Helium 3

As space exploration has almost advanced to the point of being able to go to the moon at will, this also has created various conflicting and multifarious legal afflictions. In essence, there are two to five nations that are in competition with each other regarding the establishment of a Moon outpost. Many major space agencies have stated their willingness to send a manned mission to Moon with a corresponding outpost for future operations in the next two decades. In essence, this also brings in the question of Mining Rights of nations that are able to go to the Moon. Principles of International Law enunciate that states posses the freedom to explore and use outer space. However, it also attests that no state shall claim territorial sovereignty on celestial bodies. The national appropriation of outer space and celestial bodies is expressly prohibited by various agreements and international treaties. Exploration must be in the interest of world peace, security, as well as international cooperation and understanding, which shall benefit all of mankind. The earnest concern is that no state has the right to deplete a natural resource occurring on a celestial body in space and therefore up to what extent a state can utilise the same for its peculiar ambitions has to be determined. Analogous postulates have been deduced for the deterrence of mining of minerals in Antarctica, though environmental facets also played a key role. Exploitation of Helium-3 and other minerals from the moon shall minister the economic fortunes of the states. According to latest research, Helium 3 is a promising material which is found on the moon that allows for fusion without the corresponding radioactive by products. Thus, through the utilization of Helium 3, unlimited cheap and safe energy can be created for those nations that are able to mine this product from the Moon. At present, it can be foreboded that U.S. and Russia will be primeval to entrench bases on the moon and thereafter the other emerging powers will follow the course. The status quo should not abet the technologically levated nations like the United States of America and the Russian Federation, to infringe the rights of the emerging nations like India and China. No state must be acceded to devour the Helium-3 and other minerals from the moon. This paper will explore these concepts and take a case study of Helium 3 mining rights on the moon.

In this work, the performance of fusion reactor ITER90H-P with considering D–T and D-3He fuels areexamined by writing the dynamics equations on thesystemreactor. Therefore, we solve these equations analytically in thesteady state. In this state we determine the optimum conditions for achieving the maximum fusion gain. In addition, we ignore the impurities because we need to high performance points without impurities. Our calculationsinthis papershow that we have maximum fusion gain for D-T and D-3He fusion reactions in steady state at resonance temperature Kev70 for D-T fusion reaction respectively .Their maximum values of fusion gain are equal to for D-T fuel-and the 0.012 for , respectively. Therefore, currently, using as a fusion fuel is not recommended.

One of the biggest requirements that our world has is for more energy to meet the ever increasing global domestic as well as industrial demand. Hence, there are many projects active ranging from renewable energy to advanced fission and fusion reactors. However, all of the present scenarios either include a rise in global warming or cause some sort of an environmental problem due to radiation or due to excessive by products. Thus, humankind again turns to space for help to the solution of these problems as space is hurdling with almost unlimited raw materials and resources which can be used for the betterment of mankind. Both in the asteroid belt as well as in the moon, there are various sources that can be mined or extracted for Earth. Although some of these sources can also be found on Earth, some of these special minerals and materials can't be mined on Earth, since they are either nonexistent or scarce. One such material is Helium 3, as it is an elemental part of a neutronless fusion process. Unfortunately, Helium 3 is a very scarce material on Earth and the amount of Helium 3 that is needed for a global scale energy production through a fusion reactor is much higher then that which can be found on Earth. Luckily, especially in the Lunar regolith, large amounts of Helium 3 is present and it can be mined and shipped to Earth for this purpose. Especially with the recent moon missions in the last few years, the surface of the moon as well as the minerals below the regolith have been mapped to a great extent. Hence, this paper discusses methods for the utilization of moon based Helium 3 for the fusion process as well as the methods for mining the Helium 3 from the moon. In addition, Lunar based processing plant technology as well as the means of bringing it back to Earth will be discussed in this paper. It is hoped that this paper will set a trend as present level technology means for He3 extraction, processing and shipment will be considered.

The two electron configuration in the Helium atom is known to very high precision. Yet, we tend to refer to this configuration as a 1s ↑ 1s ↓ singlet, where the designations refer to Hydrogen orbitals. The high precision calculations utilize basis sets that are suited for high accuracy and ease of calculation, but do not really aid in our understanding of the electron configuration in terms of product states of Hydrogen orbitals. Since undergraduate students are generally taught to think of Helium, and indeed, the rest of the periodic table, in terms of Hydrogenic orbitals, we present in this paper a detailed spectral decomposition of the two electron ground state for Helium in terms of these basis states. The 1s ↑ 1s ↓ singlet contributes less than 93% to the ground state configuration, with other contributions coming from both bound and continuum Hydrogenic states.

The globally increased demand of Helium-3 along with the limited availability for this gas asks for the development of alternative technologies as the nowadays standard technology is still based on the Helium counter tube. In this article as a short summary insights will be given which lead to the Helium-3 crisis.

This paper was written for a conference panel on the Green New Deal as promoted by Congresswoman Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez. While the aspirational sentiment behind the proposal is commendable, the historical, economical, and environmental foundation for such a program is misguided. Rather, a more appropriate precedent for a jobs-creating, planet-centric public works program should use the Moon program of the 1960s as the model, although that program shared elements of the Depression-era, original New Deal. As this panel is being held within a conference of the Council of Georgist Organizations (CGO), it is appropriate to reflect on the 140 years of trial (capturing land values to correct social maladjustments) that has mostly ended in error, with notable exceptions. This paper suggests that land value taxation must continue to be our goal, but that it should be couched within the context of concurrent fostering of technological advance and wealth creation that are likewise socially created. I call that Endogenous Resiliency.

The present work is a technological approach to establish testing techniques able to evaluate the release of the two Li-transmutation products and characterize the degradation of Li2TiO3 as breeder material. In an attempt to find the outgassing/release temperature of light gases and to study its bulk diffusion, nuclear reaction analysis (NRA) was used for profiling the 3He and D depth distributions of the as-implanted and damaged samples as a function of the annealing temperature. The defects generated by γ-rays and heavy-ion (Ti4+) irradiation were characterized by microRaman spectroscopy and confocal microscopy luminescence (CML) techniques. Considering the relevance of the microstructure (porosity and grain size), the study was supported by transmission electron microscope (TEM) observations and Hg-porosimetry measurements. Concerning D-implanted samples, the results suggest the complete release at temperatures higher than 200 °C. On the other hand, the implanted 3He desorbs continuously with temperature, a 7–8% still being measured at 700 °C.

We have computed the vibrational spectrum of the helium ionized trimer He+3 using three different potential energy surfaces [D. T. Chang and G. L. Gellene, J. Chem. Phys.119, 4694 (2003); E. Scifoni et al., ibid.125, 164304 (2006); I. Paidarová et al., Chem. Phys.342, 64 (2007)]. Differences in the details of these potential energy surfaces induce discrepancies between bound state energies of the order of 0.01eV. The effects of the geometric phase induced by the conical intersection between the ground electronic potential energy surface and the first excited one are studied by computing vibrational spectra with and without this phase. The six lowest vibrational bound states are negligibly affected by the geometric phase. Indeed, they correspond to wavefunctions localized in the vicinity of the linear symmetric configurations and can be assigned well defined vibrational quantum numbers. On the other hand, higher excited states are delocalized, cannot be assigned definite vibrational quantum numbers, and the geometric phase shifts their energies by approximately 0.005eV.

We report a comprehensive investigation of the electronically excited states of helium clusters and droplets of sizes ranging from a few to several 107 atoms using time-resolved fluorescence excitation spectroscopy and quantum chemical ab initio calculations. We employ various approaches for our analysis considering the lifetime-dependence of the fluorescence intensity, spectral shifts, intensity scaling with cluster size, isotopic dependence, and density-dependence of the calculated electron wave function radii. A unique feature of helium clusters and droplets is their radially varying particle density. Our results show that short-lived fluorescence is sensitive to regions of increased density and probes excitations located in the bulk volume, whereas long-lived fluorescence is sensitive to regions of reduced density such as for small clusters or for the surface of large droplets. Spectra of 3He droplets serve as a reference for low density, but are free from contributions of small clusters. This allows us to distinguish regions of reduced density as these can be due to both surface states or small clusters. Our analysis reveals a picture where spectral features are related to regions of different density due to isotopic composition, cluster size, and surface or bulk volume location of the excitations. The 2s and 2p related excitations appear as blue-shifted wings for small clusters or for excited atoms within the surface layer, whereas in the bulk-volume of large droplets, they appear as distinct bands with large intensities, dominating the entire spectrum. Excitations at energies higher than 23 eV are unambiguously assigned to regions of low and medium density location within the deeper parts of the surface layer but show no relation to the bulk volume. Our findings support the idea that in liquid helium high-lying states and, in particular, Rydberg states are quenched in favor of the 2s and 2p excitations.