Existentialism In Philosophy

Une introduction à l’œuvre de l’écrivaine et philosophe française à travers une sélection de douze textes commentés qui présentent les différentes facettes et les grands thèmes de sa pensée : l’existentialisme, le marxisme, la morale, la justice, la liberté, l’aliénation, l’oppression et le rapport à la littérature.

Enclosed is the syllabus and course notes from the upper division course I teach in PostModernism and Post-Marxist Critical Theory. It occurs to me that some of these essays--ranging from Horkheimer and Adorno, Baudrillard, Foucault, and the feminist post-modern theorist Donna Haraway may offer some insight and some tools for comprehending the dark times in which we live. While these essays may not be directly aimed at understanding the rise of phenomena like the Alt-Right, toxic masculinity, and particularly violent forms of patriarchy, I think they can show us something about the ideological trends that set us on out current morally troubling path.

Artykuł jest poświęcony polemice z duńskim badaczem gier Jesperem Juulem w kontekście zjawiska porażki w grach cyfrowych. Analizując dwie różne wersje francuskiej gry Infernal Runner (stworzone w 1985 roku zarówno przez Yves'a Kortę i Michela Koella, jak i Erica Chahiego), autor próbuje poddać analizie zupełnie odmienne wizje świata przedstawione w różnych odmianach gry. Jedna (Chahiego) kładzie nacisk bardziej na motywy ludyczne, posługując się modelem porażki tymczasowej obliczonej na ustawiczne dążenie ku zwycięstwu. Druga natomiast (Korty i Koella) przesycona jest nihilizmem utrzymanym w tonie pism filozoficznych Alberta Camus, reprezentując motyw porażki permanentnej. W konsekwencji strategie odbiorcze obu wersji tej samej gry różnią się diametralnie.

La tesis central del trabajo de Hugo E. Herrera, ganador del Quinto Concurso de Ensayo en Humanidades Contemporáneas convocado por el Instituto de Humanidades de la Universidad Diego Portales, el Goethe -Institut Santiago y el suplemento “Artes y Letras” de El Mercurio, es que la moderna comprensión científica de la naturaleza ha determinado que se nos cierre o dificulte el paso hacia la dimensión de lo trascendente en la que, de existir, se ubicaría Dios y el principio de sentido de la existencia. El autor, en su crítica a la ciencia moderna en tanto ideología, hace un uso elegante de algunas formulaciones que provienen del último Husserl, del joven Heidegger y del joven Habermas. El ensayo tiene el mérito de reponer una inquietud de nuestra situación actual, es decir, la sensación de que el ser humano se encuentra en una jaula de hierro, como diría Max Weber, conformada por leyes científicas que él mismo ha hecho posible y de la cual no puede salir: en el fondo, la experiencia de la enajenación.

This paper is intended as a personal inquiry on how the idea of immortality, necroaesthetics, and the concept of an afterlife came to be. We, as humans, are social and emotional beings. We create highly complex social circles and bond with one another in a close way. Thus, when we are grief-stricken after losing a beloved friend, partner, family member or a pet animal, we confide in the idea of immortality in the sense of 'an afterlife'. The magnitude of death is incomprehensible to us. In comparison to the infinite size and continuum of our universe, our individual existence is like fairy lights reflecting on glass; we suddenly pop up into existence and fade away in a measly second. Therefore, we have come up with various methods and belief systems in order to maintain our ontological security and change our perception of death. I will be drawing on certain literary materials, and Sir James George Frazer's Man, God and Immortality, in which he says: "Of all the many forms which natural religion has assumed none probably has exerted so deep and far-reaching an influence on human life as the belief in immortality and the worship of the dead." By the same token, we aestheticize and immortalize the dead. While its depiction differs among metaphysical models, most belief systems bring forward the idea that death is not the end of our existence. Some of us believe in an afterlife while some of us believe in reincarnation of the soul. Also, another related theme is necroaesthetics. We find a certain aesthetic appreciation in death. There are such examples as taxidermy, the art of preparing, stuffing, and mounting dead animals for decoration, or beautifully decorated funerary urns. Furthermore, this appreciation reflects in our works of art, i.e. John Keats' Ode on a Grecian Urn, or various sculptures and paintings, for which various images and information are provided in the presentation file.

Is ethical conduct man’s ultimate purpose, or could there be a higher aim for which ethical demands could be suspended? This essay explores Kierkegaard’s paradoxical notion of faith and the interplay between universal duty (as ethics) and absolute duty to obey God’s will.

In this paper, I wish to argue that the difference between Heidegger and Sartre’s interpretation of the concept of anxiety lead to two different concepts of existential freedom. These differences have their basis in their distinct understanding of the nature of existence and the self, leading Sartre into an absolute negative conception freedom and Heidegger into a limited and difficult to obtain positive conception of freedom. For Sartre, in L'Être et le néant, anxiety reveals the nothingness that stands between me and what I can do. Nothing, not even my own being, is an obstacle to freedom. Indeed, every time I adequately perceive my own being, I negate it, and am condemned to be able to overcome it. Anxiety is an experience of our capacity: the fact of negative freedom.

For Heidegger, in Sein und Zeit, anxiety reveals nothingness as the consequence, not manifestation, of freedom. Rather than an absence of an obstacle in front of us, anxiety reveals the wake of lost opportunities behind us, things we could have and should have done. Anxiety therefore reveals the charge from our authentic self: “Guilty!”. For Heidegger, anxiety expresses our existential responsibility, not to overcome our self, but to make "the choice to choose oneself”. For Sartre, anxiety reveals the potency of the will to negate the self. For Heidegger, it calls us back to our self. This disagreement provides a case study in the different phenomenological priorities of two highly
influential thinkers. In explaining why they are able to disagree so fundamentally about the same phenomenon, I wish to lend weight to Heidegger's claim that phenomenology is not a set of theoretical discoveries, but a practice.

Oistros," or oestrus, or estrus, is a concept with many meanings and implications. In ancient Greece oestrus was a gadfly that stung animals and drove them to react. Socrates was the first to use the image allegorically in describing himself as a gadfly that awakens people from their lethargy and laziness. It is connected with the passion for life, with creativity, and an awakening from the indolence of everyday living. It is also directly associated with the female reproductive cycle via the estrogens related to pregnancy and childbirth. It is thus related to the ideas of attraction, union, and creation in general, as well as to spiritual, mental, and psychic elation, enthusiasm, and inspiration. "Zhi Mian" is a concept that the Chinese Institute for Existential Psychology introduced to the existential community a few years ago. It means to "face life directly" and to have the courage to look at our existential issues with no pretenses. This is similar to the concept of "oistros" evolved by "gignesthai," the Hellenic Association for Existential Psychology, that is, to the awareness and awakening that promote change and turn life into an intense and meaningful experience. When stung by death awareness, we give greater importance to life by realizing our time limitations and are not wasting time as if we were eternal. "Oistros" leads to a life full of passion, energy, and creativity, helping us to achieve the Epicurean dictum that "To live well and to die well is the same task."

The article deals with one of the most topical problems of our days - the problem of loneliness. The article analyzes main aspects of philosophic and artistic approaches to loneliness. The special attention is given to the existentialism study and consideration of the problem of loneliness (E. Husserl, J.-P. Sartr, A.Camu, M.Buber).

Existential Theology: An Introduction offers a formalized and comprehensive examination of the field of existential theology, in order to distinguish it as a unique field of study and view it as a measured synthesis of the concerns of Christian existentialism, Christian humanism, and Christian philosophy with the preoccupations of proper existentialism and a series of unfolding themes from Augustine to Kierkegaard. To do this, Existential Theology attends to the field through the exploration of genres: the European traditions in French, Russian, and German schools of thought, counter-traditions in liberation, feminist, and womanist approaches, and postmodern traditions located in anthropological, political, and ethical approaches. While the cultural contexts inform how each of the selected philosopher-theologians present genres of “existential theology,” other unique genres are examined in theoretical and philosophical contexts, particularly through a selected set of theologians, philosophers, thinkers, and theorists that are not generally categorized theologically. By assessing existential theology through how it manifests itself in “genres,” this book brings together lesser-known figures, well-known thinkers, and figures that are not generally viewed as “existential theologians” to form a focused understanding of the question of the meaning of “existential theology” and what “existential theology” looks like in its varying forms.

The philosopher Jean Paul Sartre introduces a unique description of self-deception in his major work Being and Nothingness that he terms bad faith. Sartre contends that bad faith is a phenomenon that psychoanalysis cannot adequately explain, and uses it to argue that there are theoretical flaws within psychoanalytic theory. In this essay I will begin by discussing Sartre's key objections to psychoanalysis and will argue that Sartre gives a thin critique of psychoanalysis that does not sufficiently refute the psychoanalytic explanation for the specific concepts he objects to. I will then examine Sartre's theory and explanation of bad faith followed by a possible psychoanalytic justification of bad faith that will hopefully contribute to an overall better picture what bad faith is in its relation to self-deception, why it occurs, and how we can understand it.

In David Joselit’s influential essay ‘Painting Beside Itself’ he examines the place of painting in a digital economy where the image of the artwork is disseminated globally, and its power (both politically and economically) is inflated correspondingly. He describes paintings that consciously engage with networks as ‘transitive’ in that they are submitted to infinite dislocations, fragmentations and degradations, escaping the modernist trap of reification.  The centrifugal effect of the Internet on the dissemination, reception and marketing of the painting as image, in an age where images proliferate as never before, supersedes the significance of the painting as object. What is at stake is the concept that painting (both as verb and noun) maintains fidelity to experience, and that its value can only be judged before the work itself.

In my paper I will examine this claim with reference to Hegel’s definition of Art in relation to Spirit, to test Joselit’s proposition that art is now at its terminus. In defiance of the glossy/operatic/diaristic/ironic/satirical/primitive/psychedelic imagery that has come to define our era, I call for a return to authenticity by fastening to the world in willful naivety, buoyed by Merleau-Ponty’s insistence on the primacy of phenomenology and ‘indirect ontology’ in ‘Eye and Mind’ and through a reappraisal of Michael Freid’s concepts of Absorption and Theatricality, to provide a centripetal balance that returns the object and the place of painting back to itself.

The Kierkegaardian account of becoming a Christian has come to be perceived in radically egocentric terms. This study serves to challenge this perception by demonstrating that Kierkegaard was devoted to expounding Christian conversion as a transformative process of becoming that is grounded in an active relationship initiated through the agency of the eternal God who has established kinship with us in time.
At the same time, this study will also explore the way that Kierkegaard confronts some of the key errors that arise in overly systematic accounts of Christian conversion: (1) the inherent weakness of approaches that seek to dichotomise, and then quantify separately, the contributions of God’s grace and human freedom; (2) the inclination to objectify God and human beings in ways that neglect their existence as living agents; (3) the overemphasis on conversion as a monadic event of individual transformation rather than an event of reconciliation; (4) the tendency to prioritise epistemology over ontology in discussions of becoming a Christian; and (5) the propensity to lose sight of God’s all-embracing purpose of reconciling persons into their one true form of existence ‘before God’.
Finally, this study will also consider how Kierkegaard was able to negotiate his emphasis on the God-relationship with his emphasis on the importance of individual reflection, decision and action in the Christian life. It will conclude that, for Kierkegaard, the freedom to become a Christian is not the freedom to awaken ourselves into the Christian life but a decision to embrace the Christian life into which God awakens us.

Contents

Introduction
I. Listening to Kierkegaard Alongside his Pseudonyms
a. Kierkegaard and Climacus
b. Anti-Climacus and Kierkegaard

Chapter One: The Communication of the Christian Truth
I. Can the Truth Be Learned?
II. The Relationship or Non-Relationship between Subjectivity and Objectivity
III. The Revelation of Sin
a. Despair
b. The infinite qualitative difference and sin-consciousness
IV. Being in the Truth
V. Passion in Kierkegaard’s Thought
a. The Passion of Thought
b. Passionate Responsibility
c. The Passion of Faith
VI. Conclusion

Chapter Two: The Possibility of Reconciliation
I. The Tale of the King and the Maiden
II. Drawing Another to Oneself
III. The Possibility of Reciprocity
IV. The Possibility of Offense
V. Encountering God in Time
VI. Conclusion

Chapter Three: The Orientation of a Life Lived in Relationship with God
I. The Religious Category of Existence
II. Søren Kierkegaard’s Christian Realism
III. Immanent Religiousness and Christianity
IV. Sin-consciousness and Guilt-consciousness
V. Repentance
VI. Conclusion

Chapter Four: The Orientation of a Life Lived in Relationship with God
I. Following Scripture Faithfully
a. Reading a Letter from a Beloved
b. The Perspicuity of Scripture
c. The Uncertainty of Scripture
II. The Single Individual
III. Christ is the Way
a. Following Christ
b. Following Christ Voluntarily
c. Christ as Prototype and Redeemer
IV. Becoming a Christian in the World
V. Conclusion

Chapter Five: The Freedom to Become a Christian in Relationship with God
I. Approaching Christianity
II. The Passionate Transition
a. Venturing the Leap
b. Preparing to become a Christian?
c. Relationship with “the paradox”
III. Faith in the Presence of God
IV. The Choice to Become a Christian
a. The Freedom of the Individual to Relate to God
b. Willing Beliefs
c. Human Responsibility for Sin
d. Transforming the Will
V. The Freedom to Love
VI. Conclusion

Closing Reflection
I. Kierkegaard’s Low Pneumatology
II. Communion with the One Who Establishes Kinship with Us in Time
III. Conclusion

My theme is ‘life-writing’, understood as the shaping of one's life through the contemplation of values, although this activity is mostly unreflective. To become an art so that one's life can be shaped in greater accord with clearly held values, this process must become reflective. These values have an inescapably ethical dimension, because as we necessarily poetize our surrounding world, we contribute to our personal and communal ethos the character that arises from the culturally shaping power of guiding ideals. Even the immoralist cultivates life within an ethos where obscure feelings connect with some thing or other, whereby certain aims will then appear more valuable than others.

To understand how we cannot help but shape our lives according to dimly or clearly intuited values, I compare Coleridge’s primary imagination, the ‘shaping spirit’ ‘necessary for all human perception’ with Kant’s ‘blind though indispensible function of the soul, without which we would have no cognition at all, yet of which we are scarcely ever conscious’. With Coleridge, we find in imagination an impulse to connect profound but obscure presentiments and ideas with our surroundings. This impulse propels great art and everyday aesthetics alike. Whether we pursue merely what attracts us, or seek value beyond this, all lives are freely shaped, without excuses, as the existentialists say, but not always in the most pellucid consciousness. Our choices inevitably engage us in the poetic art of life-writing. Cast in medias res, we necessarily improvise. But this is no argument against lives being moral-aesthetic works, spontaneous compositions in value.

Complete Story of 'The Abyss' from this anthology of ten short stories by Russian master of this genre - Leonid Andreyev. It is a dark and intense work of Expressionist Russian Litareature which at the same time falls in the bracket of Popular Fiction. For at the time, Leonid Andreyev really was the equivalent of a Stephen King or Dan Brown in terms of his popularity in Russia. He may not be a familiar name to everyone now but during his life he was as celebrated as Maxim Gorky and Leo Tolstoy. He was a bestselling novelist who at the same time expressed his extreme political views through his fiction. Andreyev's novels are partly forgotten today but due to some excellent translations, many of which have been pulled together in the work from which this extract has been taken, his short stories live on. There is a separate download on this page where you can access the brief biographical essay on this Russian fiction-writer that I have written to the volume 'The Abyss and Other Stories'. This translation from the Russian has been revised and re-edited by Edouard d'Araille. I have included a photo-portrait of Andreyev after the story.

This article explores the essential role of secret (that is communication denied) for the interiority of the subject within the kierkegaardian reflection on the stages of life. For each sub- ject the secret has a specific function and qualitatively changes in each stage according to the change in the conception of life and in the po- sition of the individual. The secret therefore comes to take on a role of measure of the reality and consistency of the individual’s interior- ity as well as a constructive role with respect to that same interiority.

Gestalt Therapy techniques are considered to be powerful tools for the remobilization of human growth and change. I will attempt to show that the power of these techniques lies in the fact that they are effective ways of dealing with our "internalizations". I will first briefly review object relation theory and then discuss gestalt techniques as they pertain to internal objects.

This essay charts the development of two entwined intellectual threads during the 1950s: the translation of European existentialism into an American idiom and what Nathan Hale describes as the “golden age of popularization” for psychoanalysis in the United States. I argue that, in concert, these two movements contributed to the erosion of the New Deal regulatory state by elevating psychological—rather than structural or socioeconomic—explanatory templates for social phenomena. In contrast to the literature of the long Progressive Era, in many works published during the 1950s the ego and its vicissitudes become the dominant template for understanding society and the self. Patricia Highsmith’s novels provide a nodal point for this political and intellectual history as she recasts representations of violence, murder, alienation, class envy, and social mobility in ways that both represent and helped define the legitimation crisis of the regulatory state. Highsmith repudiates a narrative world governed by structural or environmental conditions and—in contrast to literary naturalists like Theodore Dreiser and John Steinbeck—presents the darker corners of human experience as phenomena of the largely autonomous, internal arena of an existential psyche. These shifts in literary tastes, the essay argues, augmented the weakening intellectual purchase of an interventionist New Deal reform agenda during the 1950s.

Hue Woodson's "Heidegger, and The Outsider, Savage Holiday, and The Long Dream" is designed to complicate the critical understanding of existentialism in the three novels Wright wrote after his move to Paris. While The Outsider explicitly carries the label of an existentialist novel, Woodson notes, Savage Holiday and The Long Dream are also invested in Wright's approach to existentialism, since all three novels represent Wright's attempts to translate Sartre's French existentialism into Wright's understanding of what a black existentialism would look like. That translation, for Wright, is not just about interpreting his meaning of "existence in black" through Sartre's "being," or even about Wright appropriating Sartre's equivalency of existentialism with humanism, but, instead, it is much more about Wright attempting to confront Heidegger's "Dasein" more directly.

بر اساس دیدگاه وجودی، ما انسان ها از کسانی که دنیا را با آن ها سهیم هستیم، جدا نمی باشیم. تربیت عقاید شخصی ما تا حد زیادی از والدین ما سرچشمه گرفته اند. بنابراین، ما باید از کسانیکه در طی سالیان سال بر طرز فکرمان تأثیر گذاشته اند قدردانی فراوانی به عمل آوریم. کتاب حاضر مجموعه ای از آثار مربوط به روابط وجودی می باشد. این کتاب نتیجه کار گروهی با چندین نویسنده می باشد، کسانیکه به طور محسوس و مستقیم الهام بخش ما در گردآوری مجموعه حاضر بوده اند. ما (امی ون دورزن و یاکوو) به طور مشترک در مورد تألیف این کتاب برنیامدیم زیرا به دنبال مجموعه ای با خصوصیات متفاوت بودیم. از همین رو بر آن شدیم این کار را با مشارکت چندین مولف و در نظر گرفتن تجارب و دیدگاه های متفاوت انجام دهیم. مشارکت در این کار فرآیندی آزاد بوده و در مقایسه با کار انفرادی، نتیجه بدست آمده راضی کننده تر بوده است. ما از درمانگران وجودی مجربی که فصول این کتاب را نوشته اند بسیار سپاسگزار هستیم، به خصوص به خاطر تعهدشان در ارائه زمینه های جدید کار در درمان وجودی و همچنین به خاطر صبر و حوصله فراوانی که از همان ابتدای کار که ایده های گرد آوری این کتاب پرورش داده می شد تا مرحله چاپ از خود نشان دادند. به هرحال، افتخار واقعی این کتاب به گذشتگان تعلق دارد: از سقراط گرفته تا بودا، از ارسطو تا یاسپر، از کی یرکگارد تا سارتر و از کامو گرفته تا نیچه. اینان افراد بزرگی هستند که ما بر گفتار خردمندانه آن ها تکیه کرده ایم و دِینی بی حد و حصر به آن ها داریم. امیدواریم در این کتاب مطالب گذشتگان به نحو مطلوب ارائه شده باشند و در همین حال برای آیندگان نیز مطالب ارزشمندی به جا گذاشته باشیم.

Abstract

Introduction: Existential crises exist within a society and are states of psychological conflict, bewilderment, and confusion because of questions pertaining to the meaning of  life, the purpose of existence, death, mortality, choices, responsibility, legacy, identity, and achievement. A disregarded and unresolved existential crisis could have serious ramifications: negative personal outcomes such as anxiety, depression, nihilism, and even suicidal tendencies; negative societal outcomes involve a high divorce rate and the possibility of societal institutions collapsing. The Millennial generation (born between 1982 and 2003) is more prone to an existential crisis than other generations because of their distinct attributes, the cohort effect, the life cycle effect, and the period effect. This study identifies the major underlying factors for the existential crisis that is affecting  Millennials in Kathmandu, along with the coping mechanisms.

Methods: A total of 145 respondents (selected using random sampling) from colleges, banks, and media publications based in Kathmandu were surveyed. The Existential Crisis Assessment, consisting of 29 items (related to philosophy of living, relationships, work, the meaning of life, and purpose) based on the frequency of the 6-point Likert scale, measures the severity of the crisis. The ODK Data Collect digital tool was used to collect the data by physically visiting all the respondents.

Results: Descriptive statistics and the overall measurement of perception through the SPSS statistical tool reveal the prevalence of an existential crisis among Millennials in Kathmandu. A factor analysis showed the most important items in a person’s existential crisis. The factors with the highest factor loadings among those identified are: meaning of life and existence (0.713 and 0.445); philosophy of living and work (0.655 and 0.557); search for meaning (0.766 and 0.453); and contemplation (0.589 and 0.477). The factor "meaning of life and existence" informs a relatively more severe existential crisis than the other three factors. Further, the severity of an existential crisis among Millennials from the age group 17–23 (age), single Millennials (marital status), and student  Millennials (profession) is higher than that of other groups, as shown by the ten hypotheses test (ANOVA and T test).

Conclusion: Existential crisis exists among Millennials in Kathmandu, and as many as four underlying factors have been identified. Most people mishandle their existential crises and do not resolve them, which results in negative outcomes. The cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) and spiritual approach are helpful in resolving the existential crisis.

This paper investigates the central concept of existence in the work of Jaspers and Sartre. While Jaspers describes the human mode of being in terms of different layers, Sartre sees human existence as a permanent struggle with contingency that should be understood as radical freedom. Im Folgenden wird der Versuch unternommen, den Zentralbegriff der Existenz im Denken von Jaspers und Sartre in einem ersten Schritt für sich genommen zu skizzieren und in einem zweiten Schritt aufeinander zu beziehen. Für Letzteres ergibt sich bereits ein Anknüpfungspunkt im Denken von Jaspers selbst, da Jaspers seine Existenzphilosophie deutlich vom Existentialismus Sartres abgrenzt. Über die expliziten Bezugnahmen hinaus sollen auch implizite Gemeinsamkeiten und Unterschiede zur Geltung kommen. Als Leitfaden im gegenwärtigen Kontext dient vor allem die Frage, wieweit die beiden Denker, auf übereinstimmende oder abweichende Weise, zur Klärung unserer Seinsweise, also zur Klärung des spezifischen Seins des Einzelnen, beigetragen haben. Den Bezugspunkt der Darstellung bildet im Falle von Jaspers vor allem das Hauptwerk Philosophie, während für die Sartresche Position in erster Linie Das Sein und das Nichts herangezogen wird. 2 Es lassen sich gleich am Anfang die Interpretationsthesen, die meine Darstellung strukturieren, vorwegnehmen: 1. Im Anschluss an Kierkegaard arbeitet Jaspers ein Stufenmodell menschlicher Seinsweise aus, deren ungegenständlichen Kern die auf eine Transzendenz angewiesene Existenz bildet. 2. Sartre bestimmt dagegen das Grundgeschehen menschlichen Seins als Kontingenzbewältigung, die als eine eigentümliche, radikale Freiheit verstanden wird. I. Jaspers Die Behandlung von Jaspersʼ Auffassung wird im Folgenden auf die Frage des eigentümlichen Menschseins fokussieren, deren weiterer Kontext im Zusammenhang seines Denkens bleibt am Rande. Deswegen konzentriert sich die gegenwärtige Darstellung auf die erste Phase von Jaspersʼ Denkweg (etwa bis 1945) und nimmt als Leitfaden das Problem der spezifischen Seinsweise des Menschen, ohne zu unterstellen, dies sei das Grundproblem von Jaspers gewesen. Der Verzicht auf diese Annahme empfiehlt sich unter anderem deswegen, weil im 1 Eine frühere Fassung dieses Beitrags wurde am 5. Internationalen Klingenthal-Symposium über Karl Jaspers vorgetragen. Den Veranstaltern des Symposiums und den Diskussionsteilnehmern danke ich für die Anregungen, wobei ich insbesondere Anton Hügli und Manuela Hackel verpflichtet bin. Der Aufsatz wurde in der MTA-ELTE Forschungsgruppe Hermeneutik ausgearbeitet und von einem Bolyai Forschungsstipendium der Ungarischen Akademie der Wissenschaften sowie vom Projekt 100922 des ungarischen Wissenschaftlichen Landesforschungsfonds (OTKA) gefördert. 2 Damit wird in beiden Fällen von einer Binnendifferenzierung des Denkweges abgesehen. Ausgeklammert wird bei Jaspers die Spätphase seines Denkens etwa nach 1945 mit der Zentralstellung der Vernunft und der Beschäftigung mit politischen Fragen, und bei Sartre wird von seiner zweiten, marxistischen Denkperiode abstrahiert. Auf die Frage, ob und in welchen Hinsichten Sartre mit seinen späteren philosophischen Arbeiten das frühere Konzept der Existenz modifiziert bzw. aufgegeben hat, kann nicht eingegangen werden. Das sollte nicht verhindern, eventuelle spätere Überlegungen der Philosophen, die auf Schwachstellen des Existenzbegriffs hindeuten, mit einzubeziehen.

RESUMEN:
En el presente trabajo se trata el problema de la vivencia emocional, se indaga la naturaleza de la conciencia emotiva, es decir,  la conciencia de la emoción desde una perspectiva fenomenológica, siguiendo principalmente el pensamiento de Sartre en su obra “Bosquejo de una teoría de las emociones”, obra  sigue la tradición fenomenológica de Husserl, haciendo énfasis en las contradicciones en que incurre la teoría psicoanalítica. Se busca evidenciar cómo la conciencia emocional es ante todo  conciencia del mundo.
Referencia:
VÁSQUEZ ROCCA, Adolfo, “Sartre; Teoría fenomenológica de las emociones y conciencia posicional del mundo”, En Revista NÓMADAS. Revista Crítica de Ciencias Sociales y Jurídicas - Universidad Complutense de Madrid
|  Nº 36 (2012. 4)
Dr. Adolfo Vásquez Rocca

The book under review offers a compelling comparison between the early
modern philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, and the late modern Jewish
philosopher Joseph D. Soloveitchik. The conceptual backdrop is broader
than this specific comparison through its enriching contextualisation of
Jewish written or imagined responses to contemporaneous philosophical
movements. In particular, the book offers insights into conceptual trends
of post-Enlightenment Western philosophical theology, notably between
individualism and the collective; theism and atheism; iconoclasm and
obedience.

The essence of being human lies in wanting to know why we are here and what we are here for, to know our purpose. This is not a new human endeavor. Since man first looked to the heavens and asked, “Why?” man has wrestled with his place in existence. Very often, such questions leads to thoughts and feelings that are more than the man can handle. From this anxiety over the meaning and purpose of one’s life comes existential therapy, a unique therapeutic method that it takes a highly philosophic approach to treating clients. It views psychological disorders not so much as a disturbance of the mind, as a disturbance of the soul; as such, existential therapy aims to guide the client to understanding more deep-seated and fundamental questions about their meaning and purpose in life. Existential therapy does not offer a rigid repertoire of techniques and skills, but rather borrows and modifies techniques from various other therapeutic methods, adapting them as necessary to suit the needs of the client. In so doing, the existential therapist seeks to “heal” the client by helping him to achieve a deeper self-awareness.

Abstract
According to the history of philosophy, the idea that questioned the cause of existence by the substantial contribution of Socrates and Plato from the early ages of BC, rescues the human being from being a passive entity when it comes to the 19th century, and focuses on the contemplation of contradiction with the world in which man lives as a wise individual. This novel philosophical thought also called as existentialism, takes the individual to the center and puts freedom and responsibility on the man himself. With the emphasis on subjective thinking, the life experience of the individual becomes important. In this respect, existentialism rejects the idea of idealism which defends that the essence comes before the existence and acknowledges that the existence of the individual is the premise of every concept.
The concept of individualism that started with the ideas of Kierkegaard, developed with the thoughts of philosophers such as Nietzsche, Sartre, Camus, and Heidegger. This new intellectual system which caused the subject to come to the fore caused the individual to re-examine the rules dictated by society and re-organize a distinct way of thinking and living system compared to the past resulting significant social changes and affecting considerably scientific and social issues that are valid. One of the areas of scientific work in which this change has become evident is the field of educational sciences.
Therefore, in this article, it is tried to be explained how the concept of individualism introduced by existentialist philosophy changed the value attributed to the child, and in which direction the concept of individualism, creativity, and freedom influenced education scholars, especially Maria Montessori who is the first woman doctor in Italy and at the same time the one who put forth a unique pedagogical approach in the field of pre-school education – the Montessori Method. Besides embracing the topic of a novel pedagogical approach through a philosophical thought, it is also tried to be explained how such an innovative thinking of an age-specific individual influenced the architecture of preschool educational buildings because the interior change envisaged by the Montessori class has influenced the architecture of the whole school because of its holistic approach to the teaching method, resulting in the emergence of a new type of preschool education under Montessori schools.
Thus, this work firstly attempts to explain the effects of the existentialist system of thought, which is concerned with the future of society leading to a radical change, particularly on preschool child education models. Within this perspective, Montessori Method will be covered both in terms of pedagogical aspects and in the context of the changes that it has made on pre-school children education spaces, beginning from the first half of the 20th century.
Following this section, it is tried to be mentioned about a Montessori School in Istanbul which the pedagogical approach mentioned above is referred to as a school established for the first time in Turkey with the initiative of parents who have already organized their thinking and living habits through the idea of acknowledging the child as a free individual. Because this school's philosophy of establishment has also emerged as a project that parents have taken responsibility on behalf of society via their own children, it is worth discussing such a kind of realized collectivist project in Turkey within the debate of existential thought which sprouted in the 19th century, in terms of its holistic influence on the transformation of a society through a preschool educational space in 21st century.

Our lack of awareness of Being results in bewildering experience. The intrinsic inner radiance, the inner light of Being arises out of primordial luminous spaciousness, the unbound openness of unbound pure potentiality. When this primordial ground of Being is veiled and obscured by the lack of experiential awareness, we can be locked into dualistic experiences, and consequently the non-dual nature of the field of Being is experientially foreclosed. The sense of indivisibility of all phenomena and awareness is experientially foreclosed. The capacity to see into, feel into and see through the lucidity of phenomena as the very field of Being becomes foreclosed and densified. We then live contained in mind alone. There is no experience of the field of Being. Without the field of Being we easily become things and objects both to our self and to others.