Space Politics

Outer space has become a contested, congested and competitive domain with an ever growing importance to life on Earth. Recently, an increasing number of new players have entered the space arena. Slovakia has also stepped up its space related activities. In March 2013, it declared its interest to become a member of European Space Agency (ESA) by 2020. Increased involvement in space sector will bring new opportunities and responsibilities for Slovakia. Is Slovakia ready to address these challenges?

The Earth's orbital space is increasingly threatened by debris. It is frequently described as a common-pool resource vulnerable to a 'tragedy of the commons' scenario. Scholars have suggested ambitious policy proposals to tackle the tragedy of space debris and assure the sustainability of the Earth's orbits. Their proposals can be classified into three categories: hierarchical regulations, economic incentives and property rights. All three categories require some form of central coordination. However, there might be an alternative approach to the problem and other potential solutions. Elinor Ostrom suggested that decentralized, polycentric systems are appropriate for governing common-pool resources. Anecdotal evidence suggests that a polycentric form of governance can encourage a more sustainable use of the Earth's orbits.

General Rafael Reyes Prieto, reconocido y categorizado en (A1) por COLCIENCIAS, con el código COL0104976. 1. Manfred Lachs fue un escritor, educador, diplomático y jurista polaco que influyó profundamente en el desarrollo del Derecho Internacional en la posguerra; particularmente el derecho espacial.

Following Dennis Tito's flight to space aboard the Russian Soyuz capsule in 2001, suborbital has become a new form of commercial activity. Fueled by an eager public and decreasing prices, the industry is rapidly expanding. Because the current space law regime was originally designed for governmental exploration, it is inadequate to handle the range of legal challenges emerging from this private commercial activity. This article therefore suggests that the current legal regime is incapable of sustaining the space tourism industry and that there is an urgent need for a new international convention.

"The idea of the oceans as the new, seventh continent was popular in the mid 1960s.
Starting in 1965 and lasting until 1980, more than 65 of these habitats were built all around the world by industrialized states. This has led to the assumption that both the conquest of the deep sea and that of the space can be seen as an expansion of frontiers in the times of the Cold War and in the postcolonial era. For instance, in 1964, at the New York World Fair, a special exhibition called Futurama showed a model of a possible future civilization on the sea-floor as well as displaying proposals for settlements in the Antarctic as both were considered unsettled continents."

The Project Icarus Study Group’s objective is to design a mainly fusion-propelled interstellar probe. The starting point are the results of the Daedalus study, which was conducted by the British Interplanetary Society during the 1970’s. As the Daedalus study already indicated, interstellar probes will be the result of a large scale, decade-long development program. To sustain a program over such long periods, the commitment of key stakeholders is vital. Although previous publications identified political and societal preconditions to an interstellar exploration program, there is a lack of more specific scientific and political stakeholder scenarios. This paper develops stakeholder scenarios which allow for a more detailed sustainability assessment of future programs. For this purpose, key stakeholder groups and their needs are identified and scientific and political scenarios derived. Political scenarios are based on patterns of past space programs but unprecedented scenarios are considered as well. Although it is very difficult to sustain an interstellar exploration program, there are scenarios in which this seems to be possible, e.g. the discovery of life within the solar system and on an exoplanet, a global technology development program, and dual-use of technologies for defence and security purposes. This is a submission of the Project Icarus Study Group.

Psychologists have been called upon in recent years to look into the psychological effects on humans, after being in space for prolonged periods, as both government and private corporations work towards making the idea of living in space for long periods of time a reality. Over the course of a few decades, psychological research into “analogue sites” here on earth, simulations, and astronauts living and working in orbit has started to show how humans are affected by such environments. In general, findings show the potential for conflict or emotional deterioration during long-term isolated periods, but it may have more to do with people’s perceptions of their environment more so than the environment itself. Even still, living in isolated and confined areas can cause stress and problematic behaviours that may interfere with productivity and relationships. Communication, homesickness, and habitat design also become important factors in the success of long-term missions in space. Several factors pertaining to culture such as nationality, gender roles and sexual orientation become important aspects to learn about in order to work harmoniously with others in a long-term space environment and to avoid any misunderstandings. The broad definition of culture also becomes an important aspect of living and working off world. Most researchers are aware of the problems when studying culture such as pinpointing the parts of culture that are causing such issues. Therefore, it is suggested that future research defines culture more clearly while learning more in depth information regarding participants’ ideas of their own identities. This independent study will explore the psycho-social issues of living in isolated and confined spaces, culture and gender for long-term missions off world.

This article explores the transformation of Turkey’s national and state identity under Justice and Development Party (JDP) rule in a spatial perspective by focusing on the counter hegemonic war on İstanbul’s panorama. (Re)construction of urban space have been used as means of transforming the ideologies into a concrete form and consolidating the symbolic power of the state in the everyday life. Urban space is not a static but dynamic “lieux de memoire” (the sites of memory) which reproduces the past, constructs the “new” and reflects state-society relations.  The new Republic of 1923 used space-politics to create a Westernized, modern and secular nation-state by detaching the urban space from the traces of Ottoman past. (Re)naming and (re)construction by using specific symbols and modern architecture was operated by Kemalists not only to consolidate the new state identity but also to transform the society. However, counter hegemonic attacks towards Kemalist policies which lays behind the two main political cleavages, modernists vs. traditionalists and Islamists vs. seculars, has existed throughout the Republican history. Beginning from 1980s, rising with the identity politics in 1990s Islamic politics has consolidated its power under the rule of JDP since 2002. While the hegemony of Kemalist secularism has been strongly weakened; the visibility of Islamists in the society and public life has increased in JDP era and a new form of state identity is created with the support of mass media, architectural designs, Islamic arts as well as discursive practices. Istanbul, with its symbolic, geographic and economic significance, would be a compatible field to explain the transformation of Turkey’s national and state identity in the urban space. As a capital of Ottoman Empire and the biggest metropolitan city of Turkey, İstanbul has been the center of hegemonic wars on urban space; each political group who hold the power has tried to redesign İstanbul throughout the Republican history. AKP revitalized the İstanbul’s symbolic power by attributing it as a “de facto” capital of Turkey. İstanbul’s transformation in the last decade such as construction of Panorama 1453 Museum as a reviving the Conquest of Istanbul, the boom in the mosque construction and Çamlıca Mosque Project, using Ottoman symbols in the public buildings and landscaping; and renaming the Boğaziçi Bridge as “July 15 Martyrs Bridge” are some crucial samples of ideological using of space politics. All in all, the article argues that JDP redefined the national and state identity as well as citizenship and used urban space as a means of consolidating its ideology. This article explains that how Islamism, neo-Ottomanism and latest increasing Turkish nationalism are combined in the state identity and serve as the main pillars of nation building process under JDP rule.

Numerous estimates for the date of the first interstellar mission have been made in the existing literature. However, these estimates are not based on existing elaborate scenarios from other domains, which project the next 100-300 years. In this paper, the implications of these projections on the hypothetical development of an interstellar probe are assessed. For this purpose, first, relevant scenarios are selected, where the Gross Domestic Product is chosen as the key indicator for the increase in technological capability. Second, different funding patterns from past space programs are derived in order to estimate the funding distribution over time for an interstellar program. Finally, integrated scenarios are developed and it is analysed how different funding structures shift the estimated earliest date where an interstellar program can be initiated. Depending on the political and economic background, potential dates stretch from within the 21st century to the 24th century and beyond. The earlier the potential program initiation date, the bolder the economic and political projections get from today's viewpoint. This is a submission of the Project Icarus Study Group.

Effective environmental regulation can facilitate not merely protection of celestial bodies, but also promote reasonable development. The uncertainty occasioned by the current environmental norms for outer space represents a real risk to those parties wishing to engage in any preliminary commercial efforts. Absent a clear set of guidelines, governments and corporations might waste billions in research and development of unsuitable technologies, cause unnecessary harm to the environments of solar system bodies, or shy away from development altogether.

This article explores the proposition that an international legal structure which establishes a cogent, private property system, promotes an integrated liability standard for private as well as public entities, makes use of existing civil judicial mechanisms and permits limited use of familiar regulatory approaches can greatly mitigate or eliminate the flaws engendered by the existing legal regime.

The "Final Frontier" is the Cosmic Order of Coloniality. The frontier, the final frontier, the new frontier, the endless frontier -all oft-used analogies for outer space. This cosmic order, hegemonically superior since the late 1960s, even while losing popular and political power, orders the very essence of Western space exploration, its future, and possibilities. The Final Frontier is a totalizing and finalizing conception of Man and his future. Such an order reduces ways of knowing and being to colonial and capitalist modes, where all things are reduced to exploitation. In this, the future of the final frontier is hardly a future; it is a death march masked as salvation. Part of this appearance of salvation and actuality of death comes from the Puritan values that have stayed within the American cultural landscape, transformed into its secular counterpart: Survival, another aspect is that of the glorification of What Has Been, which is death. This glorification of death is itself concealed by the valuation of control and power, the expansion of the State and land. While the Final Frontier as a cosmic order is one of exploitation and control, this does not mean there is no Hope for a future. Indeed, while this work looks at the ways in which coloniality manifests in the American cosmic order in different forms (the values and norms of space advocates, the use of Frontierism in space policy and the public perceptions of the goals of space exploration), there is another way-it is not hegemonic, nor an easy road, but through the decolonization of the American narrative of space exploration lies a way forward: Hope, Cosmic Awe and Cosmic Revolution, the engagement with the unique material conditions of outer space that can impact socio-economic and political forms as well as the oft mentioned feeling of connection with the cosmos. It is through this that humanity can move away from space, as a frontier-a place to be conquered, but to space as an already existing part of the ecological system of which humanity already belongs.

As space exploration has almost advanced to the point of being able to go to the moon at will, this also has created various conflicting and multifarious legal afflictions. In essence, there are two to five nations that are in competition with each other regarding the establishment of a Moon outpost. Many major space agencies have stated their willingness to send a manned mission to Moon with a corresponding outpost for future operations in the next two decades. In essence, this also brings in the question of Mining Rights of nations that are able to go to the Moon. Principles of International Law enunciate that states posses the freedom to explore and use outer space. However, it also attests that no state shall claim territorial sovereignty on celestial bodies. The national appropriation of outer space and celestial bodies is expressly prohibited by various agreements and international treaties. Exploration must be in the interest of world peace, security, as well as international cooperation and understanding, which shall benefit all of mankind. The earnest concern is that no state has the right to deplete a natural resource occurring on a celestial body in space and therefore up to what extent a state can utilise the same for its peculiar ambitions has to be determined. Analogous postulates have been deduced for the deterrence of mining of minerals in Antarctica, though environmental facets also played a key role. Exploitation of Helium-3 and other minerals from the moon shall minister the economic fortunes of the states. According to latest research, Helium 3 is a promising material which is found on the moon that allows for fusion without the corresponding radioactive by products. Thus, through the utilization of Helium 3, unlimited cheap and safe energy can be created for those nations that are able to mine this product from the Moon. At present, it can be foreboded that U.S. and Russia will be primeval to entrench bases on the moon and thereafter the other emerging powers will follow the course. The status quo should not abet the technologically levated nations like the United States of America and the Russian Federation, to infringe the rights of the emerging nations like India and China. No state must be acceded to devour the Helium-3 and other minerals from the moon. This paper will explore these concepts and take a case study of Helium 3 mining rights on the moon.

"Following Dennis Tito's flight to space aboard the Russian Soyuz capsule in 2001, suborbital has become a new form of commercial activity. Fueled by an eager public and decreasing prices, the industry is rapidly expanding. Because the current space law regime was originally designed for governmental exploration, it is inadequate to handle the range of legal challenges emerging from this private commercial activity. This article therefore suggests that the current legal regime is incapable of sustaining the space tourism industry and that there is an urgent need for a new international convention. "

This paper revisits the Space Guard concept, summarizing some existing ideas, and developing the Coast Guard model. I describe the missions of the USCG, exploring the analogy for a Space Guard. The concept is also generalized by focusing on the spaceflight safety aspect, the analogous maritime aspect of which is maritime safety and preservation of life. A politically-neutral Space Guard reflects a generalization, but also a means for international cooperation to make spaceflight safer. That is, this generalize Space Guard architecture is supported by the fact that orbital space rescue operations, just like maritime rescue, transcends nationality and represents a fundamental human need as we push the boundaries of human presence in space. I also introduce novel operational spaceflight rescue concepts for a Space Guard in any form.

Resilience is an outstanding quality of the Japanese. Coupled with decisiveness & adaptability, it bestows the Japanese with the ability to leapfrog much better than the Chinese. This is particularly so with regards to their military space capabilities. Having dropped their pacifist space agenda due to the North Korean threat, the Japanese are into using space for military purposes in a deliberate and systematic manner. Their gains are not voluminous, but they are effective. They have obtained what they require minus the flab. A huge lesson for India that believes more in vociferousness and less in action. India's military needs to get its space capabilities in place and it would be most prudent to look east -to Japan and draw lessons. This paper attempts to do that.

This paper presents an overview of the five major UN Treaties on Outer Space. Each of these Treaties are briefly discussed and assessed with particular emphasis on aspects relevant to Africa. Very few African countries have ratified these Treaties, as well as enacted domestic space legislation. The paper concludes with an assessment of Africa's involvement in multilateral space fora such as OOSA and UNCOPUOS. It also offers recommendations to improve African countries' ratification and compliance with these Treaties.

American history is replete with examples of government assistance for novel transport technologies.  Government supports counter the tendency of the market to grossly underestimate the potential economic value of investments in new transportation methods.  Commercial space transportation incentives should be no exception.

Abstract: This paper explores the hypothesis that the wellsprings of the recent upswing in new conservative movements such as the Tea Party can be found in the socio-spatial context within which individuals are socialized. Non-urban forms of space possess certain social and structural characteristics that can shape styles of moral cognition that in turn lead to conservative predispositions within the personality structure of the individual. Suburban and exurban spaces tend to provide a context for new conservative world-views as a result of the ways that social interaction shapes the moral-cognitive style of individuals. Moral cognition is shaped by constrained forms of socialization that can affect the ways individuals conceive of their world as well as press on certain epistemic capacities. When activated by different forms of social threat or social change, they will be more inclined to turn to conservative movements and ideologies that express their insecurity and social anxieties that are themselves produced by their specific world-views within which they feel comfort and security.

Despite the rising tensions in the aftermaths of the Ukrainian events of 2014, the space relationships and programs are still on their way between Europeans and Russians.
This is the image on the surface and this work is to dive into the role and position of each actor that take part in these strategic relationships.
The European Space Agency, the European Union European member states and Russia are all different actors, have different interests and this impacts the way they interact with each-other. Our paper is to analyse all these differences.

1. Cabinet's position on prominent issues in the current environment 1.1. Cabinet joins the nation and the international community in praying for the father of the nation, former President Nelson Mandela. At this difficult time, let us all show love and compassion and make Madiba proud.

Space exploration is at crossroads. For the past half a century, spacefaring was performed under the umbrella of the government. Space exploration has its roots in the public sector, and while the private sector participated along, it never played the major role of taking over entirely some of the most important operations. But with the dawn of the 21st century, the private sector met with the possibility that a large part of the human space flight endeavor would rest on its shoulders, while NASA would move onto larger projects that would involve deep space flight.

Since 1999, India has launched 269 foreign satellites from 32 different countries. This has positioned it as a relevant player in the field of space exploration. The Indian Space Research Agency (ISRA) is involved in Earth observation and support for disaster management and telecommunications from space; and has its own launch site, the Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota. Finally, India is, along with the US, a country that cares about sustainability in space: it has a reusable
launch vehicle (RLV-TD) under development. However, a new dimension has been added to these significant advances. On 27 March 2019, India tested an anti-satellite missile for military purposes. This represents a clear militarisation of the Indian space programme, with potential consequences for the multilateral management of outer space.

India's Reusable Launch Vehicle is worthy of celebration.  However, pitching it at the same level as the US's Space Shuttle or Russian Buran is inappropriate and contextually misplaced. It is essential to be cognizant of the enormous economic, technological and other challenges in the endeavour prior to exulting prematurely. This paper seeks to address the Indian RLV in a uniquely national context rather than an American context.

Монография посвящена исследованию экономических и правовых основ развития космической политики Российской Федерации на современном этапе. В работе также рассматриваются теоретические и прикладные вопросы правового обеспечения космической политики России. Особое внимание уделяется сравнительному анализу космической политики России, США, Франции, Люксембурга и других стран.
Книга адресована экономистам, политологам, специалистам в области «экономики космоса» и космического права, а также студентам и аспирантам соответствующих специальностей, и всем, интересующимся экономическими и правовыми проблемами освоения космического пространства.

This article originated as part of a series of studies written at various times during the last decades of the 20th Century for the Center of Air and Space Law of McGill University, involving team research contracts with the Canadian Government.
Most of these reports were subsequently edited and published as individual articles in the Annals of Air and Space Law and the Space Militarization Conference Proceedings.  Ultimately, they were published for the first time as a monograph: Cosmopolitics, defined as the world affairs of outer space, including international legal, economic and military issues arising out of the exploration and exploitation of extraterrestrial space resources. This article is an introductory part of space politics as the syndrome of the new space age generation.

AFRICAN SKIES/CIEUX AFRICAINS, No. 12, October 2008 ... Overview of the Implementation Status of the ... Five United Nations Treaties on Outer Space ... Department of Political Sciences, University of South Africa (UNISA), PO Box 392, Pretoria, 0003, South Africa e-...

This study tries to contribute in improving public policy-making by systematizing a methodical problem-handling procedure. The method focuses on a situational algorithm containing diagnostic, analytic, and prognostic procedures. This triad forms the necessary and sufficient procedure for the complete investigation of any social condition. To demonstrate this model, it presents a case study of the ongoing global issue involving the political controversy about the Geostationary Orbit-Electromagnetic Spectrum.
Although the study was published some years ago, in the Annals of Air and Space Law at McGill University, its model is timeless and applies now as it did then and is part of a trilogy that is posted here.

This paper address the past and current efforts of the South American region in the space area. The space activities in the region date back to 1967, and since then South American countries have achieved a relative modest capability through their national programs and sometimes international collaboration, with the space activities in the region led primarily by the Brazilian and Argentinian space programs. In an era where missions explore the solar system and beyond, this paper focus on the participation of a region that is still at the early stages of its space technology development, but has considerable amount to offer in terms of material, specialized personal, launch sites and energy. In summary, this work presents a historical review of the main achievements in the South American region, and by analyzing past and present efforts, it aims to project a trend for the future of space in South America. The paper also contests current efforts of regional integration such as the Sou...

In cities across the world, public spaces are being reconfigured, and their functions are being appropriated by private areas, such as shopping malls. The aim of the present article was to analyze this problem and, more specifically, to study shopping centers as secure spaces in cities, as well as the antidemocratic and apolitical nature of such malls. The study takes a positivist approach, beginning with the existing theoretical framework and using data from case studies to generate findings. The theoretical framework is established through a review of the literature, while the case study data are drawn from an analysis of news content from digital media and from autoethnography. The findings suggest malls are perceived as safe spaces, also in addition to being home to minor offenses, as well as a number of tragic events and crimes. Additionally, a growing number of demonstrations and political acts are being staged inside malls, which are seen as symbols of consumption and the neoliberal capitalist system. The owners and managers of shopping centers condone and permit the least conflictive acts and ban and repress the remainder, on occasions with the support of state security forces. The relocation of civic life to malls reduces the use of public spaces and erodes the value of the public sphere. The article ends by proposing public actions to reverse this process.