Makkah

The concept of the waste biorefinery is known as one of the several energy recovery technologies capable of producing multi-products in the form of biofuels and value-added products treating different fractions of municipal solid waste (MSW). The conversion technologies such as anaerobic digestion (AD), pyrolysis, transesterification, incineration treat food, plastic, meat, and lignocellulosic wastes to produce liquid, gaseous and solid biofuels. Makkah city landfills receive about 2750 tons of waste every day. While during the Ramadan and Hajj seasons, these quantities become 3000 tons and 4706 tons per day respectively. More than 2.5 million animals were sold for slaughtering in 2014 Hajj, and their blood and organic solid waste were disposed of untreated. Similarly, around 2.1 million plastic Zam-Zam cups were wasted every day during the 2014 Ramadan time. In the first three days of 2014's Ramadan, 5000 tons of food was wasted only in Makkah municipality. Collectively, about 3853 tons of waste were generated each day during 2014 Hajj and Ramadan. The waste from Al-Haram and Al-Masha’ir (Mina, Muzdalifah and Arafat) and their surroundings was mainly composed of organics (up to 68.5%). There is no waste-to-energy facility existing in Saudi Arabia. The waste biorefinery in Makkah will divert up to 94% of MSW from landfill to biorefinery. The energy potential of 2171.47 TJ and 8852.66 TJ can be produced if all of the food and plastic waste of the Makkah city are processed through AD and pyrolysis respectively. The development of AD and pyrolysis under waste biorefinery will also benefit the economy with gross savings of 405 and 565.7 million SR respectively, totalling to an annual profit of 970.7 million SR. Therefore, the benefits of waste biorefinery in Makkah city and other parts of the Saudi Arabia are numerous including the development of renewable-energy science and research, solving solid waste problems, new businesses and job creation opportunities and minimizing environmental pollution.

Objectives: To determine the level of diabetes
knowledge and to identify the main knowledge gaps
among patients with diabetes (both types 1 and 2) as
there is a high prevalence of diabetes in Saudi Arabia.
Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted
in Makkah city, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and
included governmental primary healthcare centers
and hospitals from November 2016 until February
2017. A self-administrated Diabetes Knowledge
Test 2 (DKT2) was used to determine the level of
diabetes knowledge. It consisted of two parts: general
knowledge and insulin use with a global score out of
23.
Results: A total of 942 patients with diabetes were
enrolled in this study. Male to female ratio was
55.1:44.9, with mean global DKT2 score of 13.3±3.2
(57.8%±13.3%). The majority of patients (66.1%)
had average diabetes knowledge while 29.2% had low
knowledge, and 4.7% had high knowledge. Better
knowledge and significant associations were found
with younger ages, high educational levels, longer
duration of diabetes, and positive family history of
diabetes.
Conclusion: Patients’ knowledge regarding diabetes
was found poor in this study. Hence healthcare
providers should pay more attention to diabetes
education, especially with respect to dietary concepts.
We are strongly advising researchers and physicians in
Saudi Arabia to do similar research to determine the
level of diabetes knowledge in their fields to get a more
comprehensive picture of their patients’ knowledge of
diabetes.

Waste biorefinery is proposed to convert waste in Makkah into renewable energy. Total revenue of 758 million SAR can be achieved from waste biorefinery. 1.95 million barrels of oil and 11.2 million MCF of natural gas can be saved. Reduction in global warming potential of 1.15 million Mt.CO 2 eq. can be achieved.

District heating networks are commonly addressed in the literature as one of the most effective solutions for decreasing the greenhouse gas emissions from the building sector. These systems require high investments which are returned through the heat sales. Due to the changed climate conditions and building renovation policies, heat demand in the future could decrease, prolonging the investment return period. The main scope of this paper is to assess the feasibility of using the heat demand – outdoor temperature function for heat demand forecast. The district of Alvalade, located in Lisbon (Portugal), was used as a case study. The district is consisted of 665 buildings that vary in both construction period and typology. Three weather scenarios (low, medium, high) and three district renovation scenarios were developed (shallow, intermediate, deep). To estimate the error, obtained heat demand values were compared with results from a dynamic heat demand model, previously developed and validated by the authors. The results showed that when only weather change is considered, the margin of error could be acceptable for some applications (the error in annual demand was lower than 20% for all weather scenarios considered). However, after introducing renovation scenarios, the error value increased up to 59.5% (depending on the weather and renovation scenarios combination considered). The value of slope coefficient increased on average within the range of 3.8% up to 8% per decade, that corresponds to the decrease in the number of heating hours of 22-139h during the heating season (depending on the combination of weather and renovation scenarios considered). On the other hand, function intercept increased for 7.8-12.7% per decade (depending on the coupled scenarios). The values suggested could be used to modify the function parameters for the scenarios considered, and improve the accuracy of heat demand estimations. Abstract In the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), millions of worshippers come from across the globe to perform religious rituals of Pilgrimage (Hajj) and Umrah. Madinah-tul-Munawara is one of the holiest city, where pilgrims come after performing rituals in Makkah. In this city, most of the collected municipal solid waste (MSW) is disposed of in the landfills after a partial recycling of paper, cardboard, and metals (~10-20% of total MSW). The Saudi's government has recently launched a new policy of Vision 2030, which outlined the safeguard of local environment through increased efficiency of waste recycling and management, pollution prevention strategies and generating renewable energy from indigenous sources, including the waste. Currently, the recycling practices in KSA are mainly regulated by an informal sector through waste pickers or waste scavengers. This has led to the need of recycling schemes, especially in the holiest cities of Makkah and Madinah through a public-private partnership (PPP). Huge amounts of energy can be conserved, that would otherwise be spent on raw material extraction, transportation, and manufacturing of materials, through recycling into the same materials. Around 10,009 TJ of energy can be saved through recycling of 24.21% of MSW in Madinah city, including glass, metals, aluminum, cardboard, and paper. It is estimated that around 10,200 tons of methane (CH4) emissions and 254,600 Mt.CO2 eq. of global warming potential (GWP) can also be saved. In addition, carbon credit revenue of US $5.92 million, and landfill diversion worth of US $32.78 million can be achieved with a net revenue of US $49.01 million every year only by recycling 24.21% of MSW in Madinah city. The waste recycling doesn't require high technical skills and labor, and complicated technologies for large-scale implementation, and therefore, can be implemented easily in the holiest cities of Makkah and Madinah to achieve multiple economic and environmental benefits. Abstract In the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), millions of worshippers come from across the globe to perform religious rituals of Pilgrimage (Hajj) and Umrah. Madinah-tul-Munawara is one of the holiest city, where pilgrims come after performing rituals in Makkah. In this city, most of the collected municipal solid waste (MSW) is disposed of in the landfills after a partial recycling of paper, cardboard, and metals (~10-20% of total MSW). The Saudi's government has recently launched a new policy of Vision 2030, which outlined the safeguard of local environment through increased efficiency of waste recycling and management, pollution prevention strategies and generating renewable energy from indigenous sources, including the waste. Currently, the recycling practices in KSA are mainly regulated by an informal sector through waste pickers or waste scavengers. This has led to the need of recycling schemes, especially in the holiest cities of Makkah and Madinah through a public-private partnership (PPP). Huge amounts of energy can be conserved, that would otherwise be spent on raw material extraction, transportation, and manufacturing of materials, through recycling into the same materials. Around 10,009 TJ of energy can be saved through recycling of 24.21% of MSW in Madinah city, including glass, metals, aluminum, cardboard, and paper. It is estimated that around 10,200 tons of methane (CH4) emissions and 254,600 Mt.CO2 eq. of global warming potential (GWP) can also be saved. In addition, carbon credit revenue of US $5.92 million, and landfill diversion worth of US $32.78 million can be achieved with a net revenue of US $49.01 million every year only by recycling 24.21% of MSW in Madinah city. The waste recycling doesn't require high technical skills and labor, and complicated technologies for large-scale implementation, and therefore, can be implemented easily in the holiest cities of Makkah and Madinah to achieve multiple economic and environmental benefits.

Every year, millions of Muslims gather in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) for worship, i.e. Hajj (Pilgrimage) and Umrah. The Makkah city landfills receive about 2.4 thousand tons of municipal solid waste (MSW) every day. While, these quantities become 3.1 and 4.6 thousand tons per day during the Ramadan and Hajj respectively. All of the collected MSW is disposed to landfill sites untreated, which results in
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions as well as water and soil contamination. The government considers reuse and recycling as optimum techniques for waste management following source reduction. However, the current waste recycling has been carried out mostly by informal sectors and only few recyclable materials such as paper, cardboard, metals and plastics are recycled (10-15% of total waste). The waste pickers or waste scavengers take the recyclables from the waste bins, containers and dumpsites. There is an immediate need to develop public-private partnership (PPP) to improve MSW management system in Makkah city including waste reuse and recycling. It is theoretically estimated that only by recycling glass, metals, aluminium and cardboard, climate will be saved from 5.6 thousand tons emission of methane
(CH4); a major source of GHG emissions and 140.1 thousand Mt.CO2 eq. of global warming potential (GWP) with carbon credit revenue of worth 67.6 million SAR. Similarly by recycling above-mentioned recyclables, a net revenue of 113 million SAR will be added to the national economy every year only from Makkah city. Moreover,
technically, the waste recycling does not require high-skill labour, complex technology and thus can be easily carried out in any urban areas like Makkah city.

In the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), millions of Muslims come to perform Pilgrimage every year. Around one million ton of municipal solid waste (MSW) is generated in Makkah city annually. The collected MSW is disposed of in the landfills without any treatment or energy recovery. As a result, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and contamination of the soil and water bodies along with leachate and odors are occurring in waste disposal vicini-ties. The composition of MSW shows that food waste is the largest waste stream (up to 51%) of the total generated MSW. About 13% of the food waste consists of fat content that is equivalent to about 64 thousand tons per year. This study aims to estimate the production potential of biodiesel first time in Makkah city from fat/oil fractions of MSW and highlight its economic and environmental benefits. It has been estimated that 62.53, 117.15 and 6.38 thousand tons of biodiesel, meat and bone meal (MBM) and glycerol respectively could be produced in 2014. A total electricity potential of 852 Gigawatt hour (GWh) from all three sources based on their energy contents, Higher Heating Value (HHV) of 40.17, 18.33 and 19 MJ/kg, was estimated for 2014 that will increase up to 1777 GWh in 2050. The cumulative net savings from landfill waste diversion (256 to 533 million Saudi Riyal (SAR)), carbon credits (46 to 96 million SAR), fuel savings (146 to 303 million SAR) and electricity generation (273 to 569 million SAR) have a potential to add a total net revenue of 611 to 1274 million SAR every year to the Saudi economy, from 2014 to 2050 respectively. However, further studies including real-time data about annual slaughtering activities and the amount of waste generation and its management are critical to decide optimum waste management practices based on life cycle assessment (LCA) and life cycle costing (LCC) methodologies.

Millions of Muslims from all over the world visit the Holy Cities of Saudi Arabia: Makkah and Madinah every year to perform Hajj and Umrah. The rapid growth in urbanization and the local population of Makkah city along with an ever increasing number of visitors result in huge municipal solid waste (MSW) generation every year. Most of this waste is currently dumped into landfill sites without any treatment, thus causing environmental and health issues. For example, on average around 2.4 thousand tons of waste is dumped into Makkah city’s landfill sites every day that increases to around 3.1 and 4.6 thousand tons per day during Ramadan and Hajj periods, respectively. Around 23% on average of this waste is a plastic waste in the form of plastic bottles, water cups, food plates and shopping bags (Abdul Aziz et al. 2007). A pilot scale catalytic pyrolysis process has been used to convert plastic waste into liquid fuel at Center of Excellence in Environmental Studies (CEES) of King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah. The produced liquid fuel has been found to have a high energy value of around 40 MJ/Kg, the viscosity of 0.9 mm2/s, the density of 0.92 g/cm3, the flash point of 30°C, pour point of -18°C and freezing point of -64°C, characteristics similar to conventional diesel. Thus the produced liquid fuel has the potential to be used in several energy-related applications such as electricity generation, transportation fuel, and heating purposes. It has been estimated that the plastic waste in Makkah city in 2016 could produce around 87.91 MW of electricity with net revenue of 297.52 million SAR. This is projected to increase up to around 172.80 MW of electricity and a total net revenue of 584.83 million SAR by 2040.