Military Education and Training

“La educación militar en la transición democrática argentina. Tensiones entre concepciones tradicionales y reformistas en el contexto de crisis profesional e institucional del Ejército. 1984-1986”. En: Páginas. Revista Digital de la Escuela de Historia de la Universidad Nacional de Rosario. Año 9, Nº19. Enero-abril de 2017. pp.98-121. ISSN 1851-992X.

This article considers approaches to teaching senior military officers at the U.S. Army War College (USAWC). It reviews the results of several studies and surveys from the employers of our graduates and from recent graduates themselves on how best to prepare for future assignments. It examines the tensions between theoretical and utilitarian education in strategy and concludes with a recommendation that USAWC faculty design and implement a portfolio approach to provide students with the opportunity to demonstrate the benefits of senior-level education.

Ethics as espoused by philosophers and employed as a control mechanism by the many instruments of power, seems to be more a construct of what ‘ought’ than what ‘is’ , detracting away from genetically coded Ethical Thinking within regions of the brain associated with the social and individual sense of self. This is perhaps why Ethical control mechanisms, derived from traditional Ethics instruction, often break down when clear thinking is required most. Even under periods of extreme stress however, when higher neuronal functions impacting thought and reasoning are impaired, precluding access to the self-restraint and control introduced through ethics training, those regions of the brain dealing with self-preservation are yet quite active. And central to self-perseveration is the brains native ability to conduct complex Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) with respect to individual survival. Ethical instruction molded to how the brain conducts individualized CBA, and introduced as an integral part of daily training and activity, might very well provide for a more effective means by which to ensure Ethical Thinking when it is absolutely essential.

After years of looking for the most effective pedagogy for law school education, I prefer the EDGE method.  Yes, it is the teaching rubric of Scouting. And it works. 

EDGE is an acronym that labels and summarizes a pedagogy, or technique of teaching. EDGE focuses the teaching of a skill, item of knowledge, or a moral value, with an emphasis on student mastery of the skills, knowledge, or values being taught. EDGE stands for: E Explain, D Demonstrate, G Guide, and E Enable.  Here is a summary of each step. Oddly there is very little written about it.  I think mainly because the people who tend to use it, just get on with using it. 

Earlier posted to Academia.edu without the second half, the second half (just 3 paged) exhibits materials from the wartime JIT or Job Instruction Training, within the Training within Industry Program of the war Manpower Commission.  This is the basis for Lean and other forms of business training still in use.

This study examines the role of multiple instructional strategies in developing critical thinking in enlisted military personnel. The aim of this study is to test the effectiveness of modeling, problem solving, and lecture-based instructional strategies on students' acquisition of critical thinking skills in a military training environment. Literature about teaching critical thinking in the military has focused almost exclusively on the impact to the officer ranks with few studies being done about teaching critical thinking to the enlisted ranks. To date, no systematic investigation has considered how to develop a critical thinking mindset in enlisted military personnel within the timeframe allowed by their training. Using a collective case study mixed methods approach, this research explores the role of three different instructional strategies for developing critical thinking in enlisted military personnel. The findings from this research illustrate how even within the limited timeframe of military training the nucleus of critical thinking can be generated using certain instructional strategies. By analyzing both quantitative and qualitative results the conclusions offered insights into how differing instructional strategies can improve critical thinking comprehension to enlisted military personnel.

A política de abertura
de Colégios Militares não é
unanimidade dentro das forças armadas,
existe uma corrente que acredita que o
Exército deve somente se dedicar ao en
sino bélico e voltar suas
atividades para
seu objetivo fim que é a defesa nacional,
principalmente com a redução dos
orçamentos militares em diversos momentos do séc XX, forçando o Exército a
uma otimização de suas atividades

In order to inculcate the values of “MAKA-DIYOS, MAKA-TAO, MAKAKALIKASAN AT MAKABANSA.”, all NSTP in every institution must be certain in reaching these core values through the NSTP-Common Module. This will remind the student of what is thought during their elementary years and may be shared to their parents and peers. Teachers/ Instructors must also know how to make use the Values Clarification Strategy which is needed in assessing and linking values to the students. Further, strengthen these values by applying it to the teachers.

Many military professionals and academics outline the importance of military theory and the need to study it. Some, like Colin Gray, even highlight how understanding it allows the profession of arms to better adapt in war. Given these wise words, would it not seem important to know ‘what’ military theory is? Is it not significant to know who has shaped it? How do we, as professionals, tell if something is military theory, or just opinion and conjecture? Knowing what military theory is, and what it is not, is vital. It helps identify what writings further our understanding of war and warfare, and guides professional military education and research for future doctrine and training. This work answers the questions of what military theory is, where it sits within the wider context of the study of conflict, and which theorists are key in defining its body of knowledge.

The work first defines what military theory is. Military theory is a field of study that seeks to understand the phenomena of war and its links to wider conflict; and provides a framework for the valid creation and dissemination of the knowledge of war and warfare. In other words, military theory is the epistemology of war. This definition highlights that research into military theory is grounded in the philosophy of scientific inquiry and, much like applied history, must use broad scientific methods – using hypothesis and empirical data based in history; not just a single incident, war or technological advancement – to develop its concepts. Understanding this also provides a guide to test whether a new or modern idea is effective ‘military theory’, or merely ‘military notion’. The definition also indicates that the focus of military theory is the development of first principles knowledge about war and warfare. It is this knowledge that allows planners, commanders and senior decision makers to adapt their know-how of war fighting to changing situations, environments and political objectives. It is also this knowledge that can be enhanced through wider study.

The analysis of what military theory is, also demonstrates where military theory fits within wider academic disciplines. Although other humanities disciplines like history can support military theory, its focus on applied theory gives it strong links to other applied social sciences like political science, international relations and economics. These other disciplines overlap with military theory, and provide an avenue to potentially advance military theory’s understanding of power, influence and war’s wider links to conflict. Such links assist in broadening the military theory body of knowledge – a body of knowledge that is not codified, but is instead shaped by foundational theorists.

Who these foundation theorists are, or who is most influential, is also answered by this work. By analysing the curriculums of staff colleges around the world, this work has identified the top 20 theorists currently accepted as most influential. The analysis also suggests a normalising of military theory across the globe, including a possible convergence between the conceptual Eastern and Western ways of war.

Overall, this work provides a definition for military theory and highlights the key theorists that shape our views on it now and into the future. This is supported with guidance that allows us to test future theories. Understanding what military theory is and who shapes it lays the foundation to allow the profession to debate where future advancements in military theory should focus to best support planners, commanders and senior decision makers.

Türk Askerî Tarihi Bibliyografyası kitabı Nisan’da araştırmacıların hizmetine açıldığında
2021 yılına kadar yapılan 11398 çalışmanın künyesinden oluşmaktaydı. Gözden kaçanlar ve yeni yayınlarla birlikte bu sayı 14618’e ulaştı. Bu künyelerin çoğu genellikle Türkçe çalışmalar olmakla birlikte az sayıda Türk tarihiyle doğrudan ilgili olan yabancı dildeki çalışmaların künyeleri de bulunmaktadır. Künyelerin dönemlere göre göre dağılımına bakıldığında Osmanlı Öncesi ile ilgili 1519; Yeniçağ ile ilgili 2789; Yakınçağ-Cumhuriyet ile ilgili 9661 künye bulunmaktadır. Bunların dışında Türk askerî tarihi ile ilgili 719 adet Genel Çalışma bulunmaktadır. Hiç şüphesiz eksiklikler olacaktır. Bu eksikliklerin tamamlanması ve yeni yayınların kitapta yer alabilmesi için [email protected] adresine, çalışmanın konusuna göre “Osmanlı Öncesi”, “Yeniçağ”, “Yakınçağ-Cumhuriyet” veya “Genel Çalışma” başlığı ile gönderebilirsiniz.

Especially after the Second World War, understanding air power became a high priority for military practitioners, policy-makers and theorists, with the United States leading the quest for sound ideas and concepts for most of the following five decades. In the late-1980s the United States Air Force took this issue so seriously that it established a very senior graduate school to provide critical education to officers considered likely to gain promotion into strategic posts. This article traces and assesses the development and role of the School for Advanced Air and Space Studies in order to determine why it originated and what influence, if any, it has actually had on American and other air power thinkers. The article concludes that, with its faculty and students at the heart of air power scholarship, some of their books serving as standard texts, and with students going into influential senior posts, the SAASS has lived up to and possibly exceeded the expectations of its founders. Indeed, it is hard to identify a more influential center of excellence in air power education than the SAASS, or even at this stage to find a peer.

Mission Command is a phrase that is often applied, but rarely understood. This blog takes a light hearted review of the context of Mission Command, and its origins as the German military philosophy of Auftragstaktik. Through this approach, the blog highlights that mission command is exactly what the phrase says - command appropriate for the mission: sometimes Directive, and other times Directed Control.

Malgré l'avènement de la bombe atomique à la fin de la Seconde Guerre mondiale, le char va rester une arme d'intimidation très efficace durant toute la durée de la Guerre froide. Les deux blocs vont en produire et en déployer des milliers dans diverses régions du globe, et plus particulièrement en RFA et en RDA. Comme d'autres armées occidentales, la Belgique participe à cet effort de dissuasion par le déploiement de forces blindées importantes en RFA. Il faut dire que, durant toute la Guerre froide, la Belgique peut se targuer de posséder une arme blindée conséquente. Bien entendu, la présence de chars ne passe pas inaperçue. Malgré la mise à disposition de vastes domaines militaires, il est nécessaire pour les charistes d'effectuer des manœuvres hors des casernes, sur les terrains qu'ils seront amenés à défendre. C'est pourquoi de nombreux exercices FTX (Field training exercise) sont organisés. Lors de ceux-ci, les chars belges évoluent au milieu des civils allemands. La tolérance de ces derniers face à ces blindés chenillés dans les rues des villes et dans les campagnes est assez ambivalente. Même si les citoyens sont bien conscients que ces chars sont ceux qui seront amenés à les défendre face à un raz de marée soviétique, leur patience est mise à rude épreuve. Si certains se montrent compatissants, d'autres, par contre, expriment leur mécontentement par des actions parfois violentes. Malgré les mesures prises par les militaires belges, les véhicules causent beaucoup de dommages aux infrastructures et aux biens privés. Le but de cette contribution est de présenter les relations entretenues entre charistes belges et civils allemands lors des exercices en terrain civil en répondant à cinq questions : Pourquoi organiser de tels déploiements de blindés en milieu civil? Quels sont les dégâts causés par le déploiement de chars? Quelles sont les réactions des civils par rapport à la présence des chars des FBA dans leur environnement de vie? Sont-elles identiques partout? Quels moyens sont mis en place pour limiter le mécontentement des populations?

In 1916 the British Army created the Senior Officers' School at Aldershot to instruct majors and captains on various aspects of battalion command. The intention was to prepare officers to assume battalion commands, rather than having them learn 'on the job'. This article examines the training that officers received at Aldershot and how it fit into the wider narrative of the British and Imperial armies in the First World War.

This article was written with Peter E. Hodgkinson, whose doctoral work examined infantry battalion command in the British Army during the First World War.

Educare e addestrare alla guerra: il mestiere delle armi in Occidente, una tradizione aperta di Gastone Breccia Quando ci si avvicina al tema dell'educazione militare, il soggetto rischia di sfuggire prima ancora che sia stato messo a fuoco a dovere. Cosa significa infatti educare alla guerra? E in che cosa questo processo -che possiamo immaginare simile all'acquisizione di capacità professionali in altri ambiti, ottenuta grazie allo studio di varie discipline complementari, armonizzate in una dottrina e trasmesse da una tradizione riconosciuta -si differenzia, o si integra, o addirittura in alcuni casi entra in conflitto con l'addestramento alla guerra, che ha come fine ultimo l'abilità pratica nell'uso delle armi e nell'impiego dei reparti, a sua volta da conseguire in vari modi, ma certo non soltanto nelle aule di una scuola?

This is a translation into English of the presentation made at the 13th Conference “Hellenic Language and Terminology” (online, 13 November 2021) and published by the Hellenic Society for Terminology, ELETO - ΕΛΕΤΟ, regarding the Translations of military manuals and regulations “from French” for the needs of the newly established Greek State. [http://www.eleto.gr/en/papers.htm#13thPapers]

En términos generales, la filosofía para la educación está conformada por un sistema de experiencias, tradiciones, valores y propósitos orientados hacia objetivos predeterminados que permiten alcanzar un fin. De este concepto fundamental, las diversas profesiones y actividades dentro de una sociedad, diseñan su propia filosofía, que constituye el hilo conductor de los esfuerzos, métodos, procedimientos y recursos que garanticen el logro de ese fin último.

This study examined whether cadets at a U.S. service academy perceived attitudinal differences toward their military and civilian L2 instructors along three variables: foreign language expertise, communicative anxiety, and relatability. Cadets’ proficiency levels (divided by beginning and intermediate classes) and current instructor (civilian or military) were also analyzed to determine their bearing on the perception data. Beginning and intermediate learners of Arabic, French, German, Portuguese, Russian, and Spanish (n=267) completed
an instructor perception questionnaire and volunteer students (n=9) participated in group interviews to provide opinions of the two instructor types. Descriptive statistics indicated that cadets viewed civilian instructors as more knowledgeable in foreign languages, whereas military instructors as more relatable. Ratings for communicative anxiety were evenly spread between the two groups.
Separate two-factor, between groups ANOVAs revealed significant differences between the two language level groups (beginning and intermediate) with respect to expertise and anxiety, but not for relatability. Current instructor (civilian or military) was not found to
influence opinions. Interview data, while providing nuanced perspectives, generally aligned with the quantitative results. Findings from this study can help service academy L2 instructors modify their teaching approaches to better enhance foreign language achievement in the classroom. Team-teaching between the two instructor types is also viewed as a helpful pedagogical strategy. Lastly, the data provide insight into important topics in second language acquisition within the military community.

Artykuł analizuje rodzaj pobożności żołnierzy wczesnonowożytnych, który określany był jako "bojaźń Boża". Zjawisko to wykształciło się w latach 60. XVI wieku, a następnie było kultywowane przez dwa stulecia, w armii polskiej i litewskiej. Polegało ono na wierze w bezpośrednią ingerencję Boga podczas działań militarnych, która była uzależniona od postępowania żołnierzy. Naczelni dowódcy promowali taką wizję rzeczywistości, w której przestępstwa utożsamiane z grzechami wpływały na rezultat wojen lub starcia, a nawet decydowały o bezpieczeństwie samych żołnierzy. Czyny niemiłe Bogu miały powodować surową karę zsyłaną podczas walk, a pobożność i dobre zachowanie gwarantowały sukces. Analizę tego zagadnienia przeprowadzono na podstawie wydawanych przez naczelnych dowódców aktów normatywnych, zwanych artykułami wojskowymi, co uzupełniono analizą traktatów wojskowych. W pracy zaakcentowano, że promowali tę koncepcję wszyscy dowódcy-niezależnie od wyznania, byli to zarówno bracia polscy, luteranie, ewangelicy reformowani, jak

The COVID-19 pandemic is an unprecedented development in terms of its scale and scope and controversy over its sources and future worldwide impact. The case of education confirms it. 1.3 billion pupils and students have been deprived  of  or their access to schools was limited. Thus, irreversible educational backlogs marked 1 billion of students worldwide. Pandemic also changed the approach to "crisis" education carried out during natural disasters and emergencies such as the coronavirus pandemic by all educational institutions, including military ones. The objective of this chapter is to examine the specifics of distance learning at military universities during the pandemic. Against this backdrop, the efficiency of teaching based on e-learning platforms used at the Military University of Land Forces (AWL) in Wroclaw is evaluated. The thrust of the argument that this chapter advances is that the pandemic forced higher education institutions, including the military once, to change their approach to distance learning. This resulted in  the emergence of "crises-military e-learning (cmel)."

¿Qué hacer con las Fuerzas Armadas? Educación y profesión de los militares argentinos en el siglo XXI. Prometeo Libros. Buenos Aires. 2016. ISBN 978-987-574-787-6. 292 páginas.
Desde 1990 la subordinación militar a la conducción civil ha sido una constante en la Argentina. A pesar de ello, la defensa no fue prioridad de los gobiernos democráticos. La pérdida de poder político y corporativo de las FFAA tras la última dictadura tampoco contribuyó a su jerarquización; y existe la percepción de que el país carece de amenazas militares externas inminentes. ¿Necesita el Estado de FFAA? Si, pues son un instrumento indispensable para asegurar su soberanía e independencia, integridad territorial y bienestar de sus ciudadanos en un mundo donde el conflicto está lejos de desaparecer. ¿Qué hacer para aprestarlas para el cumplimiento de sus misiones en la defensa nacional? Respondiendo a esta pregunta, el libro ofrece análisis y respuestas sobre dos cuestiones clave: la educación y profesión de los militares argentinos, asumiendo que sólo conociendo su historia reciente, condiciones de existencia actuales y desafíos es posible mejorar su calidad académica y desarrollo profesional, valoración como política de Estado y reconocimiento social en una concepción de la defensa para el siglo XXI.

Appropriate preparation of personnel is crucial to the effective performance of the duties in the work contexts, especially in the case of the security sector in one country. Given the specifics of the tasks and the hierarchical organizational structure in which primacy is reached in the army, management personnel as direct participants in the decision making process dictate the effectiveness of the personnel in the defense system, in general. In addition, appropriate education and training of military leaders is a key link for readiness and successfully performing of their military duties, which directly affect the security of the country, and which actually is the main task of the Military Academy in Skopje, as a part of the Ministry of Defense in the Republic of Macedonia. Therefore, the Military Academy program is of interest to the security managers, which indicates a need for more serious approach to its construction and permanent monitoring. On the other hand, the demands of the contemporary challenges impose reforms aimed at harmonization with the European credit transfer system from one, and the principles of modern warfare and security challenges on the other side. Most thoroughly to all this can respond science by setting a system of evaluation in a scientific way, as an opportunity to scan the situation, providing objective indicators for monitoring changes and their effects, in order to answer the classic dilemmas-relations of academic and professional education, military sciences on the contrary of other sciences, the connection between theory and practice, etc.

Osmanlı askerî modernleşmesinin odak noktası olan subay sınıfı, II. Abdülhamid döneminden itibaren Alman usullerine göre yetiştirildi. Askerî okullara verilen önem eğitim kalitesinde artan bir ivme sağlamıştı. Bu dönemde Goltz Paşa, Mekâtib-i Askerîye Müfettişliği vazifesiyle genç Osmanlı subayının eğitiminde söz sahibi oldu. Tecrübelerini yazdığı eserlerle meslektaşlarına aktarmaya özen gösteren Goltz’un ve onu izleyen Osmanlıların yayınları subayların eğitimlerine odaklanmaktaydı. Goltz’un Türkçeye çevrilen eserleri arasında Muharebeye Dair Nefer Ne Bilmelidir adlı çalışması, doğrudan doğruya Osmanlı askerine hitap etmesi bakımından diğerlerinden ayrılmaktaydı. Bu makalede, Goltz’un söz konusu eseri incelenmiş, karşılaştırmalar yapılmış ve arşiv belgeleri ışığında dönemin diğer kaynakları göz önünde bulundurularak geniş bir değerlendirme yapılmıştır. / The officer class, which was the focal point of Ottoman military modernization, was trained according to German methods since the reign of Abdulhamid II. The importance afforded to military schools added increasing momentum to the quality of education. During this period, Goltz Pasha, who steered the modernization movement, also became dominant in the education of young Ottoman officers in his capacity as Inspector of the Military Schools. Goltz, who was at pains to convey his experiences to his colleagues and the Ottomans who followed him, through the works he wrote, focused on the training of officers. Among Goltz’s works translated into many foreign languages, as well as Turkish, the booklet titled What Soldiers Should Know about Battle was distinguished from the others in that it directly addressed the Ottoman soldiers. In this article, Goltz’s booklet has been examined, comparisons have been made with other sources of the period, and a broad evaluation has been made in light of archival documents.

Esta dissertação tematiza o discurso da/sobre a militarização de escolas públicas no Brasil a partir da análise de três políticas educacionais empreendidas em lugares e tempos distintos, a saber: i) a fundação, em 1889, e os primeiros anos de funcionamento do Imperial Colégio Militar; ii) a criação, em 1998, e a expansão massiva, a partir de 2013, dos Colégios da Polícia Militar de Goiás; e iii) a criação, em 2019, e a implementação do Programa Nacional das Escolas Cívico-Militares. Para a análise dessas três políticas educacionais, procedi a montagem de um arquivo de leitura diverso, que inclui documentos oficiais, leis, programas e outros materiais, a partir dos quais busquei compreender algumas regularidades e especificidades discursivas dessas políticas educacionais. Como entrada analítica no material do arquivo de leitura, olhei para a maneira como determinados valores apareciam mobilizados enquanto argumentos nas três políticas educacionais e como eles estabeleciam relações de sentido por meio de formulações iguais e diferentes ao longo da história. A análise mostrou uma certa regularidade na enunciação desses valores, como uma característica diferencial das escolas militares, militarizadas e cívico-militares, embora eles nem sempre são os mesmos em suas diferentes condições de produção. Nas políticas educacionais mais recentes, ainda, é possível ver um imbricamento de sentido entre a questão dos valores da instituição e a questão da qualidade educacional. Por meio das análises realizadas, essa pesquisa pretende contribuir ao oferecer subsídios teóricos-analíticos para uma melhor compreensão de um recorte específico da história da escolarização no Brasil no que concerne à militarização de escolas.

En términos generales, la fi losofía para la educación está conformada por un sistema de experiencias, tradiciones, valores y propósitos orientados hacia objetivos predeterminados que permiten alcanzar un fi n. De este concepto fundamental, las diversas profesiones y actividades dentro de una sociedad, diseñan su propia fi losofía, que constituye el hilo conductor de los esfuerzos, métodos, procedimientos y recursos que garanticen el logro de ese fi n último.

The paper is a general historiographical overview of French military education in 18th century, looking at how the military education originated and developed across various branches in the army: infantry, artillery, cavalry and so on. It covers the way it was instituted in France, from the ideas for the court education of nobles in the late 16th century through to the nationwide projects for military education in the 18th century.

La educación militar es sin duda un área estratégica, por cuanto es allí donde se produce la formación y socialización militar. Por ello debe ser adicionalmente un escenario por excelencia para el fortalecimiento de los vínculos entre civiles y Fuerzas Armadas y además para formar y capacitar al militar que requiere la sociedad y la democracia.

It is commonly accepted that the nature of military operations is one of such character that no matter how well you prepare there will still be an expectation of having to deal with the unknown and unforeseen. Accordingly, there seem to be reasons for arguing that preparations for the unpredictable should play a critical role in military education. Yet, military education as we know it seems to be characterized by a rather classic modernist view on education, which promotes an environment of learning that embraces uniformity and enhances scenario based pre-planned drills as ways of conducting military operations. In this paper I will argue an alternative perspective, one that embraces difference rather than uniformity as a means of developing military units and their soldiers. In doing so I will ground my argument in the academic discourse on postmodern education. It is my understanding that educational practices prone to postmodern thinking are embedded in narratives sensitive to constructivism, complexity and contextualism, and thus use emancipation, deconstruction, vocabulary, dialogue, diversity and aesthetics as pedagogical strategies in their creation of 'new' meaning. A discussion of these strategies in relation to the topic of 'the unpredictable' constitutes the main body of this paper.

Twenty  years  after  the  unanimous  adoption  of  UNSCR  1325  and  the  beginning  of  the  women,  peace and security agenda, the UN Security Council, for  the  first  time,  explicitly  addressed  equal  access  to  education  for  uniformed  female  personnel.  On  August  28,  2020,  the  UN  Security  Council  issued  resolution  2538,  and  with  it,  the  need  by  Member  States  to  provide  equal  access  to  education,  training  and  capacity  building  to  all  uniformed women.

This paper explores the importance of providing equal access to education for uniformed  women,  it  identifies  barriers  erected  against  women’s  access  to  educa-tion in the defense sector in the Western Hemisphere, and it recommends proactive measures  to  eliminate  barriers.  This  research  is  supported  by  a  review  of  primary  and  secondary  sources,  autoethnography,  and  an  analysis  of  data  from  countries  such as the United States, Colombia, Argentina, Chile, Peru, and Brazil.

The concern of the advanced armies related to the development of the cultural and linguistic capabilities that are allowing the soldiers to operate into multicultural context, is active and adapted to the realities of the theatre of operations and of the hybrid warfare. The development of the capabilities is imposing testing, training, education and opportunities to for those to be put into practice. Thus, there have been created evaluation instruments of the cultural abilities, in order to see the progress into the learning, education and cultural harmonization process. Each model is offering a path of socio-cultural knowledge. The new model "The linear knowledge and harmonization model of the cultural interaction" developed in the theatre of operation is helping to determine the cultural differences in the specific multinational military environment and can be used into the education process during both peacetime and wartime.