spatial, one non-spatial-were selected on the basis of self-rated strategy use. Results demonstrated that use of spatial strategies mediates the effect of incremental theory of masculine tasks on MRT performance, whereas self-perception of ability directly influences MRT performance. Findings are discussed on the basis of a socio-cognitive explanation of gender differences in mental rotation.

This study examined the relationships between four standardized measures of spatial ability-the Embedded Figures Test (EFT), the Mental Rotations Test (MRT), the Differential Aptitude Spatial Relations subtest (DAT), and the Building Memory Test (BMT)-and two measures of environmental knowledge. Three hundred and fifty-three college undergraduates were administered the EFT, MRT, DAT, BMT and two measures of environmental knowledge-a landmark location (LM) and route knowledge (RK) task. The two environmental knowledge tasks were based on a slide-simulated walk through an unfamiliar urban environment. A principal components analysis of the above six measures produced two factors; one consisting of the four spatial ability tests, and the other the two environmental knowledge tasks. The correlation between the two factors was 0.37, indicating that the spatial ability factor accounted for 13.69% of the variance in the environmental knowledge factor.

Multiple studies report relationships between circulating androgens and performance on sexually differentiated spatial cognitive tasks in human adults, yet other studies find no such relationships. Relatively small sample sizes are a likely source of some of these discrepancies. The present study thus tests for activational effects of testosterone (T) using a within-participants design by examining relationships between diurnal fluctuations in salivary T and performance on a male-biased spatial cognitive task (Mental Rotation Task) in the largest sample yet collected: 160 women and 177 men. T concentrations were unrelated to within-sex variation in mental rotation performance in both sexes. Further, between-session learning-related changes in performance were unrelated to T levels, and circadian changes in T were unrelated to changes in spatial performance in either sex. These results suggest that circulating T does not contribute substantially to sex differences in spatial ability in young men and women. By elimination, the contribution of androgens to sex differences in human performance on these tasks may be limited to earlier, organizational periods.

Although the male advantage in traditional spatial abilities is well established, the female advantage in object location memory remains tentative. Object location memory is the only spatial ability that yields a female advantage, leading some to speculate that other factors, such as ...

The key mental domains in which sex differences have traditionally been studied are verbal and spatial abilities. In this article I suggest that two neglected dimensions for understanding human sex differences are 'empathising' and 'systemising'. The male brain is a defined psychometrically as those individuals in whom systemising is significantly better than empathising, and the female brain is defined as the opposite cognitive profile. Using these definitions, autism can be considered as an extreme of the normal male profile. There is increasing psychological evidence for the extreme male brain theory of autism.

In two experiments, we investigated how learners comprehend the functioning of a three-pulley system from a presentation on a computer screen. In the first experiment (N ¼ 62) we tested the effect of static vs. animated presentations on comprehension. In the second experiment (N ¼ 45), we tested the effect of user-control of an animated presentation on comprehension. In both experiments the participants were university students. Comprehension was measured with a test including three comprehension indicators. The first experiment indicated that an animation as well as integrated sequential static frames enhanced comprehension. The second experiment showed that a controllable animation did not have a powerful effect on comprehension, except for learners with low spatial and mechanical reasoning abilities.

Spatial visualization of first-year engineering students has been evaluated at the beginning and at the end of the two semesters, which contain the essential Descriptive Geometry courses. The evaluation has been processed by Mental Cutting Test (MCT) which is one of the most widely used evaluation method for spatial abilities. In this paper we present an analysis of MCT results of the students, with special emphasis on gender differences. The development is found to be considerable while gender differences have became even more significant during this period.

Motivation-To understand the individual differences with the greatest impact on a blind user's mobile interaction effectiveness and learning abilities. Research approach-We performed a semi-structured interview to 10 specialized professionals (psychologists, occupational therapists, rehabilitation technicians, IT teacher) working closely with blind users. Findings/Design-Results suggest that peripheral sensitivity, spatial ability, blindness onset age, age, intelligence and memory are the characteristics affecting user capabilities the most. Research limitations/Implications-This study offers a wide view on the possible influencing attributes. Empirical studies are required to dissect the impact of each characteristic in mobile blind users' performance. Originality/Value-We contribute with an understanding of the individual differences among the blind population that may affect mobile interaction. Take away message-Individual differences among the blind have greater impact than those between sighted users. Understanding these differences is mandatory.

Virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (ARoverlaying virtual objects onto the real world) offer interesting and wide spread possibilities to study different components of human behaviour and cognitive processes. One aspect of human cognition that has been frequently studied using VR technology is spatial ability. Research ranges from training studies that investigate whether and/or how spatial ability can be improved by using these new technologies to studies that focus on specific aspects of spatial ability for which VR is an efficient investigational tool. In this paper we first review studies that used VR technologies to study different aspects of spatial ability. Then results and findings will be presented from one of the first large-scale studies (215 students) that investigated the potential of an AR application to train spatial ability.

This paper describes sex differences in spatial competencies among the Hadza, a mobile hunter-gatherer population in Tanzania. It addresses the following questions: (a) Is the usual male advantage in Euclidean spatial abilities found in this population, where both women and men are highly mobile? (b) Do Hadza women have better object location memory than men, as the gathering hypothesis predicts? (c) Do women who are nominated by others as being good at finding bushfoods excel at the object location memory task? We tested object location memory with a version of the memory game using cards of local plants and animals. This allowed us to also ask whether women and men would have better spatial memory for the plant and animal cards, respectively. We found that Hadza men were significantly better than women in three tests of spatial ability: the water-level test, targeting, and the ability to point accurately to distant locations (the latter only in the less mobile groups). There was a trend toward a male advantage at the object location memory task, in contrast to results found previously in nonforaging populations, and women's performance at the task deteriorated with age, while that of men did not. The women who were nominated by peers as being good at finding bushfoods were consistently older women. We discuss the probable hormonal causes and functional consequences of age changes in the spatial competencies of female foragers.

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Success in STEM fields depends largely on robust spatial skills, in particular on the ability to perform a mental rotation. Given that this ability can be nurtured, this article includes examples of diverse relevant tasks appropriate for grades 6–8 students.

This study examined how desktop virtual reality (VR) enhances learning and not merely does desktop VR influence learning. Various relevant constructs and their measurement factors were identified to examine how desktop VR enhances learning and the fit of the hypothesized model was analyzed using structural equation modeling. The results supported the indirect effect of VR features to the learning outcomes, which was mediated by the interaction experience and the learning experience. Learning experience which was individually measured by the psychological factors, that is, presence, motivation, cognitive benefits, control and active learning, and reflective thinking took central stage in affecting the learning outcomes in the desktop VR-based learning environment. The moderating effect of student characteristics such as spatial ability and learning style was also examined. The results show instructional designers and VR software developers how to improve the learning effectiveness and further strengthen their desktop VR-based learning implementation. Through this research, an initial theoretical model of the determinants of learning effectiveness in a desktop VR-based learning environment is contributed.

The transient enhancement of performance on spatial tasks in standardized tests after exposure to the first movement "allegro con spirito" of the Mozart sonata for two pianos in D major (KV 448) is referred to as the Mozart effect since its first observation by . These findings turned out to be amazingly hard to replicate, thus leading to an abundance of conflicting results. Sixteen years after initial publication we conduct the so far largest, most comprehensive, and up-to-date meta-analysis (nearly 40 studies, over 3000 subjects), including a diversity of unpublished research papers to finally clarify the scientific record about whether or not a specific Mozart effect exists. We could show that the overall estimated effect is small in size (d = 0.37, 95% CI [0.23, 0.52]) for samples exposed to the Mozart sonata KV 448 and samples that had been exposed to a non-musical stimulus or no stimulus at all preceding spatial task performance. Additionally, calculation of effect sizes for samples exposed to any other musical stimulus and samples exposed to a non-musical stimulus or no stimulus at all yielded effects similar in strength (d = 0.38, 95% CI [0.13, 0.63]), whereas there was a negligible effect between the two music conditions (d = 0.15, 95% CI [0.02, 0.28]). Furthermore, formal tests yielded evidence for confounding publication bias, requiring downward correction of effects. The central finding of the present paper however, is certainly the noticeably higher overall effect in studies performed by Rauscher and colleagues than in studies performed by other researchers, indicating systematically moderating effects of lab affiliation. On the whole, there is little evidence left for a specific, performance-enhancing Mozart effect.

Reports that exposure to music causes benefits in nonmusical domains have received widespread attention in the mainstream media. Such reports have also influenced public policy. The so-called "Mozart effect" actually refers to two relatively distinct phenomena. One concerns short-term increases in spatial abilities that are said to occur from listening to music composed by Mozart. The other refers to the possibility that formal training in music yields nonmusical benefits. A review of the relevant findings indicates that the shortterm effect is small and unreliable. Moreover, when it is evident, it can be explained by between-condition differences in the listener's mood or levels of cognitive arousal. By contrast, the effect of music lessons on nonmusical aspects of cognitive development is still an open question. Several studies have reported positive associations between formal music lessons and abilities in nonmusical (e.g., linguistic, mathematical, and spatial) domains. Nonetheless, compelling evidence for a causal link remains elusive.

In 2 experiments, high– and low–spatial ability students viwed a computer-generated animation and listened simultaneously (concurrent group) or successively (successive group) to a narration that explained the workings either of a bicycle tire pump (Experiment 1) or of the human respiratory system (Experiment 2). The concurrent group generated more creative solutions to subsequent transfer problems than did the successive group;

В статье рассматривается процесс формирования пространственных представлений у детей дошкольного возраста. Ориентация в пространстве выступает как условие успешного взаимодействия ребенка с окружающим миром. Приводится ряд диагностических отечественных и зарубежных методик, направленных на оценку уровня сформированности основных ориентационных умений: масштабирование, чтение карт, словесная ориентация. Ключевые слова: Пространственное мышление, ориентация в пространстве, пространственные представления, дошкольный возраст.

Annotation: The article highlights the process of spatial representations` formation. Spatial orientation appears as a condition for successful interaction of the child with the world. There are some methods for diagnostics of main spatial orientation skills: scaling, card reading, verbal orientation.
Key words: Spatial thinking, spatial orientation, spatial representations, preschool age children.

This experiment investigated the relationship between mental rotation and sport training. Undergraduate university students (n = 62) completed the Mental Rotation Test , before and after a 10-month training in two different sports, which either involved extensive mental rotation ability (wrestling group) or did not (running group). Both groups showed comparable results in the pretest, but the wrestling group outperformed the running group in the posttest. As expected from previous studies, males outperformed women in the pretest and the posttest. Besides, self-reported data gathered after both sessions indicated an increase in adaptive strategies following training in wrestling, but not subsequent to training in running. These findings demonstrate the significant effect of training in particular sports on mental rotation performance, thus showing consistency with the notion of cognitive plasticity induced from motor training involving manipulation of spatial representations. They are discussed within an embodied cognition framework.

Sex differences are often reported in spatial abilities. However, some studies show conflicting results, which can be ascribed to the complexity of the variables involved in the visuo-spatial domain. Until a few years ago, it was widely accepted that men outperformed women on almost all spatial tasks. However, recently some studies [A. orientation related differences in spatial memory, J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 9 (2003) 376-383] found sex differences for selective forms of spatial memory and described a female advantage in specific spatial abilities. In this paper, we studied sex differences by testing object locations and route memories with the Corsi Block-Tapping test (CBT), one of the non-verbal tasks most used in clinical settings, and its modified, large-scale version. Our results showed a performance advantage for males in both tests and a more homogeneous pattern of memory in females.

هدفت هذه الدراسة إلى قياس القدرة المكانية وتحديد علاقتها بالتخصص الأكاديمي والتحصيل الدراسي والقدرات العامة لطلبة الهندسة وطلبة التربية الفنية في جامعة الملك فيصل في الفصل الدراسي الأول من عام 1434ه. وتتلخص مشكلة الدراسة بأن القدرة المكانية لا تقاس قبل دخول الطالب للجامعة مع ارتباط هذه القدرة بالنجاح في تخصص الهندسة والتربية الفنية. وتكونت عينة الدراسة من طلاب السنة الثالثة في كلية الهندسة وكلية التربية-قسم التربية الفنية في جامعة الملك فيصل والبالغ عددهم (119) طالباً. واستخدمت هذه الدراسة مقياس بوردو المعدل للقدرة المكانية (The Revised Purdue Spatial Visualization Test). ووظفت الدراسة المنهج الوصفي لتقصي القدرة المكانية وعلاقتها بتخصص الطلاب، وتحصيلهم، وقدراتهم العامة. وقد بينت نتائج الدراسة انه يوجد فروق ذات دلالة إحصائية بين الطلاب في القدرة المكانية تبعا لمتغير التخصص، وهذه الفروق لصالح طلاب الهندسة، كما أظهرت النتائج أن الطلاب ذوي التحصيل العالي يتفوقون في القدرة المكانية على الطلاب ذوي التحصيل المنخفض. كما أظهرت أيضا، أن الطلاب ذوي القدرات العامة العالية يتفوقون في القدرة المكانية على الطلاب ذوي القدرات العامة المنخفضة.
The purpose of this study was to measure the spatial ability and to determine its relationships with the academic specialization, academic achievement, and the General Aptitude Test (GAT) for the engineering students and students of art education at the King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia, during the first semester, 2013. The problem of the study is mainly that the spatial abilities of university students are not measured prior to their entrance to some academic majors such as Engineering and Art education, in spite of its linking with success in these majors. The study sample consisted of third-year students in the College of Engineering and the College of Education - Department of Art Education at the King Faisal University (n =119).The study used the Revised Purdue Spatial Visualization Test (RPAVT) and employed a descriptive approach to investigate the spatial ability of the students and its relationship to the study variables. The results indicated that there were significant differences between students in the spatial ability depending on specialization, and these differences are for the benefit of engineering students. In addition, the results showed that students with high achievement performed better in spatial ability test than the students with low achievement. Moreover, the students with high general aptitude performed better in spatial ability test than the students with low general aptitude.

The purpose of this study was to delineate the relationship between positive, negative, cognitive, depressive, and excitement symptom dimensions of schizophrenia and cognitive functioning. Fifty-eight patients with schizophrenia (DSM-IV criteria) were assessed using the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) and a battery of neuropsychological tests (executive function/abstraction, verbal and spatial working memory, verbal and nonverbal memory/ learning, attention, visuospatial ability, and psychomotor speed). The cognitive symptom dimension correlated with executive functions, attention, verbal memory, and spatial ability. Severity of the negative symptom dimension was related to impairment in the structure of the semantic knowledge system, verbal memory, and auditory attention. In contrast, severity of the positive symptom dimension correlated only with impairment in the structure of the semantic knowledge system, and psychomotor speed. Finally, severity of the depressive and excitement symptom dimension was not associated with cognition. Correlations between symptom dimensions and cognitive measures were at best modest. Severity of cognitive and negative symptoms was mainly correlated with deficits on executive functions, semantic memory, and verbal memory, while positive symptoms only with semantic memory. These correlations were modest, suggesting that psychopathology and cognitive deficits in schizophrenia are caused, at least partially, by distinct pathophysiological processes.

Sex differences in the latent general and broad cognitive abilities underlying the Woodcock–Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities were investigated for children, youth, and adults ages 6 through 59. A developmental, multiple indicator–multiple cause, structural equation model was used to investigate sex differences in latent cognitive abilities as well as developmental changes in these differences across the 6 to 59 age span. Females showed a consistent advantage on the latent processing speed (Gs) factor, and males showed a small, consistent advantage on the latent comprehension–knowledge (Gc) factor. Males also showed an advantage on latent quantitative reasoning (RQ) and visual–spatial ability (Gv) factors at most ages, although the latter was statistically significant only for adults. No statistically significant sex differences were shown on latent auditory processing, short-term memory, long-term retrieval, or fluid reasoning factors. The higher-order, latent g factor showed inconsistent differences for children, small, non-significant differences favoring females for adolescents, and fairly consistent statistically significant differences favoring females in adulthood. Findings are inconsistent with developmental theory that suggests males should show an advantage on g in adulthood. Supplemental analyses suggested that methodological choices, including the use of latent variables versus composites and methods for dealing with missing data, can affect research findings.

The clinical study of crossed aphasia in dextrals (CAD) may shed light on the discreteness and modularity of several cognitive functions, such as language, gestures and visual spatial abilities, with respect to hemispheric lateralisation. Since 1975 over 180 cases have been described, employing, however, different criteria of assessment and classification. The purpose of this paper is to review them and to propose a set of diagnostic criteria that may be useful to single out a series of reliable CAD cases on which research can be safely carried out. A detailed analysis of such series is dealt with in terms of a number of characteristics concerning both the language disorder and the associated nonverbal cognitive impairments.

Celebrity worship is a form of parasocial interaction in which individuals become obsessed with 1 or more celebrities, similar to an erotomanic type of delusional disorder. Drawing on the cognitive factors implicated in erotomania, the authors hypothesized that celebrity worshippers might be expected to exhibit verbal, visuospatial, and cognitive deficits related to flexibility and associative learning. This general hypothesis was tested in a sample of 102 participants who completed the Celebrity Attitude Scale (L. E. McCutcheon, R. Lange, & J. . the Entertainment-Social, Intense-Personal, and Borderline Pathological subscales, and 6 cognitive measures that included creativity (verbal), crystallized intelligence, critical thinking, spatial ability, and need for cognition. The results were consistent with predictions and suggest that cognitive deficits only help facilitate an individual's susceptibility to engage in celebrity worship. The results are discussed in terms of the multivariate absorption-addiction model of celebrity worship.

Technological advances enable the use of innovative learning tools for education. This work gives a brief insight into the potential and challenges of using collaborative Augmented Reality (AR) in education within the greater context of immersive virtual learning environments. As an example the experiences made during the development of a collaborative AR application specifically designed for mathematics and geometry education called Construct3D are summarized. Construct3D is based on the mobile collaborative AR system "Studierstube". We describe our efforts in developing a system for the improvement of spatial abilities and maximization of transfer of learning. Means of application and integration in mathematics and geometry education at high school as well as university level are being discussed. Anecdotal evidence supports our claim that Construct3D is easy to learn, encourages experimentation with geometric constructions and improves spatial skills.

The "Mozart effect" refers to claims that people perform better on tests of spatial abilities after listening to music composed by Mozart. We examined whether the Mozart effect is a consequence of between-condition differences in arousal and mood. Participants completed a test of spatial abilities after listening to music or sitting in silence. The music was a Mozart sonata (a pleasant and energetic piece) for some participants and an Albinoni adagio (a slow, sad piece) for others. We also measured enjoyment, arousal, and mood. Performance on the spatial task was better following the music than the silence condition, but only for participants who heard Mozart. The two music selections also induced differential responding on the enjoyment, arousal, and mood measures. Moreover, when such differences were held constant by statistical means, the Mozart effect disappeared. These findings provide compelling evidence that the Mozart effect is an artifact of arousal and mood.

24 students learned about a chemical process either from animation or static pictures taken from the animation at four crucial points. An aptitude-treatment interaction was obtained in which spatial ability plays a compensating role: Low-spatial ability students showed poor learning outcomes when learning from pictures while high-spatial students did not; when learning from animation, however, learning outcome was high

We propose that the effectiveness of simulations for science education depends on design features such as the type of representation chosen to depict key concepts. We hypothesize that the addition of iconic representations to simulations can help novice learners interpret the visual simulation interface and improve cognitive learning outcomes as well as learners' self-efficacy. This hypothesis was tested in two experiments with high school chemistry students. The studies examined the effects of representation type (symbolic versus iconic), prior knowledge, and spatial ability on comprehension, transfer, and self-efficacy under low cognitive load (Study 1, N=80) and high cognitive load conditions (Study 2, N=91). Results supported our hypotheses that design features such as the addition of iconic representations can help scaffold students' comprehension of science simulations, and that this effect was strongest for learners with low prior knowledge. Adding icons also improved learners' general self-efficacy.

Research has widely demonstrated male superiority in the Mental Rotation Test (MRT). Various explanations have been put forward to account for these differences. We considered gender beliefs and argued that women may fare less well than men partly because they are considered unable to perform this kind of task. Beliefs about spatial ability were experimentally manipulated in samples of 107 female and of 90 male high-school students, divided into three groups, following the instructions: men are better, women are better, general (with no gender reference). Our data show that women who expect to be more able than men and men who expect to be more able than women outperformed their counterparts. MRT performance fell for those expecting to be less able. The effects of induced beliefs on cognitive performance are stressed, particularly in the educational context.

The development of three-dimensional Computer Aided Design (3D CAD) technology has additionally spurred research into spatial ability to find the ways for its enhancement through teaching and instruction and to understand the mechanism
of its assessment. The techniques involved in multimedia engineering environment of today as well as their inclusion into engineering curricula and courses have to be strongly supported by wider knowledge of spatial ability. This paper is a review of research results applied to engineering graphics education by respecting spatial ability as a recognized predictor of success in engineering. The development of engineering
graphics teaching based on research suggestions about spatial ability represents an increasingly complex approach that puts additional stress on engineering graphics educators. Thus classical tests for the assessment of spatial ability are
described, the applied strategies for their solving are presented, the selected obtained results are compared, and a distinction is drawn between the strategies employed for more complex spatial tasks that engineering is dealing with.

This study investigated the relationship between visuo-spatial representation, mental rotation (MR) and functional anatomy examination results. A total of 184 students completed the Group Embedded Figures Test (GEFT), Mental Rotation Test (MRT) and Gordon Test of Visual Imagery Control. The time spent on personal assignment was also considered. Men were found to score better than women on both GEFT and MRT, but the gender effect was limited to the interaction with MRT ability in the anatomy learning process. Significant correlations were found between visuo-spatial, MR abilities, and anatomy examination results. Data resulting from the best students’ analyzes underscore the effect of high MR ability which may be considered reliable predictor of success in learning anatomy. The use of specific tests during learning sessions may facilitate the acquisition of anatomical knowledge.

A military targeting environment was simulated to examine the effects of an intelligent route-planning agent RoboLeader, which could support dynamic robot re-tasking based on battlefield developments, on the performance of robotics operators. We manipulated the level of assistance (LOAs) provided by RoboLeader as well as the presence of a visualisation tool that provided feedback to the participants on their primary task (target encapsulation) performance. Results showed that the participants' primary task benefited from RoboLeader on all LOAs conditions compared to manual performance; however, visualisation had little effect. Frequent video gamers demonstrated significantly better situation awareness of the mission environment than did infrequent gamers. Those participants with higher spatial ability performed better on a secondary target detection task than did those with lower spatial ability. Finally, participants' workload assessments were significantly lower when they were assisted by RoboLeader than when they performed the target entrapment task manually.

Bu araştırmanın amacı ortaöğretim ve ilköğretim matematik öğretmeni adaylarının uzamsal görselleştirme becerilerini incelemektir. Araştırmada tarama modeli kullanılmıştır. Araştırmanın örneklemini, bir devlet üniversitesinde pedagojik formasyon eğitimi almakta olan 67 fen-edebiyat fakültesi matematik ve bilgisayar bilimleri bölümü 4.sınıf öğrencisi; ilköğretim matematik öğretmenliği programında öğrenim gören 85 4.sınıf öğrencisi oluşturmaktadır. Araştırmada veri toplama aracı olarak, kağıt katlama ve şekil oluşturma testleri ve kişisel bilgi formu kullanılmıştır. Araştırmadan elde edilen veriler, ortalama, t-testi, tek yönlü varyans analizi ve Pearson korelasyon katsayısı yardımıyla analiz edilmiştir. Araştırmanın sonucunda, matematik öğretmeni adaylarının uzamsal görselleştirme becerilerinin oldukça düşük düzeyde olduğu ve cinsiyet, okul öncesi eğitim, akademik başarı ve öğrenim görülen fakülteye göre farklılaşmadığı tespit edilmiştir. Ayrıca, öğrencilerin kağıt katlama ve şekil oluşturma becerileri arasında anlamlı bir ilişki gözlemlenmemiştir.

This project addresses some research issues concerning design of intelligent user interfaces for improving human-robot interaction. In some critical applications, users interact with robots via Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs), which usually contain standard components considering a large number of users. Some of these user interface components may be redundant and sometimes confusing for some users depending on their preferences, capabilities, and the context robots are used in. This paper describes an adaptive system that enables a mobile robot to learn its users' preferences and capabilities so that it can offer a dynamic and efficient GUI for each user rather than a standard GUI for all users. The system predicts future actions of the users by generating models based on the users' previous interactions with the robot. The system was implemented and evaluated on a Pioneer 3-AT mobile robot. About 20 participants who were assessed on spatial ability directed the robot in simple spatial navigation tasks to evaluate effectiveness of the adaptive interface. Time to complete the task, the number of steps, and the number of errors were collected. The results showed that although spatial reasoning ability plays an important role in mobile robot navigation, it is less important in the robot control with adaptive interfaces compared to that of the non-adaptive.

The Tridio® learning material, consisting of cubes and mosaic pieces and accompanying exercises involving isometric and orthogonal views, has been developed with the aim of enhancing children's spatial ability. This study investigated the effects of Tridio on 5th-graders' (11-year-olds') spatial ability, categorized in J. B. Carroll's (1993) factors spatial relations (SR) and visualization (VZ). A matched-pairs pretest-posttest design (25 pairs) was
used. Experimental group children received a training with Tridio, consisting of five individual 30 min sessions. SR was measured using the Card Rotations test and the Flags test; the Paper Folding test and the Mental Rotations test were used as tests of VZ. The appropriateness of these tests for 11-year-olds was first examined in a pilot study. Furthermore, a content-specific test of Tridio performance was administered. Partial correlations between the content-specific and the spatial ability test scores, controlling for school performance, indicated that Tridio adds to the general school curriculum in focusing on spatial ability, but that not all types of Tridio exercises contribute to this. Transfer effects of the Tridio training on spatial ability were, however, not found. With a higher power, effects on SR may be found, but probably not on VZ. The found lack of effect on VZ may be due to
the young age of the participants, or to the fact that many children did not get to the more complex Tridio exercises. Content-specific effects were present, indicating that children
possibly learned something other than spatial ability.