Sámi Studies

The Sámi have long desired a public process to examine and expose the Nordic states' colonial, assimilationist practices and policies, past and present, toward the Sámi people. This article considers the truth and reconciliation process in Finland, assessing it in light of recent legislative and other measures. Employing settler colonial theory, it argues that reconciliation, although seemingly progressive, signifies a continuation of colonialism unless the state terminates its current approach of overlooking Sámi rights. The article concludes with a discussion of structural reconciliation and justice and considers some concrete measures for structural change in order for the reconciliation process to be valid and successful in Finland.

The yoik is a vocal technique practised by the Sámi of Northern Europe. It relies on circular melodies, chanted in everyday life and a cappella, with or without lyrics. Each melody evokes a particular being, usually a person, an animal species, or a place. ‘Yoiking them’ is a way of making them present, exploring an attachment, and unfolding memories. The yoik is considered by many of its practitioners as a gift received from the environment, a mysterious craft that they come to know through personal experience and experimentation.

This thesis is based on conversations with yoikers, active in either the ‘traditional’ or ‘modern’ practices, and an apprenticeship in the craft of yoiking. It constitutes a series of essays, or ‘philosophical variations’, aimed at taking the yoik seriously and unfolding some of its philosophical affordances. As in the musical variations on popular melodies by classical composers, writing the yoik in variation means hosting it within another practice bearing its own constraints and possibilities. Practices of yoiking and writing are thus put in a dialogue at times converging, at times diverging, but always intended to be mutually stimulating. Various voices from social anthropology, ethnomusicology, psychology, theology, ethology, and the history of philosophy join the dialogue along the way.

The variations are ‘philosophical’ in that each of them creates one concept: horizon, enchantment, creature, depth, echo, primordial. Each concept seeks to capture a layer of depth perceived in the yoik’s practice: (1) the risks of metamorphosis; (2) the chants of animals and the wind; (3) the creation of yoiks as outgrowths of the sensuous world; (4) the inner landscapes of humans; (5) the resurgence of past memories and of the dead; (6) the roots of human chants in a chthonic, original past; and (n) the power of repetition and interruption.

Hvilke konsekvenser har 70 dr med sovjetiske reformer hatt for de russiske samenes etnopolitiske organisering etter 1989? F0rste del av denne artikkelen tar for seg utviklingen av de russiske samenes etnopolitiske organisasjoner og lederskap pa 1990-tallet. I andre del belyses sammenhengen mellom dennepostsovjetiske utviklingen og politikken i sovjettiden.

This article takes as its starting point a recent press release from Norway’s National Art Museum: here the museum asserts a “strengthening of its collection of Sami art”. The article charts the assembling and articulation of Sami material in the museum and argues that Sami art doesn’t stand out as a special area of interest in a longer perspective. Nevertheless, the recent shift indicated by the statement may function to work reflexively upon the collection, and could make it emerge in a new light when the museum re-opens in 2021.

The chapter describes the evolution of literary languages for four endangered indigenous languages. Different paths of language standardization and revitalization in the Soviet Russian minority context are illustrated with case studies from Dolgan (Turkic), Forest Enets (Uralic), and Kildin Sáami (Uralic). The three cases offer an excellent comparative view of the origin and progress of literacy creation for small indigenous languages in the Russian Federation. The fourth language Skolt Sámi (Uralic) provides a comparative view beyond the border into the European Union. The different geographical and political settings of language planning attempts for the four languages has resulted in chronologically and substantially different developments. For Dolgan, Forest Enets and Kildin Sámi, the effect standardization has upon language survival has been very similar. In these languages, neither standardization nor the evolving written culture seem to inhibit language shift to any considerable degree. On the other hand, Skolt Sámi in Finland has undergone a slightly more successful process of revitalization, even if the language remains critically endangered.

This article examines the depoliticization of violence against women in indigenous communities. It argues that there is a pressing need to examine the ways in which gen- dered violence is explained, addressed and often sanctioned in indigenous commu- nities. The article draws on Crenshaw’s concept of political intersectionality and examines responses to gendered violence in indigenous communities through two groups: Aboriginal women in Canada and Sa ́mi women in Scandinavia.

Discipline, Desire, and Knowledge. The Colonial fight over Goavddis.
This article deals with goavddis (ceremonial Sami drums) as objects at the centre of colonial struggle between Swedish officials and the Sami in the decades around 1700. For the Sami, goavddis were a matter of cultural and religious identity, and of the relation between the profane and the sacred; they were aesthetic objects whose meaning and power was actualized in
ritual and musical performances. For the colonizers, the goavddis were caught up in ambivalent acts of discipline and desire. As instruments for heathen practice they were confiscated by Swedish officials and clergy in a
systematic, often brutal, effort to discipline the Sami population and conform it to the Orthodox Lutheran State church. At the very same time, however, they became desirable collectibles among the Swedish and European elites. The need to destroy and the desire to possess – so this article claims – were two sides of the same coin. It was about taking control of the goavddis, subordinating them to the gaze of the colonizer, and ranging them under a colonial system of knowledge.

This is rather the first book with a title "Philosophy of Law in the Arctic" in the literature. This philosophy of law is a very wide and cross-disciplinary area of research: between law, philosophy, anthropology, history, cultural ecology or environmental studies. I have no doubts that we have done such kind of philosophy in the academia so far, not using this term, but keeping up with the concept, the idea.
The book is a result of research conducted by many members of the Sub-group of Philosophy of Law in the Arctic (the University of the Arctic). This team seems a very interdisciplinary academic group. Our cooperation bears fruit.
The aim of the book is to define and systematise Arctic legal philosophy problems. In this book, there are five thematic parts. Each part consists of two-five short articles (we can call them also chapters or papers). These are the sixteen short articles all together. Each article consists of between six and fourteen pages. So going further, what we see in the book then is, in fact, a set of both theoretical and practical papers1. The topics of these papers (chapters) are different as the authors are different while representing a wide-ranging scope of academic disciplines or specialisations. Each paper is followed by a relevant bibliography, which might be helpful for other scholars interested in the field. The seventeen writers come from such countries as Finland (4), Norway (1), Canada (3), Poland (3), Japan (2), Austria (1), Ireland (1), and England (2). Some of them have Arctic indigenous roots (3). In the end
of the book, there is a very original attachment - the map of Arctic Canada.

We present advances in the development of a FST-based morphological analyzer and generator for Skolt Sami. Like other minority Uralic languages, Skolt Sami exhibits a rich morphology, on the one hand, and there is little golden standard material for it, on the other. This makes NLP approaches for its study difficult without a solid morphological analysis. The language is severely endangered and the work presented in this paper forms a part of a greater whole in its revitalization efforts. Furthermore, we intersperse our description with facilitation and description practices not well documented in the infrastructure. Currently, the analyzer covers over 30,000 Skolt Sami words in 148 inflectional paradigms and over 12 derivational forms.

Vi har intervjuat fyra äldre informanter i kärnsamiskt område om praxis kring det att dö och döden. Intervjuerna genomfördes på samiska. I kombination med nyare forskning skisserar vi i artikeln fram några exempel på vad som kan vara viktigt för samiska patienter med en kristen traditionell livsorientering. Teman som artikeln belyser är människors relation till Gud och till skapelsen, betydningen av språk samt praxis knutet till livets slutskede. Artikeln riktar sig främst till omsorgs- och sjukvårdspersonal, men också till intresserade i det samiska samhället som önskar veta mer om praxis kring döden traditionellt sätt. Artikeln kan med fördel användas som underlag för samtal kring döden i samiska kontexter, både det att dö och det att vara kvar
Moai ledne jearahallan njeallje vuorraset olbmo guovddáš sámi guovllus jápmima birra. Jearahallan doaimmahuvvui sámegillii. Oktan dainna mii ođđaset dutkamis lea boahtán ovdan ledne dán artihkkalis oanehaččat čilgen muhtun ovdamearkkaid das mii jápmima dilis sáhttá leat dárbbašlaš sámi buhččiide geain lea risttalaš vierru ja osku. Sáhkan dán artihkkalis lea olbmo oktavuohta Ipmiliin ja sivdnádusain, sámegiela mearkkašupmi ja vierut das go olbmo eallin lea loahpa geahčen. Artihkal lea jurddahuvvon ovddemusat ovddasmorraša ja buohccidikšuma bargiide, muhto maiddái sidjiide sámi servodagas geat beroštit dás ja dáhttot diehtit eambbo vieruid birra mat gullet jápmimii. Artihkal áinnas sáhtte adnot duogášdiehtun dasa go ságastallat jápmima birra sámi birrasis, sihke olbmo jápmima birra ja olbmo báhcima birra dán máilbmái.

"Sametinget welcomes the visit of Ms. Victoria Tauli-Corpuz to Sápmi  this August 2015 in her examination of the current status of the Indigenous Rights of the Sami People residing in Sápmi and Sweden.

Sápmi is the traditional territory of the Sami People currently politically and territorially divided by the borders of the Nation-States of Sweden, Norway, Finland and Russia. In preparation for Ms. Tauli-Corpuz’s visit, this Report provides some follow-up and additional information concerning both new developments and issues addressed and not addressed in conjunction with the previous visit (2010) to Sápmi and Sweden of the UN Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, Mr. James Anaya, and his concluding Report to the Human Rights Council of the status of the Sami People in Sweden, Finland and Norway produced in 2011 . In addition to any other materials and submissions she receives from other institutions, groups and persons, Ms. Tauli-Corpuz will receive in-person input regarding the status of the Sami People during her visit to Sápmi in late August 2015 during pre-arranged, interactive dialogues with State and Sami representatives and speakers as well as local visits to specific Sami areas with a highlighting of specific issues the Sami People are facing in the context of Indigenous Rights, among other activities..."

https://www.sametinget.se/92639

Utifrån den svenska filmen Sameblod diskuterar Katariina Kyrölä relationen mellan fenomenet att representanter från en dominerande grupp beslagtar en marginaliserad grupps kulturella uttryck och att representanter från en marginaliserad grupp övertar en dominerande grupps stil, utrymmen eller identitet, det som brukar kallas passerande. Hur ser relationen mellan dessa ut?

For many the "Arctic" is an exotic geographic abstraction, something different and fascinating, something somewhere "out there." For some of us, however, that abstraction is a dif cult one, since our own well-known and well-loved corner of the Arctic is simply "home"-eminently familiar, quite speci c, and not readily reducible to an abstraction of otherness. It is a Sámi place, our place, the place that makes us, as Sámi, who we are. And our relationship to the landscape, plants, animals, people, and other beings of our place goes back many generations, millennia even; for us this relationship includes the ghosts and stories of those who once walked, and still inhabit, our place. Place makes us who we are because we are, in fact, produced by its complex networks of relationships within which we are situated. Like so many Indigenous peoples, we recognize that we are our relationships (Wilson 2008, 69-79). In this chapter we explore some of the ways that Indigenous Sámi understandings of place and time produce our own systems of knowledge about our speci c portion of the "Arctic," meaning that portion with which we have a speci c relationship. Although these knowledge systems can differ

The offering places of the Sámi people have a long tradition of use. Written sources and archaeological finds give a picture of offerings
from the late Iron Age to the beginning of the 20th century. But even today these places are meaningful and filled with memories for
various reasons and for various groups of people. In this article six sieidi offering stones from Finnish Lapland are approached in the
light of more recent finds that were documented during the excavations in the years 2008 and 2009. These included: coins, personal
objects, candles, quartzite, and flowers. Some of them might have been left by tourists that have visited the site and used the sieidi in a
similar way to a wish well. Other objects might be left by local people who experience the place in the frame of their cultural identity.
Especially quartzite, flowers and candles might also indicate visits of neo-pagans, who can hold the place to be sacred. These different
groups might have different and even conflicting interests. Nevertheless a multivocal interpretation of the offering sites is important if
we want to construct a full picture of their importance.

The article is an in depth analysis of the ongoing mining conflict in Northern Sweden and Sámi’s land rights from a critical legal theory perspective. It particularly analyses what the mining conflict proves in terms of the Sámi people’s land rights; that they are still settler colonised, and their land is continuously being taken away from them in a construction of expropriation. The article makes suggestions for how to move forward by using Brenna Bhandar’s principle of reconceptualising history. It also provides some recommendations for how the Swedish Government should progress to eliminate the discrimination of Swedish Sámi people’s land rights.

"In the heyday of physical anthropology, researchers were interested in historical cemeteries in Lapland during two different periods. During the first period, the 19th century, cemeteries were
mainly excavated in connection with a project organised by foreign researchers and the director of the Department of Anatomy at the University of Helsinki, Mr. Konrad Hällstén. The second period of interest spanned the 1930s, when the Anthropological Committee of the Finnish Academy of Science and Letters organised a wide-ranging programme resulting in extensive investigations, and finally, also in excavations at the cemetery of Vanha Hautuumaasaari island in Inari. Both waves of research can be regarded as part of a larger research tradition in anthropology. In the 19th century, for instance, researchers focused on craniometrical data, while in the beginning of the following century, other bone material was also collected for analysis.
The incentives for both of these waves of research came from abroad; however, the Department of Anatomy at the University of Helsinki and Finnish researchers played a pivotal role in them as well. Ultimately, the research projects were national endeavours, although the data on the Sami people were of interest to researchers all over the world. Similar physical anthropology data were collected all over Finland during the same period. However, the geographical focus of this paper is on Lapland. Even if the excavations in the North were not a separate phenomenon in physical anthropology, researchers had certain special emphases and detailed research questions particularly regarding the Sami people. Data on the cemeteries excavated in Lapland for anthropological purposes have not been compiled before, and only some of the excavated locations have been precisely known to researchers. By combining various sources it has been possible to obtain a more reliable picture of the number, location, and nature of the examined research sites and the actual investigations carried out there.
From the late 19th century until the 1930s, over 300 craniums classified as Lappish (Sami) were collected at different cemeteries in Finnish Lapland. The figure excludes craniums gathered by foreign researchers. Collecting ancient bone material proved to be more challenging than researchers had anticipated, and far fewer sites were excavated than was originally planned. Furthermore, research was purely anthropological: researchers merely collected bone material and paid no attention to the details of the graves. There are therefore no scientific records on the depth, direction, or structure of the graves or the finds in them. Cooperation with archaeologists began as late as the 1930s, and even then it was not systematic. Some of the excavations were conducted on ecclesiastical sites, such as churchyards and graveyards, and some at local cemeteries. Excavated graves were dated to the 18th century, mainly by methods of settlement history. The collected material, however, is ethnically not as Sami as was originally assumed. The anthropological measurement data from different projects in Lapland were, nevertheless, widely used in publications on medicine and human physiology, and the large amount of data acquired for theses was analysed and even published until the 1950s."

Resumen
Aunque la noruegización se aplicó dentro del territorio Sápmi, el idioma Sami ha resistido heroicamente. Esta investigación se centra en el uso del idioma sami en las redes sociales por parte de los jóvenes sami en Guovdageaidnu. Para defender los argumentos del uso del idioma sámi en entornos tecnológicos, la investigación utiliza datos proporcionados por NRK Sápmi en Guovdageaidnu y también contrasta la información con encuestas administradas en la escuela secundaria en Gouvdageaidnu. Además, la investigación presenta una discusión de los resultados y la conclusión de la investigación sobre el uso del idioma sámi por los jóvenes sámi.
Palabras clave: idioma sámi, redes sociales, NRK Sápmi.

This is the first thorough English language description of Kildin Saami and the first attempt to systematically describe the basic phonological, morphological and syntactic features of this language from the perspective of general comparative linguistics. Kildin Saami is a critically endangered language of the Kola Peninsula in Northwest Russia with only about 100 active speakers. The original dialect areas have fragmented during the 20th century. Within the Saami group and Uralic in general, a remarkable feature of Kildin Saami is the high number of consonant phonemes. This is mostly due to the existence of palatalization as a distinct phonological feature. Kildin Saami has developed a very high degree of fusion in inflectional morphology, including the occurrence of several different kinds of nonlinear morphological marking. In verb inflection, there is a special form for impersonal passive. Adjectives are marked for attributive and predicative state and the language has split marking of plural, where numerals above six govern partitive case. Russian influence is found in essentially all components of Kildin Saami language structure, but is especially strong in discourse pragmatics. The chapter includes a glossed text example and extensive references to earlier linguistic literature and other sources on Kildin Saami.

I studiet av samisk religiös historia saknas översiktsartiklar. Denna artikel bidrar till att ändra på det genom att presentera kristendomens historia på svensk och norsk sida av Sápmi, med utgångspunkt i samiska aktörer och stämmor. Huvudtema är förhållandet mellan det samiska samhället och kyrkan som institution, och på vilka sätt de har varit inflätade i varandra. Artikeln visar att från 1600-talets samiska präster till vår tids samiska kyrkoråd finns en samisk kristendomshistoria. Forskningsfokus när det gäller religiös historia i Sápmi har ofta legat på traditionell samisk religion eller kristna aktörer som representerat storsamhället. Artikeln bidrar förhoppningsvis till att nyansera bilden. Nøkkelord Samisk religionshistorie, Sápmi, samiske prester
Abstract There is a lack of review articles in studies of Sami religious history. This article helps to change that by presenting the history of Christianity on the Swedish and Norwegian sides of Sápmi based on Sami participants and voices. The main theme is the relationship between Sami society and the church as an institution, and the ways in which they have been intertwined. The article shows that there is a Sami Christianity history from the 17th century Sami priests to the Sami church council of our time. The research focus on religious history in Sápmi has often emphasised traditional Sami religion or Christian actors who represented the larger community. The article hopefully helps to nuance this image. Inledning Inom studiet av samisk historia generellt, och religiös historia speciellt, saknas det över-siktsartiklar och böcker. I synnerhet gäller det samisk (religiös) historia från 1800-talet och framåt. I tillägg har forskningspraxis gjort att de akademiska samtalen ibland gett ganska skeva tolkningsföreträden. På så sätt handlar mycket av den religiösa historieskrivningen i Sápmi också om forskningshistoria. Även om översiktsartiklar alltid är begränsade kan de fylla en funktion för att ge översikt nog till att läsa sig vidare. En del av utmaningen förknippad med att skriva översiktsartiklar om samisk historia är det faktum att Sápmi sträcker sig över fyra länder. Få forskare behärskar svenska, norska, finska, samiska och ryska vilket hade varit en god utgångspunkt för att få översikt över tidi

Lars Levi Laestadius (1800-1861) was a priest of the Swedish state church and the founder of the largest revival movement in the Nordic region. He served in the very north of Sweden, an area inhabited by Sami and Finns, both groups being culturally and linguistically clearly distinct from the Swedes, considered both culturally and racially superior. Laestadius’ background was mixed Swedish and Sami but most of his preaching took place in Finnish. Laestadius analyzes here as a cultural hybrid in a colonial situation. He was not a political figure but typically a revivalist preacher with strong emphasis on the transcendent realities. However, his sermons contain a good amount of social analysis and critique, yet not exhorting to any political action. In spite of this, the resulting revival movement caused major changes in the social, cultural and political patterns of the northernmost corner of Europe. This was probably due to the fact that Laestadius did not become a politician and participate in the game on the rules of the status quo. By directly referring to the authority of God, he created an alternative symbolic universe as an interspace where the oppressed peoples of the north could construct subversive cultural, social and political structures. By being patriarchal and Finnish, these structures turned, however, oppressive towards women and the Sami, quite unlike Laestadius’ theology that regarded God predominantly as feminine and gave space to Sami cultural expressions.

Surveying existing literature, this article offers a preliminary assessment of the intersection of Indigenous governance and Arctic extractive industries, with a special focus on how Indigenous governance institutions position themselves vis-à-vis resource extraction in three regions: Nunatsiavut (Labrador, Canada), Greenland and Sápmi (the Sámi territory in Scandinavia). As a survey of existing scholarship, interviewing representatives of the extractive industry or Indigenous governments was beyond the scope of this article and hence, the analysis and conclusions are both preliminary and schematic. They do demonstrate, however, that the relations and strategies vary considerably and tend to depend on the degree and jurisdiction of the Indigenous self-governing authority. Further, they point to a pressing need for more detailed research in this area.

This book sets the standard for scholarship on Sami issues. It reveals what has long been hidden from English readers. The breadth of these chapters is impressive; nuances and subtleties are well-contextualized to readily enhance understanding of this field. John Borrows, university of victoria, canada This book provides a ground-breaking overview of the intersection of law, politics, morality, history and the Sami people. Helping to forge Sami Law as a distinct subject of inquiry, this thought-provoking collection draws from the expertise, experiences and novel insights of a diverse group of scholars. s. James anaya, the university of arizona, usa, and Former united nations special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples Throughout the world, indigenous peoples have been confronted with exported European concepts of state sovereignty and land rights. Indigenous Rights in scandinavia: autonomous sami Law explores how the legal claims of an indigenous people are treated within Europe. This book is therefore an invaluable contribution not only to scholars interested in indigenous peoples, but for anybody interested in European ideas of law and justice. René Kuppe, university of vienna, austria Juris diversitas Series Editors: seán Patrick donlan, university of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland Julian sidoli del ceno, Birmingham school of the Built environment, Birmingham city university, uK Editorial Board: olivier Moréteau -Louisiana, us Ignazio castellucci -trento, Italy/Macau, china Lukas heckendorn urscheler -swiss Institute of comparative Law, switzerland salvatore Mancuso -cape town, south africa christa Rautenbach -north-West university, Potchefstroom, south africa Series Advisory Board: Philip Bailhache -Jersey, uK sue Farran -northumbria, uK Patrick glenn † -Mcgill, canada Marie goré -Pantheon-assas (Paris 2), France Werner Menski -soas, London, uK esin Örücü -glasgow, uK (emeritus) vernon valentine Palmer -tulane, us Rodolfo sacco -turin, Italy (emeritus) William twining -university college London, uK (emeritus) and Miami, us Jacques vanderlinden -Free university of Brussels, Belgium (emeritus) and Moncton, canada (emeritus)

Artikkelen er trykt under tittelen "Trolldomsforfølgelsene i Finnmark – lokalitet, etnisk herkomst og kjønn" i Etter Lemkin Tidsskrift for studier av folkemord og politisk massevold, 1. årgang, Nr.2, 2009: 78-91
På 1600-tallet kjennetegnes Finnmark av å vaere et omstridt og usikkert grenseområde innenfor en ekspanderende danskdominert konglomeratstat. Denne nordøstlige regionen ut mot Barentshavet er under press fra rivaliserende makter både på land og til havs. Et høyt innslag av demografisk mobilitet og etnisk mangfold er vesentlige trekk ved et relativt lavt befolkningsgrunnlag. Økonomiske krisekonjunkturer er saerlig tydelige i tiårene etter 1620-åra. Dette er noen av de sentrale økonomiske og politiske rammebetingelsene for den intensive og brutale forfølgelsen av angivelige trollfolk som fant sted i Finnmark utover 1600-tallet og som kulminerte i 1663 da 20 kvinner ble brent på bål i løpet av noen få måneder. Trolldomshysteriet i Finnmark var ikke bare et spontant og tilfeldig produkt av spesielle kaotiske politiske og økonomiske rammevilkår. Bak den flyktige overflaten kan vi lokalisere dypere strukturer og autonome mønstre som involverer variabler som etnisitet, kjønn, ideologi, folklore og så vel kollektiv som individuell mentalitet.

M.G.Kuchinskiy The Kola Uezd Sámi in 16th – 18th Centuries: Model of the Social Structure
The target of this research is to reconstruct the social structure of the Kola uezd Sámi in 16th – 18th centuries. This research in its base contains the systems approach and is interdisciplinary. The specified target is ethnological and it determines the circle of questions that the source give answers to. The sources, on the other hand, are historical and often contain mass material. Thus, the methods of working with the sources are closer to
the quantitative methods of social history and historical demography. In order to correctly understand the “answers of the sources” and in order to process them, we have also used methods of the source criticism and historical anthropology. The work with the spatial reflection of the model was based on the methods of historical geography. The “source answers”
that were obtained as the result have been interpreted using ethnological and sociological methods as was needed. The general method of the whole research was modeling.

α. Ιστορικά στοιχεία β. Τόπος εγκατάστασης γ. Προέλευση, ανθρωπολογικά, γλωσσολογικά στοιχεία και στοιχεία πολιτισμού δ. Βιοπορισμός και διαχείριση των φυσικών πόρων ε. Η ταυτότητα των Sámi ΙΙΙ. ΤΟ ΚΙΝΗΜΑ ΤΩΝ SÁMI ΚΑΙ Η ΜΕΙΟΝΟΤΙΚΗ ΠΟΛΙΤΙΚΗ ΤΗΣ ΝΟΡΒΗΓΙΑΣ 1. Η ΜΕΤΑΧΕΙΡΙΣΗ ΤΩΝ SÁMI ΚΑΙ Η ΠΟΛΙΤΙΚΗ ΑΦΟΜΟΙΩΣΗΣ ΠΡΙΝ ΤΟΝ Β' ΠΑΓΚΟΣΜΙΟ ΠΟΛΕΜΟ: Η ΠΕΡΙΟΔΟΣ ΤΗΣ «ΝΟΡΒΗΓΟΠΟΙΗΣΗΣ» α. Η πολιτική της «Νορβηγοποίησης» β. Οι συνέπειες της πολιτικής της «Νορβηγοποίησης» 2. Η ΜΕΤΑΧΕΙΡΙΣΗ ΤΩΝ SÁMI ΜΕΤΑ ΤΟΝ Β' ΠΑΓΚΟΣΜΙΟ ΠΟΛΕΜΟ: ΣΤΡΟΦΗ ΠΡΟΣ ΤΟΝ ΠΛΟΥΡΑΛΙΣΜΟ IV. Η ΜΕΤΑΧΕΙΡΙΣΗ ΤΩΝ SÁMI ΣΕ ΑΛΛΑ ΚΡΑΤΗ ΚΑΙ Η ΔΙΑΣΥΝΟΡΙΑΚΗ ΣΥΝΕΡΓΑΣΙΑ ΤΩΝ SÁMI V. ΣΥΜΠΕΡΑΣΜΑΤΑ VI. ΠΑΡΑΡΤΗΜΑΤΑ VII. ΒΙΒΛΙΟΓΡΑΦΙΑ-ΠΗΓΕΣ Οι Sámi είναι αυτόχθων λαός που κατοικεί στην Βόρεια Ευρώπη, εγκατεστημένος σε 4 διαφορετικά κράτη. Οι Sámi της Νορβηγίας υπέστησαν κατά την διάρκεια του 19 ου αιώνα και κατά το πρώτο ήμισυ του 20 ου τις δυσμενείς συνέπειες μία αυστηρότατης πολιτικής αφομοίωσης που έμεινε γνωστή ως «Νορβηγοποίηση», συνέπεια της έξαρσης των εθνικισμών και της ανασφάλειας του νέου ακόμη νορβηγικού κράτους που αναζητούσε να θεμελιώσει την ισχύ του, την εσωτερική και εξωτερική του ασφάλεια. Το τέλος του Β' Παγκοσμίου Πολέμου, η εξέλιξη του διεθνούς δικαίου με την ενίσχυση της διεθνούς προστασίας των δικαιωμάτων συνέβαλαν στην μεταβολή στάσης της νορβηγικής κυβέρνησης. Μετά την εξέγερση της Kautokeino-Alta, η νορβηγική κυβέρνηση αποφάσισε να επιταχύνει την μεταρρύθμιση στην πολιτική εκπαίδευσης και πολιτισμού αναφορικά με τους Sámi. Σε σχετικά σύντομο χρονικό διάστημα, φτάσαμε από την αναγνώριση της γλώσσας και της πολιτιστικής ταυτότητας, στην ίδρυση θεσμού οιονεί αυτοκυβέρνησης, του Κοινοβουλίου των Sámi και την αναγνώριση ειδικών συλλογικών εδαφικών δικαιωμάτων. Μέσω των εθνικών ενώσεων των Sámi και του Κοινοβουλίου των Sámi, εξασφαλίζεται η διεθνής συνεργασία των Sámi από όλα τα κράτη και η συμμετοχή τους στα διεθνή fora. Ι. ΕΙΣΑΓΩΓΗ: ΠΛΑΙΣΙΟ ΚΑΙ ΟΡΙΟΘΕΤΗΣΗ ΤΟΥ ΑΝΤΙΚΕΙΜΕΝΟΥ ΤΗΣ ΜΕΛΕΤΗΣ Οι Sámi 1 είναι ο φιννο-ουγκρικής καταγωγής αυτόχθονος λαός που κατοικεί στην Βόρεια Ευρώπη, σε μια περιοχή που εκτείνεται σε εδάφη της Βόρειας Νορβηγίας, της Σουηδίας, της Φινλανδίας και της Βόρειας Ρωσίας 2 . Αποτελούν μειονότητα σε όλη την παραπάνω περιοχή εγκατάστασης, πλην των περιφερειών Kautokeino και Karasjok της Νορβηγίας. Ο συνολικός πληθυσμός των Sámi υπολογίζεται ότι ανέρχεται σε 100.000 περίπου, μεταξύ των οποίων 45.000 κατοικούν στην Νορβηγία, 20.000 στην Σουηδία, 6.500 στην Φινλανδία και 2.000 στην Ρωσία 3 . Ωστόσο εξαιτίας της διασποράς τους σε τέσσερις διαφορετικές χώρες με διαφορετικές πολιτικές μεταχείρισης μειονοτήτων και διάφορα συστήματα απογραφής, καθώς και της έλλειψης συνολικής απογραφής ειδικά του πληθυσμού των Sámi, οι στατιστικές που τους αφορούν είναι επισφαλείς, συνεπώς τίθενται κατά προσέγγιση. Επιπλέον, καίτοι θεωρούνται 1 Άλλως: Sami, Saami ή Sapmi. Μέχρι πρότινος ήταν ευρύτερα γνωστοί ως «Λάπωνες», ωστόσο η τελευταία αυτή ονομασία έχει παύσει να χρησιμοποιείται καθώς θεωρείται υποτιμητική: Ole Magnus Rapp, Catherine Stein -"Sámis don't want to be 'Lapps'", Aftenposten (8/2/2008) 2 Βλ. παράρτημα 1. 3 Eriksson, Johan (1997): Partition and Redemption, A Machiavellian Analysis of Sami and Basque Patriotism, Umeå University, Sweden. Ειδικά για τους Sámi της Νορβηγίας, βλ. Statistic Norway (http://www.ssb.no/en/befolkning/statistikker/samisk/hvert-2-aar/2014-02-06). ενιαίος πληθυσμός, συγκροτούνται από πλείονες υποομάδες διακρινόμενες τόσο από τον τρόπο ζωής όσο και από την ομιλούμενη γλώσσα 4 . Αντικείμενο της παρούσας μελέτης είναι οι Sámi που κατοικούν στην περιοχή της Νορβηγίας. Η επιλογή οφείλεται στην διαθεσιμότητα των δεδομένων αναφορικά με τους Sámi στην χώρα αυτήν, όπου συγκεντρώνεται η πλειοψηφία του πληθυσμού τους. Περαιτέρω η πολιτική αφομοίωσης των Sámi υπήρξε διαχρονικά πιο ομοιογενής και συνεκτική στην Νορβηγία, συγκριτικά με τα λοιπά κράτη εγκατάστασης. Τέλος, η μεταπολεμική μειονοτική πολιτική της Νορβηγίας όσον αφορά τους Sámi, με την συνταγματική κατοχύρωση, την ειδική εθνική νομοθεσία, την αναγνώριση ως επίσημης της γλώσσας τους και, κυρίως, την ιδρυση και λειτουργία της Βουλής των Sámi, αποτελεί ένα παράδειγμα μειονοτικής πολιτικής που θα μπορούσε υπό προϋποθέσεις να αποτελέσει πρότυπο για άλλα κράτη.

In this chapter we discuss national borders in relation to the Norwegian Truth and reconciliation commission. How is it possible to reconcile within the borders of one national state, when Sápmi stretches over four different national states? The same borders have caused severe damage to the Sámi society, and are a part of the history about what should be reconciled.