National Heroes

This article explores the role of literature and romantic nationalism in the creation of nations as this applies to the Faroese nation, in particular the case of the poet Nólsoyar Páll.
It is the ambition to discuss how literature can be a medium of collective identity-making, as it involves the canonisation of what is termed cultural saints (i.e. the heroic, mythological,
and legendary figures who are seen as founders of communities). The article will give an introduction to the research that considers the dynamics of selected vernacular writers, artists or scholars for inclusion into the canon of cultural sainthood. The following will
link a hitherto underexplored part of European romanticism to the developing theory of how durable forms of memory, such as public monuments, banknotes, hagiographies, are constructed.

Ovaj rad osvrnut će se na tri važna elementa u stvaranju kulta Stjepana Radića u razdoblju između proglašenja šestosiječanjske diktature početkom 1929. pa do smrti kralja Aleksandra I. Karađorđevića koncem 1934. godine. Preko praćenje reakcija organa vlasti na posmrtne ostatke Stjepana Radića, planove vodstva Hrvatske seljačke stranke za izradu njegova mjesta memorije te kroz razne, većinom upotrebne predmete s njegovim likom ili imenom očituje se uzdizanje mrtvog Radića do položaja nacionalnog vođe-mučenika koji je služio u nacionalno-integracijskim procesima koji su se tada odvijali unutar hrvatskog naroda.

This is a paper I wrote for the five-day conference (5-9 October 2020) entitled 'Forum Sejarah dan Jejak Peradaban Mataram Yogyakarta: Sri Sultan Hamengku Buwono II “Menggali Warisan Membangun Masa Depan” [History Forum and Tracing Yogyakarta Mataram Civilization: His Highness Sultan Hamengku Buwono II, Excavating Heritage to Build the Future', which was convened to explore the possibility of putting the Second Sultan of Yogyakarta (1750-1828; r. 1792-1810/811-22/1826-28) forward as an Indonesian National Hero (Pahlawan Nasional). The paper was presented on Wednesday, 7 October 2020 under the title 'De mortuis nihil nisi bonum — Mengenai orang yang sudah wafat hanya ucapkan hal yang baik: Renungan atas Pencalonan Sri Sultan Hamengku Buwono II sebagai Pahlawan Nasional [Speak only good things of the dead; Reflections on the Candidacy of HH Sultan Hamengku Buwono II as a National Hero].

The ground-breaking or especially difficult moments in the history of Latvia have almost always found their reflection in the literature. During each of the challenging moments an ideal hero is born, a hero ready to fight for his fatherland and nation, constituting a role model to be followed. However, Latvian writers do not create new heroes, but have been summoning the same figures for over a hundred years. The paper is going to present the stands and transformations of literary heroes – Vidvuds and Lāčplēsis – at different stages of Latvian history, as they face threats against national freedom and social integrity.

"Viņi vienmēr atgriežas. Varoņi krīzes laikam: Vidvuds un Lāčplēsis"
Lūzuma brīži, kā arī daži citi īpaši grūti momenti Latvijas vēsturē bieži atrod savu atspoguļojumu literatūrā. Katrā no šiem grūtākajiem brīžiem piedzimst ideāls varonis, kurš ir gatavs karot par savu dzimteni un tautu ,un tajā pašā laikā kļūst arī par paraugu visiem nākamajiem cīnītājiem. Tomēr latviešu rakstnieki nerada jaunus varoņus, bet jau vairāk nekā simts gadus izmanto vienus un tos pašus tēlus, piemēram, Vidvudu un Lāčplēsi. Rakstā tiek aplūkota viņu abu stāja un transformācijas dažādos Latvijas vēstures posmos, kā arī viņu īpatnējā izpratne par varonību, atbildību un pretošanās pret valsts brīvības un sabiedrības integrācijas draudiem. Raksturvārdi: latviešu literatūra, latviešu nacionālais varonis, latviešu identitāte.

Heroes are projection surfaces for society. The mechanisms of selecting and worshipping heroes are time- and context-bound. Hero worship and heroic concepts can thus serve as cultural-historical seismographs; they reflect attitudes, value patterns and experiences of a specific group at a specific period that can be located socially, nationally, religiously and regionally. And yet there are traditional lines of hero worship that seem to bridge several centuries. This essay takes a look at the complexity of the phenomenon of "heroes". It highlights the historical expressions of heroic ideas and hero worship in Europe since antiquity. The aim is to demonstrate the temporality of the ideals which communities and groups project into their respective heroes. Of course, the diversity of the often overlapping or contradictory heroic ideas must be simplified and schematized. For it is not only important to present the individual types of heroes, but also to show the different contexts of action or constellations in which they acted. As a rule, the constellations had an effect on the respective hero type.

Helden sind gesellschaftliche Projektionsflächen. Die Mechanismen der Auserwählung und Verehrung von Helden sind zeit- und kontextgebunden. Heldenverehrung und Heldenvorstellungen können so als kulturgeschichtlicher Seismograf dienen; in ihnen spiegeln sich Denkhaltungen, Wertemuster und Erfahrungszusammenhänge einer spezifischen Zeit, einer spezifischen Gruppe, die sozial, national, religiös-konfessionell und regional zu verorten ist. Und doch gibt es Traditionslinien der Heldenverehrung, mit denen sich scheinbar mehrere Jahrhunderte überbrücken lassen. Dieser Essay nimmt die Vielschichtigkeit des Phänomens »Helden« in den Blick. Er führt historische Ausprägungen von Heldenvorstellungen und Heldenverehrung in Europa seit der Antike schlaglichtartig vor. Damit soll die Zeitgebundenheit der Ideale, welche Gemeinschaften und Gruppen in ihre jeweiligen Helden hineinprojizieren, aufgezeigt werden. Natürlich ist die Vielfalt der sich häufig überlagernden oder widersprechenden Heldenvorstellungen zu vereinfachen und zu schematisieren. Denn es gilt nicht nur, die einzelnen Heldentypen vorzuführen, sondern auch die unterschiedlichen Handlungszusammenhänge bzw. Konstellationen aufzuzeigen, in denen sie agierten. Die Konstellationen wirkten in der Regel auf den jeweiligen Helden-Typus zurück.

Resumen: Este artículo estudia los orígenes y la evolución de la propaganda centrada en Juan Martín Díez, " el Empecinado " , durante la guerra de la Independencia (1808-1814). Durante la invasión francesa de España, el Empecinado pasó de ser un simple campesino a convertirse en uno de los jefes guerrilleros más importantes. Esta evolución se debió al talento del Empecinado para hacer la guerra irregular, pero también al uso masivo y permanente de la propaganda. Palabras clave: Propaganda, imagen, guerra de guerrillas, guerra de la Independencia, prensa periódica. Abstract: This paper studies the genesis and evolution of propaganda about Juan Martín Díez, called the " Empecinado " , during the Peninsular War (1808-1814). During the French invasion of Spain, the " Empecinado " went from being a simple peasant to become one of the most important guerrilla leaders. This development is largely due to the talent of the " Empecinado " to make the irregular war, but also because of a massive and permanent use of propaganda.

A case study of the memory of William Orr, the protomartyr of Irish republicanism, reveals that in modern Ireland (and particularly in the northern province of Ulster) social forgetting was part and parcel of social remembrance, even in the case of the nation’s most revered heroes, and that this forgetting reflected deeply embedded anxieties and internal conflicts.

The paper is focused on series of bitter debates, intended in ideological (self-)legitimation, using the figure of Hristo Botev. The most intensive phase of these debates took place during the 1920-ties and 1930-ties. Generally, the period was marked with hero-forging initiatives, then the cult of the poet-revolutionary H. Botev was structured as well. All the spectrum of ideology and politics were involved into the process of appropriation and legitimation of the pretension of exclusive rights over the ideological patrimony of Botev. Leftist part of the political space used arguments as revolutionary ideas closeness, socialistic and internationalist visions of the social engineering, anti-religiosity and anti-clericality, attributed to Botev. Rightist intellectuals insisted on the nationalistic elements of the poet's legacy, interpreted as direct link between historical past and contemporary social projects, based on a hypertrophic role of the state, and harnessed into authoritarian political practices. After the socialist takeover (9.9.1944) the dynamics of struggle for (self-)identification with Botev were rapidly minimized. In that period, socialist doctrine was the only able to preserve its rights to (re-)forge the historical narrative about so called National Revival Epoch, regarding that Hristo Botev was a prestigious predecessor of the communist heroes.

We've known Dr. Jose Protacio Rizal Mercado Y Realonda as our our national hero who has contributed to the Philippine literature through his famous works, Noli Me Tangere, El Filibusterismo and Mi Ultimo Adios which he had written before his execution in what was then called Bagumbayan. He's been known as a man of great knowledge who has written excellent, well-thought poems even as a young child whose intelligence is admired up until the generation of today. Many see him as a very loving son to his mother, Teodora Alonzo and a patriotic citizen of his mother land who eventually became the emancipator whose memory is consistently commemorated. However, aside from all these notable facts about the man who brought our country independence, he also played the role of a lover, a husband and a father. In these roles, his exemplary skills in wiriting had been put to use and were highlighted in the letters that he wrote for the women who had once completed him.

ΕΘΝΕΓΕΡΤΗΣ Ο ΚΟΣΜΑΣ Ο ΑΙΤΩΛΟΣ; (ΕΘΝΙΚΗ & ΠΟΛΙΤΙΚΗ ΑΠΟΨΗ), prof. alexios panagopoulos. Εισαγωγικά. Ο λόγιος Κοσμάς ο Αιτωλός για την εποχή του ήταν αρκετά μορφωμένος, από το της Αθωνιάδας ανώτερο εκπαιδευτικό ίδρυμα στον ελλαδικό χώρο, όσο και στην Κωνσταντινούπολη αργότερα. Είναι ένας αφυπνιστής του Γένους, είναι ορθόδοξος χριστιανός που συνέβαλε στην αφύπνιση του Ελληνισμού. Σπουδάζοντας και μαθαίνοντας γράμματα αποκλειστικά σε εκκλησιαστικά μορφωτικά ιδρύματα όπως την Αθωνιάδα, την Πατριαρχική Σχολή Κωνσταντινούπολης κ.α. Παρά τα επιχειρήματα δυτικών και γενικά οπαδών του ορθολογισμού της εσπερίας για την..

Κατά τη διάρκεια του Κυπριακού Αγώνα (1955-1959), και ιδίως μετά τον εκτοπισμό του Αρχιεπισκόπου Μακαρίου Γ' (Μάρτιος 1956) από το βρετανικό αποικιακό καθεστώς, η προσοχή αναφορικά με το Κυπριακό Ζήτημα μετακινήθηκε από το πολιτικό στο στρατιωτικό πεδίο. Ως απόρροια αυτής της εξέλιξης, συντελέστηκε η ανάδειξη νέων προσωπικοτήτων στο εσωτερικό μέτωπο της Κύπρου με επίκεντρο τη δράση τους στα πεδία των μαχών. Ωστόσο, μετά τον τερματισμό της επανάστασης στο νησί με τις Συμφωνίες Ζυρίχης-Λονδίνου τον Φεβρουάριο του 1959, η μετέπειτα αγγλόγλωσση και ελληνόγλωσση ακαδημαϊκή ιστοριογραφία επικεντρώθηκε στην ανάλυση των πολιτικών παραμέτρων.  Συνεπακόλουθα, η συστηματική εξέταση της φυσικής πάλης μεταξύ των δυνάμεων καταστολής του αποικιακού καθεστώτος και του ένοπλου ενωτικού κινήματος της Εθνικής Οργάνωσης Κυπρίων Αγωνιστών (ΕΟΚΑ) συσκοτίστηκε σε μεγάλο βαθμό τόσο σε ευρύτερο όσο και σε ειδικότερο επίπεδο. Βέβαια, ένας προσεκτικός ερευνητής μπορεί να αντιτείνει ότι έχει εκπονηθεί ένας αριθμός συγγραμμάτων για Έλληνες μαχητές της Κύπρου, οι οποίοι σκοτώθηκαν στην υπηρεσία της ΕΟΚΑ. Η συγκεκριμένη παραγωγή στηρίζεται σε προφορικές ή γραπτές μαρτυρίες από την ελληνοκυπριακή πλευρά και επικεντρώνεται στην ανάδειξη της ηρωικής διάστασης των υπό εξέταση μορφών ως πρότυπα αρετής, θάρρους και πνεύματος θυσίας. Εντούτοις, η χρήση πηγών από τη βρετανική πλευρά συνήθως απουσιάζει, ενώ και οι λεπτομέρειες για τις συνθήκες θανάτου στο πεδίο της μάχης παρουσιάζουν σοβαρή ένδεια.

Στόχος της παρούσας μελέτης είναι να καταδείξει με ποιο τρόπο το βρετανικό αρχειακό υλικό μπορεί να συμβάλει στην επιστημονική μελέτη εξειδικευμένων πτυχών του Κυπριακού Αγώνα. Η συγκεκριμένη δράση μπορεί να επιτελεστεί παρέχοντας πληροφορίες για την τεκμηρίωση της επί μέρους ένοπλης δράσης μαχητών της ΕΟΚΑ, ενδυναμώνοντας τις μαρτυρίες της ελληνοκυπριακής πλευράς σχετικά με ένα ιστορικό γεγονός, καθώς επίσης φέρνοντας στο φως άγνωστες πτυχές. Ως περίπτωση μελέτης, επιλέγηκε η δράση και ο θάνατος του Μάρκου Δράκου το 1957. Ο λόγος της εν λόγω επιλογής εδράζεται στη φήμη που απέκτησε -ήδη ενόσω διαρκούσε η επανάσταση στο νησί- ως ένα από τα ικανότερα μαχητικά στελέχη της ΕΟΚΑ. Επιπρόσθετο λόγο αποτελεί το γεγονός ότι μόλις πρόσφατα επιτράπηκε η πρόσβαση σε πρωτογενείς πηγές του Κρατικού Αρχείου Κύπρου (στη Λευκωσία), οι οποίες αναφέρονται στην απώλεια του Δράκου.

Η παρούσα ανάλυση στηρίχτηκε κατά κύριο λόγο στις βρετανικό αναφορές που διατηρούνται στο Κρατικό Αρχείο Κύπρου.  Eπιπρόσθετα, έγινε χρήση γραπτών πηγών από το The National Archives of the United Kingdom (TNA) στο Λονδίνο. Οι δε πρωτογενείς μαρτυρίες διασταυρώθηκαν ή εμπλουτίστηκαν -όπου υπήρχε μια τέτοια δυνατότητα- με πληροφορίες από ελληνόγλωσσες ή αγγλόγλωσσες δευτερεύουσες πηγές.

The goal of this research paper is to discover the role of national heroes in forming national identity in Ukraine before and during the Ukrainian crisis of 2014. In the first part, by selecting ten major historic periods and fifteen historical individuals, the aim is to trace the relationship between the selected national heroes and historical periods, and to determine the significance of heroes’ contributions, role and heritage within or outside of a particular historical period. The second part outlines the discoveries of the conducted survey and the collected data, which both supports and rejects some of the proposed roles of national heroes in shaping national identity of Ukraine. The final part of the research describes possible accounts, solutions and role of the Ukrainian national heroes in the spectrum of the Ukrainian crisis of 2014 and the War in Donbas.

Nesse artigo, pretendo por meio da análise do filme “Heleno”, apoiado na leitura do livro biográfico “Nunca Houve um Homem como Heleno”, expor as múltiplas faces desse atleta em sua relação com o ethos da sociedade brasileira dos anos 1930 a 1950. Com o auxílio de parte da bibliografia da Antropologia Social, no que concerne à cultura, bem como aquela das Ciências Sociais que tratam do herói, acredito ser possível relacionar o atleta ao contexto social no qual estava inserido. Entender como a cultura molda o indivíduo foi fundamental para compreender como Heleno é ao mesmo tempo produto e agente desse meio social no qual está inserido.

O trabalho examina o campo da produção visual associado à figura de Dom Boaventura, relacionando a construção de sua imagem pública a diferentes narrativas nacionais incorporadas em Timor-Leste. Dom Boaventura constitui um poderoso personagem conceitual timorense. Fonte de narrativas múltiplas e objeto de apreciação coletiva, ele é “bom para pensar”. Sua fotografia é uma imagem, dentre outras tantas do acervo colonial, que perdurou, adquirindo durabilidade e atualidade, sendo amplamente difundida no século XX e entrando no XXI com reconhecido destaque no panteão cívico do país recém independente. O texto problematiza as imagens do liurai, considerando seus contextos de uso e as diferentes visões nacionalistas que as envolvem, por meio de um diálogo entre história política e antropologia visual.

In what follows I examine how New Zealand's Olympic Committee (NZOC) capitalised on the expertise and popularity of Jack Lovelock - one of the country’s top scholars and emerging middle-distance running star of the 1930s – to help develop the organisation and prepare it for future adversities. NZOC effectively used Lovelock as a positive symbol of the achievements of the nation’s sporting culture. Lovelock was, aside from being an athlete extraordinaire, a competent scholar who benefited from an elite English tertiary education and the vigorous competition afforded him by the Northern hemisphere sporting circuit (which though amateur by name was certainly professional by nature). Through his experiences, education, socialisation, and travels Lovelock amassed a wealth of knowledge which, among other feats, culminated in his 1500 metres triumph at the 1936 Berlin Olympic Games. However, prior to and beyond this 'famous' moment, Lovelock appeared keen to offer NZOC advice which, he believed, might help them to improve the organization and preparation of Olympic teams  for competition abroad. Conversely, by re-appropriating Lovelock for their own purposes, I contend, NZOC fortified their own public persona (by basking in reflected glory), and, showed their professional responsibility by demonstrating an attentiveness to athlete concerns; both of which became enduring issues for the organisation.

Ahmad Yani dilahirkan di Jenar, Purworejo, pada tanggal 19 Juni 1922, sebagai putra tertua dari Sarjo bin Suharyo dan isterinya Murtini. Sarjo kemudian lebih dikenal dengan nama M. Wongsorejo.
Sejak kecil sudah terlihat bahwa Yani senang bermain perang-perangan dan mobil-mobilan. Ia menjadi pemimpin dari kelompok anak-anak di kampungnya.  Pada suatu ketika di kampungnya terjadi suatu peristiwa. Seekor kerbau mengamuk, dan menyerang setiap orang yang ditemuinya di jalan. Semuanya berlari-larian mencari tempat persembunyian. Seorang anak kecil, dengan ketenangan yang mengagumkan, memanjat sebuah pohon. Dari pohon itu ia memberi “komando” kepada beberapa orang yang berusaha menangkap kerbau itu. Entah kekuatan apa yang dimilikinya, namun perintah-perintah¬nya diikuti oleh orang-orang tersebut. Akhirnya binatang liar itu berhasil ditangkap.  Ketenangan Yani yang diperlihatkannya dalam peristiwa kerbau liar di atas, menarik perhatian Hulstyn, seorang Belanda majikan ayahnya. Yani diambil dan kemudian diasuh oleh Hulstyn. Atas usaha Hulstyn dalam tahun 1928, ia dimasukkan ke HIS (Hollandsch lnlandsche School) di Purworejo.

RESUMEN

“Miguel Hidalgo en los relatos de nación. Del patriotismo criollo al nacionalismo posrevolucionario” no es una investigación que se ocupe de la vida y obra de Hidalgo. Este estudio desarrolla  cómo se construyó el mito nacional en torno a este personaje y cuál fue la importancia que tuvo dicho mito en el proceso de invención de la nación mexicana durante el siglo XIX y primera mitad del XX.

        El trabajo está enfocado en dos aspectos importantes: se aborda cómo el mito del “padre de la patria” ha sido utilizado como estrategia de legitimación política  y como fuerza cohesionadora que facilitó que la población se identificara y sintiera parte de una sola comunidad cultural y política: la nación mexicana

        Para desarrollar la investigación fue necesario identificar los distintos imaginarios nacionales que fueron impulsados desde el siglo XIX para explicar qué era la nación mexicana, qué era lo mexicano y quiénes eran los mexicanos. Cada uno de estos imaginarios fue promovido por diversas condiciones políticas, económicas y tecnológicas. Una vez que se tuvieron estos contextos, en cada uno de ellos se desarrolla qué interpretación se hacía de Miguel Hidalgo, cómo las elites rectoras del país reinterpretaron y se apropiaron de su culto para justificar su poder político y para potenciar una identidad nacional en el resto de la población.

        Esta estrategia metodológica fue derivada de la llamada “teoría modernista sobre el nacionalismo y la invención de las naciones”, la cual sostiene que las naciones modernas son construcciones culturales que tuvieron cabida a finales del siglo XVIII e inicios del XIX, cuando se desplazó la tradición divino-dinástica de los Estados de Antiguo régimen y “la Nación” fue colocada como fuente de soberanía de los Estados modernos. La investigación se centró en cuatro tipo de fuentes: la historiografía clásica del siglo XIX, las celebraciones patrióticas, la enseñanza de historia patria en sistema escolar influenciado por el gobierno y a partir de las fuentes icónicas (monumentos, pintura, etc.) que han tenido un peso en la construcción de imaginarios nacionales.

        Como última precisión, es pertinente mencionar que la tesis, aunque está centrada en la invención del mito del “padre de la patria”, también aporta conocimiento sobre el proceso de invención de la nación mexicana y lo que esto ha implicado: la manipulación del discurso histórico.

Palabras clave:    Miguel Hidalgo, nacionalismo, nación, mito, héroe.

Manufacturing the image of Bulgarian national heroes

The paper is focused on the manufacturing process of Bulgarian national pantheon. It is based on the understanding that heroic features' set is not immanent, but constructed and influenced by social regimes and political ideologies. National heroes from XIX c. revolutionary movement occupy the highest positions in the national heroes' hierarchy, because they lost their lives, fighting against the Ottoman rule. Considered in the context of European history, it is clearly visible, that during XIX c., heroism was flourishing. It originated from all the variety of nationalistic projects and dreams for "reborn nations", which took place then.
The identity of the Bulgarian national revolutionaries as heroes of the nation was a matter of long-taking constructing process. The paper traces the way they had passed until they were imagined and installed in wide social context as national heroes, focusing on different periods with various influences.
Being "new" heroes, forged by the "modern" epoch, marked with close tie to the national ideology, the Bulgarian national revolutionaries were involved in complicated relationship with the heroes from pre-modern period - medieval monarchs, Christian saints and folklore heroes. These "pre-modern" heroes encountered bitter rivalry against “modern" ones, being competitors to occupy the top of Bulgarian national pantheon. In addition, competing energies were intensified, because some of "modern" persons were known as supporters of the Ottoman status quo. During the whole period of so called National Revival, their conservative political position were discernible enough. Thus, evaluation of the deeds, made by the revolutionaries, and incorporation of narratives about them into Grand narrative, has its history. They were attributed with heroic status considerably after the Revival period ended. Even after the Liberation from the Ottoman rule (1878), Zachary Stoyanov – journalist and writer – shared: “We have heroes - our national pride, as L. Karavelov, Levsky, Hadzhi Dimitar, Karadzhata, Botev, Benkovsky, Volov, Kableshkov and many others; but we know where the saint remnants of them are buried only for a few of them...”. However, even assuming that feeling of oblivion, emerged just a couple of years after the revolutionaries lost their lives in the name of the nation, represented in the quotation above, was subjective and exaggerated, we should accept that this feeling is indicative for the emergence of the debate, focused on establishing national heroic cults. The process is ongoing, but cults are still not stabilized. That consciousness was what the ideologists of Bulgarian nation were concerned about after the Liberation. Therefore, they committed great efforts to construct new heroic pantheon in two major directions. Firstly, deeds of the revolutionaries were popularized by numerous memoirs, commemoration enterprises, erecting monuments, including narrative about them into school curricula. Secondly, re-constructed narratives about them were installed into fictional texts as “Epic of the Forgotten” - a poetic cycle by the most canonic Bulgarian author Ivan Vazov; as “Under the yoke” - the first novel in history of Bulgarian literature, etc. All of them were rapidly raised into the raw of literary canon.
Bulgarian national heroic pantheon with numerous characters from the National Revival movement, stabilized at the top of the hierarchy, ended somewhere in 20-ties of XX c. Why then? Probably, one of the key reasons was the emergence of new conception of Bulgarian national idea. In that period it reached its apogee by crystallizing Bulgarian essentiality in deep, cultural symbolism. Furthermore, during the third decade of XX c. Bulgarian national revolutionaries were mythologized gradually: communicative memory were substituted by cultural one, because after the First World War most of Bulgarian revival figures passed away. This memory shift installed XIX c. revolutionaries into a legendary framework, making them transcendent, “secular saints”. Interwar period was particularly marked with a variety of techniques, invented to absorb national heroes in genealogy of ideological and political causes and debates. Rightist politicians emphasized on the "national" element in heroes' deeds, proclaiming them as their predecessors. Leftist projects were intended to outline republican visions of the heroes, using them as self-identification as well.
The struggle for social and/or political identification tied to Revolutionary personalities from XIX c. ended with the beginning of socialist period (after 1944), when “national heroes” were enthroned as glorious forefathers of the “new” regime. This ideological continuity was reaffirmed in slogans like: “Flag of pride for us is Botev, our first tutor – Dimitrov” (Georgy Dimitrov was one of the leaders of the Bulgarian Communist Party). All the revolutionaries together appeared as admiring Russia and Soviet Union, exponents of the interest of the labor class and peasantry, strongly opposing to “Turkish feudals and bribable chorbadzhias and clergymen”. During the early socialism in Bulgaria, the crucial accent was put onto initial incompatibility of these paradigmatic personalities with “pernicious chauvinism” - a notion, invented to represent the previous period, thought as classical “ancient regime” as it was defined in the rhetorical tradition of French Revolution. The first period of socialism in Bulgaria, featured with internationalist conceptions, was followed by so called nationalistic turn. It was then, that “patriotism” of national heroes was brought forth. As a consequence of those political turn, national pantheon was significantly extended. Besides figures from so called National Revival, it was enriched with biographies of monarchs from the Middle Age history - rehabilitated in order to match the new national-communist tendency.
Despite of political changes, took place after 1989, this version of national pantheon preserved its social actuality. Leftist rhetoric were removed, but their holiness, honored under the socialist regime, remained intact. Being forged to serve as resource for national grand narrative narration and to be emblem of everyday nationalism, it could be maintained that images of XIX c. revolutionaries remained consensually considered as moral “high” standards, which are to be followed by everybody.

Today, early modern book printer Francysk Skaryna, is the most well-known historical figure in Belarus. His image contains features from the academic concept of the ‛national hero’, shaped by its studying and instrumentalization during the period of more than 200 years. The current heroic image is greatly impacted by the 500th anniversary of Francysk Skaryna, celebrated in Soviet Belarus from 1986–1990. It was the largest event celebrating Skaryna to ever happen. The author attempts to decode the image of the man created by researchers, writers, creative circles and Soviet officials during the celebration. Previously, the author was engaged in research of Skaryna’s image development in XIX–XX cent. This allowed for a greater focus to be placed on the changing perceptions of Skaryna’s figure that occurred in Soviet Belarusian society during Perestroika. Current research is based on a wide range of evidence from published texts, visual representations and archival documents inspired by the anniversary. The findings show the importance of Skaryna’s figure for the topics of language, historical ‛normality’, interdenominational reconciliation, social peace, European relevance and international acknowledgement of the Belarusian society on the threshold of the national independence.

Першадрукар Францыск Скарына – самая вядомая гістарычная асоба ў сучаснай Беларусі. Дзвесце гадоў вывучэння і функцыяналізацыі яго постаці сфармавалі рысы, тыповыя для канцэпта «нацыянальнага героя». Адным з ключавых этапаў у тварэнні цяперашняга гераічнага вобраза Скарыны было святкаванне яго 500-годдзя ў БССР у 1986–1990 гг. Свята сталася самай масавай публічнай падзеяй, калі-небудзь арганізаванай у гонар першадрукара. Тэкст спрабуе акрэсліць сэнсы, якія інтэлектуальныя і творчыя супольнасці, а таксама ўладныя структуры ўкладалі ў фігуру Францыска Скарыны падчас юбілея. Аўтар ужо даследаваў гісторыю вобраза прешадрукара ў ХІХ–ХХ стст. Гэта дазваляла канцэнтравацца на зменах, якія адбыліся ва ўспрыняцці Скарыны пад уплывам працэсаў перабудовы ў беларускім падсавецкім грамадстве. Свята спарадзіла шырокую базу сведчанняў у публікацыях, візуальных прадуктах і архіўных дакументах, якія і выкарыстоўваліся для аналізу. Вынікі даследавання паказалі важнасць постаці Скарыны для тэмаў мовы, гістарычнай «нармальнасці», міжканфесійнага міру, грамадскай згоды, еўрапейскай уключаннасці і міжнароднага прызнання беларускай супольнасці на парозе здабыцця дзяржаўнай незалежнасці.

La lectura de este libro requiere una advertencia que es, al mismo tiem-po, una invitación. A lo largo de las siguientes páginas poco se dice so-bre la vida y la obra de ese personaje fundamental de la historia mexica-na que nació en Guelatao el 21 de marzo de 1806 y murió en la Ciudad de México el 18 de julio de 1872. La extraordinaria trayectoria de aquel in-dígena oaxaqueño, bautizado con el nombre de Benito Pablo Juárez Gar-cía, ha sido estudiada en un imponente conjunto de obras que, a diferen-cia de la presente, sí refieren los motivos o bien las circunstancias que explican la relevancia de Benito Juárez en la historia política del Méxi-co decimonónico. Al público interesado en esos temas es preciso aclarar-le que sus preocupaciones no serán cabalmente atendidas en esta obra. La advertencia, sin embargo, no pretende disuadir al lector sino invitar-lo a pensar la figura de Juárez de una forma poco habitual. Lo que este ∫libro ofrece es un ejercicio de reflexión crítica que exige trascender los límites del contexto vital e histórico propio del personaje, en aras de una comprensión más cabal de su trascendencia en la cultura nacional a lo largo de los cien años que van desde su muerte hasta la década de los se-tenta del siglo xx. Esta suerte de exordio implica problematizar la idea misma que he-mos heredado y a la vez construido de ese personaje histórico; implica cuestionar, por ejemplo, cuáles son las razones que explican su trascen-dencia como símbolo de la ley, el Estado o el poder. La obra que el lec-tor tiene en sus manos no pretende ser un libro sobre Benito, el hom-bre o el político, sino sobre la figura heroica de Juárez, esto es, un estudio acerca de las cualidades que, a lo largo del tiempo, fueron consolidan-do una imagen mítica y emblemática, utilizada tanto en el ámbito de la política como en el del arte y la cultura populares. Semejante perspecti-va de interpretación requiere una mirada crítica que se ocupe del proce-so de construcción de una figura heroica que no debe confundirse con el individuo de carne y hueso. El mito o los mitos sobre el Benemérito de las Américas (tanto como las múltiples representaciones en que se ma-nifiestan) no fueron gestionados por Benito Pablo Juárez García, ni sus consecuencias calculadas por él. Incluso si consideramos la generación de la Reforma como la primera en promover tal reivindicación, estamos

Pier Gerlofs Donia (c. 1480 – 28 October 1520) was a Frisian rebel leader and pirate. He is best known by his West Frisian nickname Grutte Pier ("Big Pier"; in the pre-1980 West Frisian spelling written as Greate Pier), or by the Dutch translation Grote Pier which referred to his legendary size and strength.

His life is mostly shrouded in legend. Based upon a description now attributed to Pier's contemporary Petrus Thaborita, the 19th-century historian Conrad Busken Huet wrote that Grutte Pier was.

A tower of a fellow as strong as an ox, of dark complexion, broad shouldered, with a long black beard and moustache. A natural rough humorist, who through unfortunate circumstances was recast into an awful brute. Out of personal revenge for the bloody injustice that befell him (in 1515) with the killing of kinsfolk and destruction of his property he became a freedom fighter of legendary standing.

In 1791, Jacobus Kok wrote that above the porticus of the New City Hall of Leeuwarden, two remarkably large swords were found which were said to have belonged to Grutte Pier and Wijerd Jelckama. Donia was noted for the ability to wield this great sword so efficiently that he could behead multiple people with it in a single blow.

Today, a great sword that is said to have belonged to Pier is on display at the Fries Museum in Leeuwarden. It measures 2.13 metres (7 ft) in length and weighs about 6.6 kilograms (14.6 lb). Pier was alleged to be so strong that he could bend coins using just his thumb, index and middle finger. Some sources put Pier Gerlofs height at 213 cm (almost seven feet). A huge helmet said to be Grutte Pier's is kept in the town hall of Sneek.

During the inauguration of the Walhalla in 1842, King Ludwig I of Bavaria spoke of his hope that “the German will exit it more German, better than when he came”. Writer Karl Gutzkow, however, denounced the Walhalla as a cultural memorial calling it instead the “private chapel of an individual”. This article explores how such divergent evaluations of the Walhalla came into being and how the growing collection of busts related to the changing images of Germany. By way of a long-term perspective – marked by the fall of the monarchy, the end of the NS-era, and German reunification – it shows that even if the Walhalla was time and again touted as a “national monument”, it often represented an understanding of the German nation that due to the manifold of national ideas could neither be enforced nor represent the majority. It was not just the repeated references to the Christian-Catholic Abendland, to the Great-German idea with Bavaria at is centre, and to patriarchy, but also the symbolic suppression of important episodes in German history such as the Reformation and the Holocaust that created a rift between the commemorated and other public concepts of the nation. Indeed, the historical narrative on display in the Walhalla was appropriated by Ludwig, and subsequently by those who were in charge of the admission of new busts after his death, such as the state council, the Reich chancellery, and the Bavarian ministry. While this article shows, through an analysis of the collection of busts against its socio-political backdrop, the altogether peripheral status of the Walhalla within the German monumental landscape, it simultaneously queries the suitability of the concept “national monument” when used for commemorative cultures that were impressed by particularistic interests and individual actors.

The paper is focused on ideological modeling of the image of Hristo Botev, regarded as national hero, during the Interwar period. Three particular works are analyzed: "The poet rebel: Hristo Botev" by Theodosy Anastasov, "Veneta" by Fany Popova-Mutafova, "Hristo Botev (Historical novel)" by Georgy Savchev. All these texts were published in the same year-1935, and this fact could be considered as one of the arguments for grouping them together. They could be seen as representative for various prose genre forms. Authors of them demonstrated different attitude towards the established (canonical) historical and literary-historical narrative, both popular and academic, dedicated to Botev. While interpreting them, the paper is aiming at outlining both points of ideological match and tensions between literature and history as disciplinary fields.

What were the fortunes of the contributors of the Greek Revolution, in the aftermath of the war? How did the Greek state treat the men and women who participated in the ‘Palingenesia’? What rewards did it reserve for the natives (autochthons) and non-native (‘eterocthones’) warriors, politicians, ‘internal creditors’ and war-affected individuals?
This book focuses on the ‘workshop’ of the reward policies, the first post-revolutionary period 1828-1844. It presents in detail the main material and moral rewards, offered to the fighters by the Greek state. Moreover, it explains how these policies created a model for rewarding the veterans of the subsequent national struggles, during the 19th and 20th century.
The game of the rewards had two sides: the demands of the veterans and the state aspirations. Among them existed foreign agents, personal friendships and rivalries, selfish interests, social differences and national aspirations. The multifaceted history of the rewards emerges from a multitude of sources, combined in a way that highlights the relationships between individuals and governments, private and public discourse, glory and agony, recognition and denial, that always characterise the transition from the excitement of the national struggles to the compromises and the pragmatism of the next day.
Πώς πορεύτηκαν μετά την Επανάσταση του 1821 οι συντελεστές της; Πώς το ελληνικό κράτος αντιμετώπισε τους άνδρες και τις γυναίκες που συμμετείχαν στην Παλιγγενεσία; Ποιες ανταμοιβές επιφύλαξε στους πολεμιστές, τους πολιτικούς, τους «εσωτερικούς πιστωτές» και τους πολεμοπαθείς, αυτόχθονες και ετερόχθονες;
Το ανά χείρας βιβλίο επικεντρώνεται στο «εργαστήρι» των πολιτικών ανταμοιβής, την πρώτη μετεπαναστατική περίοδο 1828-1844, παρουσιάζοντας διεξοδικά τα κύρια μέσα υλικής και ηθικής επιβράβευσης, τα οποία προσέφερε η ελληνική πολιτεία στους αγωνιστές. Ταυτόχρονα, εξηγεί πώς εκείνες οι πολιτικές έγιναν πρόκριμα για ανταμοιβές του κράτους και σε μεταγενέστερους πολέμους του έθνους, κατά τον 19ο και τον 20ό αιώνα.
Το παιχνίδι των ανταμοιβών είχε δύο πλευρές: τα αιτήματα των συντελεστών και τις κρατικές επιδιώξεις. Ανάμεσά τους παρεμβάλλονταν ξένοι παράγοντες, προσωπικές συμπάθειες και αντιπάθειες, ιδιοτελή συμφέροντα, κοινωνικές διαφορές και εθνικές επιδιώξεις. Η πολυδαίδαλη ιστορία των ανταμοιβών αναβλύζει μέσα από πληθώρα πηγών, συνδυαστικά δοσμένων με τρόπο που αναδεικνύει τις αλληλεπιδράσεις αγωνιστών και κυβερνήσεων, ιδιωτικού και δημόσιου λόγου, δόξας και αγωνίας, αναγνώρισης και διαψεύσεων που πάντα χαρακτηρίζουν τη μετάβαση από την έξαρση των εθνικών αγώνων στους συμβιβασμούς και τον πραγματισμό της επόμενης ημέρας.

"The Greatest Hero of the Land of Heroes": Prague Representations of Marko Miljanov

The contribution is devoted to the representations of Marko Miljanov (1833–1901), chieftain of the Kuči tribe from the present-day Montenegrin-Albanian borderland, general and writer. The author borrows his approach from transnational history. Miljanov has been traditionally regarded as the most exemplary epitome of  “Montenegrin humanism and heroism“ (čojstvo i junaštvo). At the same time, he has also been appropriated as a figure of the wider Serb national pantheon on (disputed) ethnic grounds. In the Albanian milieu, he is perceived with ambivalence: as a war enemy of Albanian national aspirations but also as a friend of Albanians and occassionally even as an ethnic Albanian. The author underlines the fact that Prague in the late 19th and the first half of the 20th century represented the most important center of the cult of Marko Miljanov beyond the Balkans. Czech Slavophiles, especially the writer, journalist and translator Josef Holeček (1853–1929), presented a highly idealized image of Marko Miljanov from the 1880s onwards. In 1912, the representations of Miljanov as an examplary Slavic warrior and humanist influenced the early ideological foundations of the Czech Scout movement (Junák). In the 1930s and 1940s, the deeds and virtues of Miljanov found another respected admirer and interpreter – the leading German Slavicist Gerhard Gesemann (1888–1948), professor at the German University of Prague in the interwar period. After the Second World War, the representations of Miljanov´s life, virtues and ideas encountered in the works of Prague authors writing in both Czech and German provide a good example of a process known as „repatriation of a cultural transfer“ in the jargon of transnational history, largely thanks to modern translations of these literary and scholarly works into South Slavic languages.

REFERENCE
Najveći junak zemlje junaka: praške predstave lika Marka Miljanova, In: Novica Vujović (ur.), Cetinjski filološki dani I., Cetinje: Fakultet za crnogorski jezik i književnost 2018, pp. 95-117.

¿Cómo hacen su aparición los "antepasados ilustres" en los procesos políticos revolucionarios? Este ensayo explora cómo la figura espectral de Augusto César Sandino irrumpe en los diversos momentos por los que atraviesa la lucha política nicaragüense, desde 1927 hasta el presente.  Con base en una reflexión teórica que inicia con Derrida y Marx y cierra con la apropiación de algunas categorías fundantes del análisis filosófico político de Alain Badiou, complementadas con los aportes de Walter Benjamin, se pretende reconstruir la querella simbólica en torno a las representaciones de Sandino realizadas tanto por aquellos que se reivindican como sus herederos, como por sus detractores, confesos o soterrados. Luego de revisar las distintas fases de la política nicaragüense, llegamos a la conclusión –preliminar– de que las enunciaciones de la "verdad" del "acontecimiento Sandino" configuran una doble tendencia. En una primera fase, no exenta de polémica, se realiza una exaltación del carácter revolucionario y redentor de la figura de Sandino; en la segunda, que inicia hacia fines de la década de los 80s y continua hasta el presente, se produce un proceso –aún en marcha– de destitución simbólica de la figura del héroe de Las Segovias.

On the case of the literary tale of Fran Levstik: Martin Krpan (1858), the article illuminates Levstik’s political agenda and his literary implementation of the outlaw hero, Martin Krpan, for the needs of Slovenia’s nation-building process, a phenomenon that was characteristic of almost all emerging European nations at the time. An analysis of Levstik’s Martin Krpan reveals a unique phenomenon that was tailored to a specific program: namely, the conscious desire to create a national literary character that would constitute both a foundation for further literary creation and for the national political struggle.
Levstik was the most prominent writer among the emerging Slovenian intellectual class in the second half of the 19th century. The value of Levstik’s tale resides in its merging of mythical and literary narrative into a functionally connected organism, the simultaneity of “historical” and “non-historical” elements, and the interaction between symbolic and real ambiguities. Levstik’s structure for both his literary-political program and for his tale about Martin Krpan originates in historical realities and cultural memory of the 15th and 16th centuries: economic (transportation), social (peasant revolts), and political (defense against the Ottoman Turks). Levstik combined these elements with the fundamentals of folkloric and ethno-symbolic cultural heritage of that period. In Martin Krpan, Levstik skillfully conceals “historical realities” behind metaphors and symbolism, which is typical of myths. In this way, he provides a path toward the realization of national political ambitions. But the “real” myth Levstik created was more than simply Martin Krpan and his adventures. It was more than an argument for the historical origin or vocation of a nation, the defense of the civilization, or the demand for political rights or mimetic narrative prose, i.e. the ability to create a virtual real world. The “real” myth of the literary tale was the elevation of the Slovenian language to the essential distinguishing and constitutive element of the Slovenian nation-building process in comparison with the "Other (s)".

Juan Santamaría es el héroe nacional más representativo de Costa Rica, su acción de quemar el Mesón en la batalla de Rivas a costa de su propia vida, es el acto de valor por excelencia en el imaginario costarricense. Dicho accionar provocó su inmortalización en bronce y su consagración en el panteón de héroes nacional.

Por lo cual, este artículo pretende esbozar el proceso de construcción de la figura heroica de dicho personaje, los motivos para ello y el significado que se le ha querido dar a la misma en el proceso de construcción del imaginario impulsado por los liberales costarricenses a finales del siglo XIX; por medio del análisis iconográfico del monumento a Juan Santamaría ubicado en la plaza del mismo nombre ubicada en la ciudad de Alajuela y, de los discursos que fueron realizados durante su inauguración en 1891.

S’il y a une culture qui aujourd’hui cultive le mythe du héros, c’est bien la culture américaine. ll ne se passe pas un jour sans que John et Beth ne soient fêtés en héros car l’un a rapporté un portefeuille, et l’autre a éteint un départ de feu chez son voisin. Mais ce héros peut-il être clairement défini ? Est-il immuable ? Définit-il la nation américaine ? Où apparaît-il ?
La dernière question est la plus simple. Aux Etats-Unis d’Amérique le héros est véhiculé avant tout à travers des oeuvres de la culture populaire.
Qu’est-ce que la culture populaire ? En France ce terme fleure bon le folklore et revêt un côté ringard, voire négatif. On l’oppose systématiquement à la « vraie culture », à l’art, la civilisation pour la reléguer dans le bourbier de la télé-réalité, de Voici magazine, des contes pour enfants, des recettes de cuisine de notre enfance, bref le terme décrit en France les amusements de la France d’en bas qui ne nécessitent que peu de cerveau humain disponible pour détourner la phrase de Patrick Le Lay, PDG de TF1.
Or aux Etats-Unis l’expression « culture populaire » n'est pas liée à un aspect péjoratif mais à une thématisation de phénomènes culturels de masse à diffusion importante.
Pour que l'oeuvre soit populaire et pas seulement un traitement du populaire, il faut qu'elle soit intelligible et accessible à une majorité: par son style, son support, son mode de diffusion.


Puisque le héros américain trouve ses heures de gloire dans la culture populaire., quoi de plus normal donc d’en rechercher une définition sur le médium roi du genre populaire : internet ?