Ethics of Sport

Since 1976, when the first two articles on ethics in sport were published in the Journal of the Philosophy of Sport
(W.J.Morgan, R.Osterhoudt), ethical considerations of sports have been growing and expanding. During the ‘90s they
became the most dominant field within the philosophy of sport discourse (McNamee and Morgan, 2015, 132), and still
are. In the author’s opinion, after 40 years the Ethics of Sport has reached a point where a large systematic in-depth
analysis needs to be conducted. On the one hand, in order to do the first step, the author is trying to detect the most important
editions of the Ethics in/of Sport within the community of sport philosophers, and, on the other hand, to investigate their
thematic ambiguity in order to detect general contours of discipline and divisions of the fields.
The research was conducted by the application of the critical analysis and comparative historical research method, as well as
a critical review method.
Four collections of essays (McNamee, Parry, Morgan, Schneider, Meier) and three authors books (Simon, Torres, Hagar,
Arnold) stands out as the most cited, accepted and influential ones. All the editions begins with general approach and
metaethical consideration for necessary grounding. As the most significant problems in sport they uncover Cheating, Fairplay
or (un)Fairness, Doping, Genetic modifications, Gender equality and Social issues. Furtheremore, the uncovered
problems P.J.Arnold brings into the convergent field of moral education.
The Ethics of Sport as a discipline has clear contours and divisions, which are conditio sine qua non of a further growth
and development. The biggest room for improvement is in the metaethical and normative area, through relating it to
“general Ethics”. Also, Aretaic Ethics should be taken into consideration as a specific field.

In the Routledge Handbook of the Philosophy of Sport (McNamee, Morgan, 2015) for the first time Bioethics of Sport (BeS) was included, and therefore officially acknowledged, as a separate field within the philosophy of Sport. Starting from that fact, I will raise three issues. Firstly, I will propose the definition for the (new) sub-discipline, briefly present its short history, and indicate the connection to the Bioethics as such. Secondly, I will point out the BeS thematic scope in the past and present, and show how and why it is too narrow, insufficient and not comprehensive enough. In that regard, relying on Fritz Jahr's understanding of Bioethics, I will propose the widening of the current scope, and demonstrate that many of the topics were already present in the discourse of the philosophy of sport just were not recognised and considered as bioethical. Thirdly, I will emphasise the issue of the distinction between ethics and Bioethics of Sport within the philosophy of Sport. Finally, I will consider some prospects regarding the future of the bioethics of sport.

[See video here: https://miroslavimbrisevic.wordpress.com/talks/]

The TV series ‘Cobra Kai’ brings up some interesting philosophical and practical questions about the teaching of martial arts (MA). I will reflect on these questions and try to come up with some answers. We are presented with two styles of teaching. One is hard and aggressive (Johnny Lawrence from Cobra Kai), the other soft and empathic (Daniel LaRusso from Miyagi Do).
The Karate competition invites the following questions: Is it ok to fight dirty, if this gives you victory? Can you use the rules strategically? Can you break the rules to gain an advantage? Isn’t it a hollow victory when you target a pre-existing injury of your opponent deliberately? In a good competition you bring out the best in each other. ‘You want to beat your opponent when s/he is at her/his strongest.’ This reflects the tension in MA teaching whenever there is a sports side (competition). Winning at all cost will be in conflict with MA values: winning honourably, exhibiting indomitable spirit, etc.

Purpose: This paper examined ethic and institutionalization of code of professional practice in the Kano State School sports system. These codes of ethics include commitment to athletes, player, public, profession, employment practice and services that embodied personal integrity, dignity and mutual respect. Methods: Three [3] research questions were formulated, answered and tested at 0.05 level of Significance. The Sample comprised of 5 School Sports professionals management practitioners selected from secondary schools of Kano, from the total population of 105 through stratified Sampling technique. The instrument used in the research was the Self-Assessment Questionnaire [SAQ] developed by the researcher, data collected were analysed using rank ordered correlation. Results: The findings revealed the need for school sport management professionals to understand the different functions of codes and distinguished between the three types of codes namely, code of ethics, conduct, practi...

Tra i sintomi più preoccupanti che ci fanno temere per lo stato di salute dello sport c’è il diffondersi del doping amatoriale. Fenomeno che cresce di pari passo con quella che è stata definita «la cultura della pillola», ovvero l’idea che ogni forma di fragilità o di vulnerabilità , possa essere superata grazie ai progressi della tecnica farmaceutica. Da questo punto di vista il diffondersi del doping tra gli amatori deve essere colto come il sintomo di un malessere più profondo, che riguarda l’incapacità dell’uomo di far pace con i propri limiti, nella persuasione, errata, che una vita realmente felice possa darsi solo grazie al superamento di ogni limite e alla rimozione di ogni forma di fragilità.
Una volta che la «vita riuscita» è divenuta sinonimo di «vita perfetta» – efficiente e competitiva – tutti gli elementi difettivi della condizione umana appaiono esclusivamente come ostacoli lungo la via della piena realizzazione di sé. Non ci si deve sforzare di scorgere un senso o un valore nelle nostre fragilità; esse sono solo mali che, come tali, possono o essere subiti o essere rimossi.

Introduction
Ethics of sport as a philosophical discipline is becoming very important due to many challenges and moral dilemmas that
characterize the area of modern sport. Therefore, the ethics of sport is the subject within the curricula of those high
education institutions that have recognized the significance of this philosophical discipline for complete education of
future numerous professionals in sport (Škerbiü, 2014). The authoress distinguishes the curricula of high education
institutions in Serbia where the ethics of sport is one of the subjects. The authoress intends to suggest studying of the
ethics of sport as an elective subject at the Faculty of Sport and Physical Education University of Belgrade.
Method
The survey was conducted by the method of content analysis of the curricula of state and private universities in Serbia.
Results and Discussion
Ethics of sport as a subject is the part of the curriculum of two private faculties as obligatory and elective subject. As a
thematic unit, one segment of ethics of sport is the part of the obligatory subjects Sociology with Sociology of Sport and
Sociology of Sport within the curriculum at the Faculty of Sport and Physical Education University of Belgrade. As a
thematic unit, one segment of ethics of sport is studied within the elective subject Woman and Sport at the same Faculty.
Conclusion
Despite the increasing challenges and moral dilemmas in contemporary sport, a small number of faculties in Serbia
recognized the importance of the ethics of sport for complete education of future professionals in sport. At the Faculty of
Sport and Physical Education University of Belgrade, ethics of sport is studied within only two topics related to sociology
of sport and bioethics at the same time (Škerbiü, Radenoviü, 2016). Therefore, the authoress proposes the founding of the
ethics of sport as an elective subject. Within the proposed curriculum, the authoress insists on interdisciplinarity and pluri
perspectivism and correlation of the sociology of morality and sociology of bioethics as the special sociological
disciplines with the ethics of sport. Interdisciplinarity and pluri perspectivism can provide complete overview and critical
consideration of numerous ethical problems of contemporary sport.
Key words: ethics of sport, sociology of morality, sociology of bioethics, interdisciplinarity, pluri perspectivism
Literature
1. Škerbiü, M. (2014). Etika sporta kao novi nastavni predmet? Metodiþki ogledi, 21(1), 47-66.
2. Škerbiü, M. M., Radenoviü, S. (2016). Prisutnost bioetiþkih tema na podruþju filozofije i sociologije sporta u Hrvatskoj i Srbiji. Zbornik sažetaka,
15. Lošinjski dani bioetike, Mali Lošinj, Hrvatska 15.-18.05.2016., 107-108.

La « vérification » du sexe des sportives de haut niveau : pour une reconnaissance de l’intersexualité

La compétition sportive continue aujourd’hui de constituer un terrain d’inégalités entre les femmes et les hommes. A la fois l’histoire et l’actualité de ces inégalités sont enchevêtrées dans des normes culturelles ayant pour rôle de délimiter la frontière entre les sexes et de contrôler la conformité des individus vis-à-vis de ces normes. Dans la mesure où elle met en scène les performances des corps, en ayant préalablement défini des critères d’excellence et des règles censées garantir l’équité, la compétition sportive revêt une dimension hautement publique. Cette communication interrogera la manière dont l’intimité des corps est mise à l’épreuve, non pas tant par la compétition elle-même, que par des dispositifs de contrôle des normes de genre. En particulier, il sera question de la « vérification » du sexe des sportives, et notamment des personnes intersexuées, vérification systématisée par des instances sportives internationales à partir de 1966. La communication se focalisera sur trois enjeux majeurs soulevés par cette pratique. Tout d’abord, il s’agira de la « scientificité » – et donc de la légitimité – des méthodes de vérification et de la science médicale sur laquelle elles reposent. Ensuite, les enjeux éthiques de la « vérification » du sexe seront examinés, à la fois du point de vue de l’équité dans le sport et de celui des droits des athlètes. Enfin, la publicité du sexe et du genre sera analysée en tant qu’enjeu de contrôle de la féminité des femmes.

“Verifying” the sex of elite female athletes: for the recognition of intersexuality

Today, athletic competition continues to constitute an area of inequality between women and men. Both the history and current state of these inequalities are entangled in cultural norms, the role of which is to delimit the frontier between the sexes and to control the conformity of individuals with respect to those norms. Insofar as it orchestrates the performances of bodies, having defined the criteria of excellence and the rules meant to guarantee fair play, athletic competition comprises a highly public dimension. This paper will question the manner in which the intimacy of bodies is put to the test, not so much by the competition itself, as by the protocols of control over gender norms. In particular, the paper will study the “verification” of the sex of female athletes, and of intersexed individuals in particular, which was systematized by international sports governing bodies starting in 1966. Our focus will be on three major questions. First, the question of the “scientificity” – and thus the legitimacy – of the verification methods and the medical science on which they rest will be considered. Second, the ethical stakes of sex “verification” will be examined, both from the point of view of fairness in sport and that of athletes’ rights. Finally, the publicity of sex and gender will be analyzed as a mechanism of control of the femininity of women.

Lo sport è una scuola di vita che ha bisogno di volontà e con- sapevolezza, impegno e determinazione; può rappresentare una preziosa agenzia educativa al servizio del bene comune, ma non è affatto scontato che lo sia davvero. Troppo spesso la pratica sportiva è associata all’idolatria della vittoria e del successo: come non perdere il senso umano del gioco? Quali virtù coltivare per crescere adulti nello sport e nella vita?

Purpose: This paper examined ethic and institutionalization of code of professional practice in the Kano State School sports system. These codes of ethics include commitment to athletes, player, public, profession, employment practice and services that embodied personal integrity, dignity and mutual respect. Methods: Three [3] research questions were formulated, answered and tested at 0.05 level of Significance. The Sample comprised of 35 School Sports professionals’ management practitioners selected from secondary schools of Kano, from the total population of 105 through stratified Sampling technique. The instrument used in the research was the Self-Assessment Questionnaire [SAQ] developed by the researcher, data collected were analysed using rank ordered correlation. Results: The findings revealed the need for school sport management professionals’ to understand the different functions of codes and distinguished between the three types of codes namely, code of ethics, conduct, pra...

In the last decades virtue ethics in sport has gained much attention. This is not surprising because it seems that some characteristics of this ethical theory successfully respond to very complex situations in sport. The experience shows that merely rules of particular sport do not assure moral sport actions. Already Plato has pointed out that there are two guides of moral actions: laws (or rules) directing us from outside and virtues directing us from inside. He was convinced that virtues are better than laws, since it does not make any sense to promulgate laws among non-virtues persons, because they will disregard them. On the other hand the virtues people are able to find out what is good and what is not regardless of laws. Therefore, it is important to become a good person, since only then also laws or rules make sense. Plato exposes four main virtues: justice, prudence (wisdom), courage (fortitude), and temperance (moderation, self-control). But the question arises why only four virtues and not more? Plato responds that these four virtues represent the whole of virtues. (Republic, 428a) These virtues are evidently connected with Plato‘s construction of human soul. But these four cardinal virtues are not the only virtues, neither in Plato‘s philosophy, but they are the 'hinges', on which all the other virtues turn. They are the necessary foundation and prerequisite for all the others. So, which role can be ascribed to cardinal virtues in sport? For Plato the first and the most important is virtue of justice. It seems that it is also preferential in sport, especially when we think about sport competitions. But, as emphasized the medieval philosophy the source of justice and other virtues is reason. Reason is the essence of human nature and of all moral acts. Therefore to act in accordance with reason – to have the virtue of prudence is the first demand. While prudence refers to individual alone, justice refers to others. Every sport competition, contest, is therefore the field of virtue of justice. The basis of justice is to give everyone his due. Justice put us in a position of a debtor to a fellow-man. This requires that we play fair and honorable. Therefore donated victory is not righteous because it is not owed. Besides that, virtue of justice arranges matters between the individuals and between the individual and community which has a great impact on morality in sport. The third virtue is courage that is directed towards individual itself. Plato already recognizes sport activity as a main mean for development of this virtue. (Laches, 190c) To be courageous and to endure till the end is the essence of courage. It is obvious that courage is essential for any quality sport. The last one is the virtue of temperance which is also directed towards individual itself. At a first glance it appears not suitable for modern times. But, if we take a closer look it can be seen that the athletes cannot succeed without renounce of many unnecessary things.

Abstract

Doping in elite-sport is a topical issue that polarizes public opinion. This dissertation outlines crucial, fundamental questions that go unasked in general discourse about doping in elite-sport and that through being answered will allow the debate to be had at more meaningful level. 

This interdisciplinary dissertation draws widely on: scientific journal entries, textbooks, multimedia and official documents in subjects of biochemistry, biology, psychology and ethics.

A comprehensive, balanced, inter-disciplinary approach to the research that was used to form this dissertation allows for a multifactorial coverage of the issues addressed and means that, at the very least, the conclusions made have some equity.

This​ dissertation examines include: what doping is and who decides, the (not so) valiant institutional structures through which doping detection is currently undertaken, and what the current prevalence of doping is likely to be.  It aims to answer two questions: (i) is the playing field levelled by the current paradigm of doping prohibition? and (ii) in this human world, there are many examples of ideals that only fitfully work in reality, but is this an argument for not making the effort to put ideals into practice?

Through this research it can be concluded that doping is far more pervasive that WADA's statistics would suggest, doping detection methods are unfit for purpose, it is questionable whether the true motives for those who organise testing are more political than egalitarian and there are great genetic dissimilarities between elite-athletes (who are, as a group, already genetically superior to the rest of the population in terms of athletic potential).

All of these conclusions highlight that elite-sport has never and probably will never be an even playing field.  Looking forward, there are far-reaching moral and political implications for organised testing.

Lo sport rappresenta un potente veicolo formativo, capace di incidere sugli stili di vita e sulle modalità di pensiero delle persone. Affinché la lezione dello sport sia realmente positiva, è però necessario che tale ruolo educativo sia riconosciuto e incoraggiato. Se ciò non avviene, la pratica sportiva continua a veicolare valori, ma corre il serio rischio di favorire il diffondersi di quelli negativi. Vincere diventa così l’unica cosa che conta e questo apre la strada a tutta una serie di pratiche e comportamenti palesemente antisportivi, doping in primis. Il volume, dedicato al rapporto tra sport, valori e inclusione sociale, vuole contribuire alla promozione di una rinnovata cultura sportiva. A tal fine si propone di mettere al servizio di associazioni, scuole e istituzioni sportive le competenze necessarie a fare della pratica sportiva una reale occasione di crescita umana e civile.

In this work, we propose to make an ethical analysis of the Armstrong case. To this end, we define, in the first part, what we mean by doping and see the distinction between
“traditional doping” and “gene doping”. We expose also some of the arguments for and against that moral philosophers of sport have offered. Once these concepts are clarified, in the second part of the article we analyze ethically the problem of doping in the Armstrong case.
We emphasize the points that we consider relevant, focusing especially on the significance it has had on the world of sports, professional and amateur, the scandal generated by the public
confession of the American cyclist. Finally, we draw some conclusions concerning the role played by the natural gift in Armstrong´s career.

Inhalt
Christoph Asmuth
Dopingdefinitionen – von der Moral zum Recht
1 Doping als Phänomen der Moderne
2 Gesundheit – Natürlichkeit – Fairness
3 Die Verrechtlichung der Dopingdefinitionen
4 Schluss

Kai Gregor
Ansatzpunkte der Philosophie im Problemfeld ›Doping‹
1 Einleitung 33
2 Das Problemfeld ›Doping‹ und der ›große Sport‹
3 Ansatzpunkt der Philosophie
4 Perspektivenpluralismus in der Dopingforschung
4.1 Die positiv rechtliche Perspektive
4.2 Weitere bekannte Probleme der Verrechtlichung
4.3 Die soziologische Perspektive
4.4 Die Mechanik der Dopingfalle aus philosophischer Perspektive
5 Ästhetische Perspektive – ›großer Sport‹,Theaterwelt und symbolisches Kapital

Patrick Grüneberg
Normativität in biochemischen Analyseprozessen
1 Dopingkontrollen und Dopinganalytik
1.1 Das Überwachungs- und Kontrollwesen
1.2 Dopinganalytik
2 Normatives Handeln in biochemischen Analyseprozessen
2.1 Grenz- und Referenzwerte
2.2 Messverfahren
3 Die juridische Verwertung biochemischer Analysen
3.1 Die Gemengelage, illustriert am Fall Pechstein
4 Schlussbetrachtungen

Christoph Asmuth
Praktische Aporien des Dopings
1 Die gesellschaftliche Komplexität des Dopings
2 Erste Aporie: Doping und Gesundheit
3 Zweite Aporie: Doping und die Natürlichkeit des Sports
4 Dritte Aporie: Doping und Gerechtigkeit
5 Doping und Glaubwürdigkeit
6 Ausblick: Doping und Enhancement

Patrick Grüneberg
Die Ambivalenz zwischen Therapie und Leistung
1 Vorbemerkungen zum WADA-Code und die aktuelle
Definition des Dopings
2 Die Listenpolitik
3 Die Ambivalenz zwischen Therapie und Leistung
4 Wissenschaftstheoretischer Ausblick

Christoph Binkelmann
Was heißt Doping auf Französisch? Rechtliche, soziale und ethische Perspektiven
1 Doping und die rechtliche Lage in Frankreich
2 Vom Doping zum Dopingverhalten
3 Dopingverhalten: Anpassung durch Leistung
4 Von der Sportethik zur Dopingethik
5 Schlussbetrachtungen

In the current state philosophy, ethics in sports have become a very important issue which must be taken into account in the field of moral philosophy. We are in front of its new challenge, which requires a consistent response.
In the present paper I will describe two important perspectives of ethics in sports: first of all the so-called ethical internalism, proposed by Robert Burcher, Angela Schneider and Robert. L. Simon in the North American context, which will be followed by the European proposal made by Karl-Otto Apel. Both approaches are of great importance, although they lack aspects that would greatly improve its considerations. Only in doing so can we develop a proposal for the future in order to make possible an ethics applied to sports.
For this reason I will argue in favour of an ethics in sport from the critical hermeneutics hold by Adela Cortina and Jesús Conill. This is because such perspective connects the deontological side of duty with virtue, both of which are of fundamental importance in modern sports. Thus, it is possible to reach a high enough ethical level that will allow to eliminate all unsporting behaviors.

In this article I propose to rescue the importance of seeing sportsmanship as a moral category from the contribution made by Keating in his 1964 article. Expanding the pioneering proposal of Keating with the realization of Feezell, seeing against the distinction between sport and athletics. Focusing on the importance of seeing sportsmanship as a moral category that applies to sport and athletics in a homogeneous way, seeing that above the emphasis of victory, cooperative work is imposed and in a team without which there could be no ethical behavior in sport.

In tro duc ti on Alt ho ugh fa ir play is a con cept re la ted to the or ga ni sa ti on of so ci al rela ti ons -and the le vel at which they ta ke pla ce -in all are as of the li fe of the com mu nity, its his to ri cal de ve lop ment shows a si mi la rity to that of sport, with which it is al most al ways as so ci ated -per haps be ca use it is in this are a that it is most so ught af ter. Both 's por t' and 'fa ir pla y' are concepts that ha ve, over ti me, co me to sum up in one or two words a who le ran ge of hu man ac ti ons and forms of be ha vi our that had long be en in exis ten ce when the se terms we re coi ned, and both ha ve en te red ot her lan gu ages as di rect bor ro wings from Eng lish (be ca use they wo uld lo se somet hing of the ir ran ge of mea nings in trans la ti on -and the sco pe of those mea nings is cons tantly wi de ning), ha ving re ta ined the ir ori gi nal English morp ho logy. Thus, 's por t' and 'fa ir pla y' ha ve be co me two mu tu ally in se pa rab le con cepts that de fi ne the re la ti ons hip bet we en pe op le and sport -the first de fi ning the ac ti vity it self, and the se cond the et hi cal valu es as so ci ated with it.

The formalist account of sport establishes that the rules comprise the very definition. The written rules are those that shape and determine the purpose and the sense of sports, i.e. what counts as a valid movement, a correct action in the frame of the sport practice, or scoring a goal or committing a foul, is determined and specified by the rules of the sport in question.

The concept of distributed moral responsibility (DMR) has a long history. When it is understood as being entirely reducible to the sum of (some) human, individual, and already morally loaded actions, then the allocation of DMR, and hence of praise and reward or blame and punishment, may be pragmatically difficult, but not conceptually problematic. However, in distributed environments it is increasingly possible that a network of agents, some human, some artificial (e.g. a program) and some hybrid (e.g. a group of people working as a team thanks to a software platform) may cause distributed moral actions (DMAs). These are morally good or evil (i.e., morally loaded) actions caused by local interactions that are in themselves neither good nor evil (morally neutral). In this article, I analyse DMRs that are due to DMAs and argue in favour of the allocation, by default and overridably, of full moral responsibility (faultless responsibility) to all the nodes/agents in the network causally relevant for bringing about the DMA in question, independently of intentionality. The mechanism proposed is inspired by, and adapts, three concepts: back propagation from network theory, strict liability from jurisprudence, and common knowledge from epistemic logic.

Purpose: This paper examined ethic and institutionalization of code of professional practice in the Kano State School sports system. These codes of ethics include commitment to athletes, player, public, profession, employment practice and services that embodied personal integrity, dignity and mutual respect. Methods: Three [3] research questions were formulated, answered and tested at 0.05 level of Significance. The Sample comprised of 5 School Sports professionals management practitioners selected from secondary schools of Kano, from the total population of 105 through stratified Sampling technique. The instrument used in the research was the Self-Assessment Questionnaire [SAQ] developed by the researcher, data collected were analysed using rank ordered correlation. Results: The findings revealed the need for school sport management professionals to understand the different functions of codes and distinguished between the three types of codes namely, code of ethics, conduct, practice and levels of professional ethics of competencies and best practice in school sports system. Conclusion: In conclusion Secondary school sports managers must embraces and practices according to professional code of ethics, conduct and practice, the individual, the profession and the society as a whole will benefits in improving ethical decision making, high standards of practice and ethical behaviour, enhances trust and respect from the general public. Recommendations: The study recommends among others that professional association should Design ethics and codes of professionals practice of sports management practitioners even though at the time of the study there was no sport management professional association the practitioners belong.

“The goal of Olympism is to place sport at the service of the harmonious development of man…” 

From Homer’s poems it is clear that Greek people liked sport very much. Originally the single aim in Greek athletics was to win. Competitions in Olympia had been called ‘competitions for wreath’ (stefanitis agon) and not ‘competitions for money’ (chrematitis agon). But, why there was such emphasis on winning, on being the best? Sport competitions gave athletes possibility to test and show their arête, their virtues. The meaning of winning was not in defeating other competitors, but to test oneself; to uncover and recognize the truth (alethéia) and the true value of oneself. But in 5th century BC the change in attitude toward original agon become more and more obvious. From that time on, material prize was becoming the main motive for being involved in sport. Adding material prizes to sport represents, as we will see, the first blow to the original value of sport. However, some ancient Greek thinkers noticed that sport did not have meaning just in earning prizes for the best few and making the rest of polis citizens feel happy, but could have a deeper meaning for the human being itself. One of them was Plato (5th-4th century BC). He found the mission of his life was the education of men. So he touched sport many times in his dialogs and exposed its role in the education of young people. For him all education is directed to the development of virtue. The value of sport he found in development of virtue of fortitude. But for him gymnastics and music paideía create just effects of Good, but not the knowledge of Good itself. The later is the aim of philosophical education. In the activity in accordance with reason – in philosophy – Plato saw final point of Greek paideía, as the process of realization of highest human abilities. It is interesting that Plato, who was an athlete himself, didn’t go deeper into the philosophical understanding of sport. He never asked the fundamental philosophical question, question about ‘what is something?’ – also about sport. But, if we want to ‘use’ Plato’s philosophy, we must ask the question ‘what is sport?’. So, what can Plato’s philosophy tell us about what is sport and what is good sport? Probably Plato's best answer to this question can be found in the basic concepts of his philosophy regarding his hierarchical division of the state and human soul on three parts. Since the sport is derived from man also the goodness of sport can be divided in three stages. The lowest stage of sport corresponds to the first part of soul – the appetite soul. On this stage sport is based on the gaining of material goods through the prizes of the competitions. In the philosophic view, this is the lowest possible stage of goodness of sport. The second stage of sport corresponds to the second part of the soul – the emotional soul. Sport on this stage is based on the original ancient agon, which seeks fulfilment in winning and showing arête. The greatest and the most superior is the third part of the soul – the reasonable soul. According to this, sport corresponds to the third part of the soul and is the best kind. For this kind of sport it is no longer necessary to compete with another contestant but to compete and win over oneself. The goodness of sport is no more determined by physical dimensions of space and time; the seconds and meters are no more important because true good sport goes beyond these borders since it is the cognition and improvement of self that is the most important and even essential thing. As Plato clearly shows us, it is not worth being active in sport if the aim of it is beyond us. It is not worth to do sport just to earn money and forget about improving yourself. Beside that not all people have the capabilities to earn money from sport. But everyone can benefit from sport if he takes it in the original ancient meaning: to test myself, to learn something about myself and not only to become better in sport, but to fulfill my potentials as a human being as well: to become better man. This is true and lasting reward which sport can give to everyone of us. And that is the way to make goal of Olympism (“…to place sport at the service of the harmonious development of man…”) real.

In this paper, I argue that sportspersonship is a means of performing fundamental sociality; it is about the conversion of a foe (inimicus) into an enemy (hostis). Drawing on Carl Schmitt’s distinction between enemy and foe – inimicus and hostis – as well as his discussion of the ius publicum Europaeum, I suggest a model of sportspersonship that sees it as expressing the competitive relations between equals that undergird the most minimal form of sociality; relations that any deeper union takes as its foundation. It is the performance of this fundamental sociality, I argue, that grounds the value of sport in general (though this does not mean that there cannot be other, contingent values in sport).

In May 2011, more than a decade after the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) and the International Olympic Committee (IOC) abandoned sex testing, they devised new policies in response to the IAAF's treatment of Caster Semenya, the South African runner whose sex was challenged because of her spectacular win and powerful physique that fueled an international frenzy questioning her sex and legitimacy to compete as female. These policies claim that atypically high levels of endogenous testosterone in women (caused by various medical conditions) create an unfair advantage and must be regulated. Against the backdrop of Semenya's case and the scientific and historical complexity of "gender verification" in elite sports, we question the new policies on three grounds: (1) the underlying scientific assumptions; (2) the policymaking process; and (3) the potential to achieve fairness for female athletes. We find the policies in each of these domains significantly flawed and therefore argue they should be withdrawn.

No one observing political events of the contemporary world can deny the continuing growth of nationalism. Because the term 'nationalism' had got negative connotations in past decades, some people today oversimplify, change and apologize it with term 'patriotism'. Doing this they want to show that this is indeed something good and acceptable because it is love for one’s nation and country. From ancient times on has in this story of nationalism and patriotism played an important role also sport with its competitions. Competitions between citizens of different communities were great opportunity for growth of both, nationalism and patriotism. It is no doubt about the adequacy of sport for these purposes, but the question arise which of these two (if any) is closer to the spirit of sport and (for us) more acceptable. We will try to answer this question on the basis of Plato’s philosophy. First we will take a look on what is nationalism and patriotism and afterwards we will try to define what is (good) sport using Plato’s philosophy. These findings will enable us to point out for what purposes can be sport used without mutilation of its essence.

Since the 1960s, major international sporting organizations enforced a prohibition on performance-enhancing drugs. The scope of this enforcement expanded to the current system regulated by the World Anti-Doping Agency. Although the sophistication of the detective sciences and the comprehensive enforcement of these prohibitions have improved over time, supporters of the ban on drug use in sport still struggle with 3 issues: Doping is still quite common; the ability to detect established drugs have driven users to newer, more experimental substances; and the prohibition policy lacks sufficient moral justifications. This article suggests that the debate over doping has bifurcated between those who continue to support antidoping measures with insufficient ethical grounds and those who would potentially permit the unregulated use of performance-enhancement technologies in sport because of insufficient justifications for prohibition. A third way, posed herein, suggests the most ethically defensible policy is a harm-reduction approach.

The main purpose of this paper is to provide an analysis and critique of Michael Sandel’s argument against human enhancement in sport. In order to examine the problem, I use Bernard Suits’ theory of game-playing (“game” is an activity based on voluntary choice of imperfect means), as well as Wolfgang Welsch’s account of sport as seen from the aesthetic perspective. The image of sport that emerges from these considerations is as follows: by nature, sport does not aim at perfection understood literally, but it is rather an aesthetic enterprise in which participants are acting out (in a different way than in a theatre) the drama of striving for perfection. In light of this philosophy of sport, all forms of doping, including genetic doping, which is one of the main subject of Sandel’s work, seem to be a consequence of a mistaken view of the nature of sport. Thus, contrary to Sandel’s view, the acceptance of the Promethean, quasi-mythological view of sport, is not so much an expression of a lack of gratitude, but rather – of a lack of wisdom.

In the last two decades of Sports-Philosophy literature, the debate on internalism in the ethics of sport is one of the central issues. In the ongoing debate are included, with their contributions, the most prominent scholars in the field, like R. L. Simon, Scott Kretchmar, W. J. Morgan, J. S. Russell, and Javier Lopez Frias, among others. In this paper, the author will take a look back to find out where are the origins and the roots of it.
The research was conducted by the application of the critical analysis method, comparative historical research method, and a critical review method.
Results and Discussion:
In his 1987. article The Logical Incompatibility Thesis and Rules: A Reconsideration of Formalism as an Account of Games, W. J. Morgan has introduced A. MacIntyre’s  After Virtue: a Study in Moral Theory (1981) to the philosophy of sport, in order to solve the problem of a logical logjam in the formalists account of sport. Namely, if someone is (deliberately) breaking the rules, the moment (s)he brakes the rule, (s)is not playing a game anymore, and thus (s)he can not win. Morgan used MacIntyre’s distinction between internalistic and externalistic values as well as between social practice and social institutions, as a carrier of the values. In the 1995 book Leftist Theories of sport. A Critique and Reconstruction he has developed the concept of internalistic account of sport with the four central elements: “gratuitous logic of sport”, “striving for excellence”, “practice communities” and “social context and history”.
Conclusions:
First, it seems to the author that it would be fair to call W. J. Morgan for what he is- a “father of internalism” in the philosophy of sport. Second, in the authors view, by introducing MacIntyre, Morgan has created one of the turning points in the history of the development of the discipline. And third, by doing that, he has largely influenced, shaped and directed the later global sports-philosophy, especially the field of normativity.

Del modernega športa je močno zaznamovan s težnjo po doseganju rekordov. Javnost bi olimpijske igre ali svetovno prvenstvo v določenih rekordnih športih, na katerih ne bi bilo doseženega prav nobenega rekorda, hitro razglasila za velik neuspeh, celo polomijo, a zdi se, da
se temu trenutku ne bo mogoče izgoniti. Sama logika rekorda namreč temelji na protislovni zahtevi po neomejeni rasti znotraj omejenega sistema. Neomejeno napredovanje športnih dosežkov bi bilo mogoče, če ti dosežki ne bi bili vezani na zelo omejen biološki sistem – športnikovo telo. Tako pa se nam v prihodnosti rišejo končne meje podiranja športnih rekordov. Kaj to pomeni za rekordni šport? Je to napoved njegovega konca ali zgolj spodbuda k preoblikovanju določenih
športnih disciplin k bolj trajnostno vzdržnim oblikam tekmovanja?
/
Part of modern sport is highly influenced with the urge to achieve records. Olympics or World Championships without records would be a big disappointment among spectators and general public alike. But it seems that this moment is inevitably coming. The logic of sport record is based on impossible ideal of unlimited growth in limited systems. The biological human body is finite system which limit the desire for unlimited progress of sport records. What does it mean for record sports? Is this the announcement of its final end or just the incentive for its modification in the direction of more sustainable sport practices?

In 1984, Warren P. Fraleigh wrote his most important work: Right Action in Sports, Ethics for Contestants. It opened the door to our actual studies about Sport´s Philosophy and Sport´s Ethics, a completely new point of view in these questions. This essay is a revision of Fraleigh´s Ethical Formalism. I will try to give the correct importance to Sport´s rules and to expose the controversy between Fraleigh and Simon about strategical failures in Sports.

Sport: the Treasure of TemperanceThe modern lifestyle, with its emphasis on enjoyment and immoderation, could lead a human being to the point where he is not a master of himself anymore. Inner desires and outer pressures force a man to take those actions that are not in accordance with his rational human nature and that are not good for him. According to the classical philosophical view of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, this clearly shows the inner slavery of modern man. Temperance, moderation or asceticism today seem old fashioned and unnecessary virtues; nevertheless, it is obvious that many problems of modern societies have roots in the absence of these virtues. These problems include a high percentage of obese population, different addictions and other health problems concerning the immoderate life style. It seems that nowadays enjoyment is the highest imperative for the individual and for society as a whole. However, these days it is possible to recognize the revival of these v...

It has been argued that competitive elite sport both (i) reduces the humanity of athletes by turning them into beings whose sole value is determined in relation to others, and (ii) is motivated by a celebration of the genetically superior and humiliation of the weak. This paper argues that while (i) is a morally reproachable attitude to competition, it is not what competitive elite sport revolves around, and that (ii) simply is not the essence of competitive elite sport. Competitive elite sport is an exploration of the physical and mental demands of sport. Finally, the paper explores a number of consequences of the different views of sport with respect to the problem of intersexual women.

Članek predstavlja filozofski poskus opredelitve vrednosti sodobnega športa, izhajajoč iz temeljnih postavk novoveške filozofije. Pri tem se kot osrednji problem zastavi vprašanje odnosa med človekovo telesno in netelesno razsežnostjo. Gre za klasični filozofski problem, katerega korenine segajo na same začetke antične grške filozofije. V članku izpostavimo novoveško zastavitev problema, kot izhaja iz filozofije Reneja Descartesa in s katero je začrtal pot novoveškemu mišljenju. Kot pokažemo, se njegove misli zrcalijo tudi v odnosu družbe do sodobnega športa.
/
The paper presents a philosophical attempt to define the value of modern sport on the bases of the fundamental ideas of modern philosophy. The central question about the relation between the human corporeal and incorporeal dimension arise. However, this classical philosophical problem originates from the beginning of the ancient Greek philosophy. In paper the exposition of Descartes philosophy is brought out as it represents the foundation for modern thought. It is shown that his philosophical findings are reflected also in the relation of society toward modern sport.

The media storm that accompanied the protracted disgrace of Lance Armstrong focussed not only on the systematic approach that both he and his team took to the use of performance enhancing drugs, (PEDs) but extended to his personality and his

"The modern lifestyle, with its emphasis on enjoyment and immoderation, could lead a human being to the point where he is not a master of himself anymore. Inner desires and outer pressures force a man to take those actions that are not in accordance with his rational human nature and that are not
good for him. According to the classical philosophical view of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, this clearly shows the inner slavery of modern man. Temperance, moderation or asceticism today seem old fashioned and unnecessary virtues; nevertheless, it is obvious that many problems of modern
societies have roots in the absence of these virtues. These problems include a high percentage of obese population, different addictions and other health problems concerning the immoderate life style. It seems that nowadays enjoyment is the highest imperative for the individual and for society as a
whole. However, these days it is possible to recognize the revival of these virtues. This paper points out the case of sport where these virtues are still cultivated and highly appreciated. At first this may seem somehow strange, because many times sport is perceived as connected with pleasure, fun and excess, but in reality sport demands much of participants. It could be even
said that professional athletes are modern ascetics, and a big part of recreational sport is all but not enjoyment. In conclusion we can assert that virtues acquired in the field of sport can indeed help a human being to live a better life in general.

KEYWORDS: sport, temperance, virtue, philosophy of sport, education"