Doping in Sport

Background: This study explores the factors influencing students to seek medical help, and student perceptions in relation to student-doctor interactions with implications for health help-seeking behaviours. Method: Students were interviewed across year groups. The interviews were audiotaped, transcribed and qualitatively analysed. Results: We interviewed 22 students and identified common themes. Conclusion: Medical students reflect on issues related to seeking medical help, their choice of GP and the decision whether to divulge they are medical students.

In a thought-provoking article in Bioethics, Andrea Lavazza defends the view that for reasons of fairness, those who cannot benefit from the use of performance-enhancing methods such as transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) should receive compensation for their inability. Lavazza thinks this argument applies in a wide range of competitive contexts and one of his two main examples is sport, which is the context we will focus on in this article. Essentially, tDCS is a non-invasive and painless brain stimulation that delivers electric impulses to particular parts of the brain. Some studies show that tDCS can improve athletic performance by, for instance, increasing motor skills and reducing perception of fatigue. The same studies, however, also show that there are significant differences in individuals’ responsiveness to tDCS. Although Lavazza’s focus is on the use of tDCS and how we should deal, morally speaking, with the fact that people respond differently when using tDCS, his argument for compensation applies to all kinds of performance-enhancing drugs and methods in sports, where there is a difference in responsiveness. This renders his argument more interesting. Below we argue that his argument for his compensation view in sports is flawed. More positively, we suggest that fairness in sport has a large conventional element and, within certain constraints, is satisfied if rules of the sport are public and athletes comply with the rules. This positive view of fairness applies to the use of tDCS, but it also applies much more widely to all other forms of doping and training methods.

Na okładce wykorzystano zdjęcie rześby przedstawiającej podobiznę Temidy, umieszczonej na fasadzie dziedzińca wewnętrzengo gmachu Sądu Okręgowego w Warszawie Autor zdjęcia: Adrian Grycuk CC BY-SA 3.0 pl © copyright by authors & ArchaeGr aph Alicja Batko Funkcjonowanie instytucji mediacji w postępowaniu sądowoadministracyjnym na przestrzeni lat 2004-2020 Część Joanna Kunc Władztwo administracyjno-prawne organów z wiązku międzygminnego w systemie gospodarowania odpadami komunalnymi Monika Iżewska Obowiązek meldunkowy w prawie polskim Krzysztof Fila Kategoryzacja prawnokarnych faktów wyróżnianych oceniająco przy uwzględnieniu czynników ustrojowych, zwyczajowych oraz orzeczniczych Filip Dokurno Jakub Lemiesz Analiza potencjalnych dróg modyfikacji polskiego ustroju politycznego w celu usprawnienia funkcjonowania instytucji państwa Cezary Pachnik Bezpośrednie stosowanie Konstytucji w Polsce Jan Kaczmarczyk Konstytucyjna i cywilistyczna ochrona własności w Polsce na tle rozwiązań w wybranych krajach Unii Europejskiej Paweł Bącal Status prawny młodzieżowej rady gminy i gminnej rady seniorów. Analiza porównawcza Artur Pietryka Aleksandra Połatyńska Ewolucja ustawodawstwa dotyczącego czynności operacyjno-rozpoznawczych Maria Stępień Podział środków weryfikacji rozstrzygnięć w postępowaniu administracyjnym według rodzaju dewolutywności Część Marcin Pawelec Dekada istnienia "prawa dopalaczowego"analiza postlegislacyjna ustawodawstwa regulującego zjawisko nowych substancji psychoaktywnych Agata Ziobroń Przestępczość narkotykowa. Kilka uwag na temat obowiązywania ustawy o przeciwdziałaniu narkomanii (w latach 2005-2020) Cześć Michał Ostrowski Historyczny budżet w dobie epidemii czyli ustawa budżetowa na 2020 rok Jakub Krawczyk Publicznoprawne możliwości reakcji na zagrożenie epidemiologicznerefleksje na kanwie pandemii COVID-19 Adam Bródka Administracyjna kara pieniężna jako forma działania administracji publicznej w obliczu stanu epidemicznego związanego z COVID-19zagadnienia wybrane Część Eliza Filipiak Przestępczość na rynku kryptowalutz perspektywy prawnej Paulina Waszkiewicz Live ze skutkiem śmiertelnym czyli kilka uwag o samobójstwie online Karolina Szymczak Oszustwo i jego postacie. Oszustwo komputerowe jako nowy typ przestępstwa Norbert Czechowski Głosowania via internet jako element rozwoju demokratycznego państwa prawa Część Agnieszka Osowy Problem zjawiska seksualizacji dzieci w reklamie Weronika Woźna-Burdziak Reklama produktów leczniczych kierowana do publicznej wiadomości Aleksandra Szatkowska Reklama produktów leczniczych kierowana do publicznej wiadomości w formie spotów telewizyjnych Część Artur Orzeł Ochrona dóbr osobistych osób fizycznych w XXI wiekuwybrane problemy i wyzwania Konrad Zając Prawne aspekty ograniczenia dostępu do broni palnej w Polsce Katarzyna Ksepko Odpowiedź na pozew w procesie cywilnym w postępowaniu zwykłym Anna Kownacka Wolność słowa a wolność religijna we współczesnej Polsce-konflikt praw osobistych Jędrzej Błaszczak Karta Polaka na gruncie ostatnich nowelizacji Julia Kolenda Wielka nowelizacja dozwolonego użytku w prawie autorskim Artur Tyński Obowiązki wytwórcy energii z mikro instalacji oraz małych instalacji OZE Bartłomiej Korolczuk Wpływ łacińskiej terminologii prawniczej na polski wymiar sprawiedliwości Anna Konarska Rola personelu pokładowego w zapewnianiu bezpieczeństwa lotu

The intention of this chapter is to challenge WADA's central argument for the prohibited list. Namely, that doping is contrary to the spirit of sport. However, this argument raises some obvious questions. What is the spirit of sport? Should we always punish an action because it is contrary to the spirit of sport? Is it always morally wrong

Das Buch „Doping und dopingäquivalentes Verhalten in Sport und Gesellschaft“ bietet eine multidisziplinäre Einführung in das Phänomen der Suche nach Leistungssteigerung, Optimierung und Konstanz in sportlichen und außersportlichen Handlungsfeldern. Anhand der Leitfragen „Was ist Doping?“, „Wer dopt?“, „Warum wird gedopt?“, „Warum ist Doping verboten?“, „Wie wird gegen Doping vorgegangen?“ werden die zentralen Fragen der Anti-Doping Arbeit ausführlich und umfassend beleuchtet. Auf der Basis dieser Betrachtungen werden im abschließenden sechsten Kapitel Handlungsempfehlungen für die Zukunft der Anti-Doping Arbeit formuliert.Durch seinen stringenten, übersichtlichen Aufbau ermöglicht das Buch sowohl eine kurzweilige Lektüre zu ausgewählten Fragen der Anti-Doping Arbeit, als auch eine ausführliche Auseinandersetzung mit dem Thema Doping und dopingäquivalentes Verhalten in Sport und Gesellschaft.

With the increase in the popularity and a promising revenue model of esports, the issue of e-doping has emerged. Some esports athletes may desire to deliver an outstanding performance to get an advantage over other competitors with the help of "cheat software". The paper explores various forms of e-doping such as disruption of live streams, attacking serversand discusses how these methods are a challenge to the spirit of fair play. E-doping can take two forms: the use of hardware of software hacks to gain an unfair advantage, or the use of performance enhancing substances. To curb the menace of e-doping, different esports associations have used anti-cheating software such asValue Anti-Cheat (VAC), which monitors and tracks the movement of the player"s input devices, by which a player could manipulate their moves. The establishment of the International Esports Federation (IESF) and the Esports Integrity Coalition (ESIC) have seen some progress in the regulation of integrity issues in esports. Following the public admission of Kory "Semphis" Friesen in 2015, of using Adderall during a tournament of Counter Strike, ESL (an esports company) collaborated with the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) to develop the first anti-doping policy. Unfortunately, the implementation of this policy has not been effective as it could be, due to noncooperation from different esports companies. In addition, this policy focuses on the use of banned substances, rather than other forms of in-game cheating. Consequently, the authors recommend reforms to e-doping policies. In addition, the authors further the debate about the importance of an improved governance structure which will assist the stakeholders to tackle the menace of e-doping, thereby promoting the principles of fair competition.

Today the fight against doping in sports is regulated by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) which was found in 1999. Still, the fight against the use of doping in sport has started much earlier, with the development of the Medical Commission of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) in 1967, whose task was to follow the obvious symptoms of the use of stimulants and other things that could unethically improve the performance of an athlete, as well as accidents in events whose results were fatal. The first goal of the fight against doping was to decrease the amount of death cases in athletic competitions, but they did not have the right tools up until 1972. As the science and technology progressed, the IOC and other accredited laboratories of the WADA found the new analytical procedures to uncover the use of doping. Today the methods for detection are even more reliable as the scientists constantly work on their further development. Current challenges for the anti-doping control is the DNA doping, but it is considered as undeveloped enough for the athletes to use it.

Sport&EU Review invites submissions for peer-reviewed articles, legal commentaries, forum contributions and proposals for themed special issues for publication. Contributions should reflect the general interests of the Association for the Study of Sport and the European Union.

Abstract

Doping in elite-sport is a topical issue that polarizes public opinion. This dissertation outlines crucial, fundamental questions that go unasked in general discourse about doping in elite-sport and that through being answered will allow the debate to be had at more meaningful level. 

This interdisciplinary dissertation draws widely on: scientific journal entries, textbooks, multimedia and official documents in subjects of biochemistry, biology, psychology and ethics.

A comprehensive, balanced, inter-disciplinary approach to the research that was used to form this dissertation allows for a multifactorial coverage of the issues addressed and means that, at the very least, the conclusions made have some equity.

This​ dissertation examines include: what doping is and who decides, the (not so) valiant institutional structures through which doping detection is currently undertaken, and what the current prevalence of doping is likely to be.  It aims to answer two questions: (i) is the playing field levelled by the current paradigm of doping prohibition? and (ii) in this human world, there are many examples of ideals that only fitfully work in reality, but is this an argument for not making the effort to put ideals into practice?

Through this research it can be concluded that doping is far more pervasive that WADA's statistics would suggest, doping detection methods are unfit for purpose, it is questionable whether the true motives for those who organise testing are more political than egalitarian and there are great genetic dissimilarities between elite-athletes (who are, as a group, already genetically superior to the rest of the population in terms of athletic potential).

All of these conclusions highlight that elite-sport has never and probably will never be an even playing field.  Looking forward, there are far-reaching moral and political implications for organised testing.

eSports – der elektronische Wettkampf steht immer mehr im Rampenlicht, sei es im Profi- oder im Breitensport. Zwar gibt es Diskussionen zur Qualifikation des eSports als traditionellen Sport, doch der nachfolgende Beitrag soll diese Problematik außer Acht lassen. Aufgrund der stetig wachsenden Bedeutung, insbesondere während der COVID-19 Pandemie, soll vorliegend erläutert werden was eSports ist und wie der eSports-Markt definiert wird, mit welchen rechtlichen Problemen sich eSports auseinanderzusetzen hat und wie die Schiedsgerichtsbarkeit zur Lösung vieler Streitigkeiten beitragen kann. Abschließend folgen eine Zusammenfassung und ein Ausblick.

Athletes, like all people, may have illnesses or conditions that require them to take a particular
medication or undergo certain procedures or methods. For athletes, the substance/ method may appear
on World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA)’s List of Prohibited Substances and Methods in 2004 to the
escalating challenge of drug misuse in contemporary sport. In such instances, they may be granted a
TUE, which gives them permission to take a substance or use a method. The mechanisms of the TUE
process are carefully defined and described in a specific WADA “international standard” (IS). As a
consequence, anti-doping organizations (ADOs) were empowered to establish “Therapeutic Use
Exemption Committees” (TUECs) whose membership and responsibilities were clearly delineated in
the IS, and to whom an athlete and treating physician(s) could make appropriate application for a TUE.
TUE approval protects athletes from receiving a sanction if a prohibited substance is found in their
sample. In 2017-18 annual report of NADA, 97 proceedings were initiated on the grounds of possible
anti-doping violations. 64 cases originated in a positive finding and the presence of a prohibited substance
(Art. 2.1 NADC): 56 of these findings result from in-competition tests (44 federations/12 NADA) and
eight originated in out-of-competition controls organized by NADA. 21 of the 64 proceedings were
closed because of a valid therapeutic use exemption (TUE) or a medical certificate. During the result
management process, it turned out in four cases that there was no anti-doping rule violation due to the
presence of allowed inhalation of corticosteroid asthma sprays. Nine cases were forwarded to the
international federation or WADA as there was no jurisdiction of NADA. When checking NADA’s inhouse data collection in the Medical Department, it was found that it contained more data records on
applicants than therapeutic use exemptions (TUEs) had been granted. This is due to TUE applications
that are no longer required by the new regulation.
Keywords:  Anti Doping, Prohibited Substance, TUECS, ADO, IS.

Introduction: Often considered a legitimate strategy to enhance health and performance, the consumption of nutritional supplements (NS) has become a common practice which frequently results in unintentional doping among athletes. Despite a probable association between NS and doping, there are limited studies on this topic in developing countries such as Malaysia. Thus, this study aimed to identify the prevalence of NS usage among national elite athletes and assess their knowledge and attitude regarding its use and doping. Methods: This was a cross-sectional study conducted at the Malaysian National Sports Institute among national elite athletes (n=50) recruited via convenience sampling. The athletes completed a self-administered questionnaire documenting their demographic characteristics, training information, NS consumption, knowledge and attitude related to supplement-doping. The total knowledge and attitude scores were compared according to demography, training information, and NS consumption. Results: The prevalence of NS use among the athletes was 72%. NS usage was significantly associated with training duration (p=0.029), source of nutrition information (p=0.047) and self-exploration on supplements (p=0.045). Supplement-doping knowledge was significantly higher among athletes with tertiary level education (p=0.027), NS users (p=0.044), those obtaining information from nutritionists (p=0.048) and those who had attended nutrition workshops (p<0.001). The attitude score was significantly higher among males (p=0.021), professional athletes (p=0.041), athletes with lower training hours (p=0.010), those obtaining information from nutritionists (p=0.035) and those who had attended nutrition workshops (p=0.005). Conclusion: A demographic-and training-specific education on NS should be provided by qualified nutritionists to reduce the risk of doping amongst athletes.

Like Michael Jackson’s iconic album Thriller, the HIV/AIDS pandemic, and the fall of the Berlin Wall, performance-enhancing drugs are part of the zeitgeist of the 1980s, a decade of turbulence in the sporting world and one of enlightenment for fans and journalists worldwide. Sport’s dirty little secret was first revealed at the 1983 Pan-American Games, where a throng of positive tests and the mass exodus of (ostensibly) guilty American athletes brought doping to mainstream audiences, and alerted policy makers to a societal ill that could no longer be ignored. Popular anabolic drugs like Dianabol and Testosterone Depot had been in wide use for decades, and in the absence of rigorous controls – both anti-doping and statutory – spread like wildfire in elite sport, bodybuilding, and gym culture. By the mid-1980s gaining access to them was all but a formality, as simple as paying a visit to one’s family physician, the resident dealer at Gold’s Gym, or the local discus champion peddling Mexican steroids to make ends meet. While chemical enhancement in this era is well-represented in the extant literature, relatively little has been said about how these drugs fell in the hands of users. Each of the three articles in this volume survey a different supply source for performance-enhancing drugs in the 1980s. In the first study, I profile the enigmatic doping physician Robert Kerr, an open advocate for the safe use of anabolic steroids under medical supervision. After prescribing the drugs for more than seventeen years, Kerr embraced the role of anti-doping advocate, appearing as an expert witness in several government-led hearings in the late 1980s. In the second study, I investigate a drug-smuggling incident at Montreal’s Mirabel Airport. On 31 October 1983, four of Canada’s premier weightlifters were arrested after border agents discovered a cache of anabolic steroids in each of their bags. The men had purchased them from Soviet lifters for resale on home soil. The third essay chronicles the rise and fall of America’s largest steroid distribution ring, and as a parallel narrative, an anti-steroid counteroffensive headed by the FBI. Combined, these studies provide historical context for the proliferation of doping agents in North America, and the efforts of sports federations and politicians to remedy the problem.

EDIZIONI M EUDON 153 LUCA GRION LIBERALIZZARE IL DOPING? ANCHE NO! Quando un fenomeno, per quanto negativo, assume i tratti del comportamento diffuso e, per certi versi, familiare, è quasi inevitabile che qualcuno prenda la parola proponendo di accordare ad esso diritto di cittadinanza tra le condotte lecite (per quanto, forse, non proprio consigliabili). È accaduto così nel caso di molte battaglie antiproibizionistiche; accade oggi rispetto all'ipotesi, ad esempio, della legalizzazione delle droghe leggere. 1 Per un inquadramento serio del fenomeno doping ritengo imprescindibili due libri che Alessandro Donati ha dedicato al tema: Campioni senza valore, Ponte alle Grazie, Milano 1989 e Lo sport del doping. Chi lo subisce, chi lo combatte, Gruppo Abele, Torino 2012. Per una introduzione storico-scientifica al fenomeno del doping si veda: M. Murgia, F. Forzini, T. Agostini, Migliorare le prestazioni sportive, Franco Angeli, Milano 2014, pp. 19-81.

Recent theory and research suggest that perfectionism is a personal factor contributing to athletes’ vulnerability to doping (using banned substances/drugs to enhance sporting performance). So far, however, no study has examined what aspects of perfectionism suggest a vulnerability in junior athletes. Employing a cross-sectional design, this study examined perfectionism and attitudes towards doping in 129 male junior athletes (mean age 17.3 years) differentiating four aspects of perfectionism: perfectionistic strivings, perfectionistic concerns, parental pressure to be perfect, and coach pressure to be perfect. In the bivariate correlations, only parental pressure showed a positive relationship with positive doping attitudes. In a multiple regression analysis controlling for the overlap between the four aspects, perfectionistic strivings additionally showed a negative relationship. Moreover, a structural equation model examining the relationships between all variables suggested that coach pressure had a negative indirect effect on attitudes towards doping via perfectionistic strivings. The findings indicate that perceived parental pressure to be perfect may be a factor contributing to junior athletes’ vulnerability to doping, whereas perfectionistic strivings may be a protective factor.

The use of performance enhancing drugs (PED’s) is prevalent amongst professional cyclists. Over the past 100 years, the use there-off went through different evolutionary periods. The products (PED’s) evolved since the 1900’s. During the early 1900’s products like tobacco and alcohol were used. Fifty years later, after WWII, amphetamines (developed during the WWII period) was the product of choice. Since the late 1980’s another product evolution took place. Erythropoietin (EPO) a product designed for cancer patients started surfacing amongst cyclists. Ironically this product have one primary negative side effect – sudden death. However, this did not curtail or stop the use. Positive effects were and are massive in terms of athlete performance.
This paper look at the historical time line of the use of PED’s. The use there-off as well as the various effects it had and have on cyclists. Marketing (push strategy) did and do not drive this phenomena. Based on its “submerged or underground” nature of products and its use, a “pull strategy” seem to be the chosen marketing channel application. Intermediaries does not fir the accepted marketing profile. Rather medical qualified individuals seem to become links in these distribution channels. A qualitative literature empirical approach was used. Literature was scrutinised based on a convenient and purposive nature. Because of the sensitive and ethical nature of this paper, a pure qualitative interview approach was disregarded. The aim of this paper was to structure the historical time line as well as the evolution of these
products. The findings, although sensitive, is two-fold in nature. These recommended suggestions are highly speculative and should be treated as alternative suggestions to the current situation.

Building on Foucault’s theory of the ‘enterprise society’, this article situates the use of performance-enhancing drugs (PEDs) in sport in the wider socio-economic context, where generalised competition has become a strategic game of innovation and enterprise. Professional sport is shaped through innovation as athletes and teams look for ways to gain a competitive edge over rivals, while the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) resorts to intrusive controls in the name of ‘playing true’ and protecting the ‘spirit of sport’. The central argument is that the problem of drugs in sport is framed as though it amounts to exceptional and excessive – thus governable – behaviour, but this overlooks the extent to which the enterprise society is itself a game of excess. Moreover, examined as a contest between competition and control, the sporting arena provides evidence of how the game of excess intensifies, and also how this institutes a tyrannical mode of governance.

Morally speaking, employing Performance-Enhancing Medicines (PEMs) in sports is not acceptable because using these medicines in sports competitions is associated with negative legal consequences. However, due to rapid advances in the genetic modification technologies, there is a fear that these therapeutic technologies have been applied to athletes (e.g., to prevent Myostatin from incapacitating skeletal muscle groups). Additionally, taking and giving performance-enhancing medicines are not only unethical, but such activities could even be illegal because of the dangerous side effects of drugs associated with it. The main issue that this paper is going to discuss in the absence of criminal provisions addressing the actions of doping generally and gene doping in many existing legal systems around the world. Another issue that this paper deals with is the lack of laboratory screening methods that can discover the occurrence of gene modifications. In this regard, this study attempts to...

El dopaje por sustancias u otros medios traen consecuencias catastroficas para el deportista, en su fisiologia, en el desempeno deportivo y en la etica deportiva. En estos ultimos 10 anos despues de la primera entrega se ha actualizado la lista de sustancias prohibidas de la WADA, exhibiendose nuevas sustancias y metodos que han sido utilizados en estos anos por algunos deportistas sean profesionales o amateur, con el fin de mejorar su rendimiento fisico y obtener mejores resultados a costa de los posibles efectos secundarios que alteran la salud de la persona. En este articulo se define el concepto de dopaje y se presenta la lista de sustancias prohibidas por la WADA actualizada a la fecha con algunos casos famosos en nuestro medio relacionados con deportistas de alto rendimiento.Palabras clave: dopaje, deporte, medicamentos, drogas, efectos.ABSTRACT:Doping by substances or other means have catastrophic consequences for the athlete, in his physiology, in sports performance and in s...

Doping is an old tradition in sports and has continued to be lucrative as sports become competitive motivation, with
greater financial rewards and fame. The youths of resource limited countries and the globally have increasingly
engaged in drug consumption in schools and in the community. Doping is now a public health concern in
Cameroon and has prompted the state to step in for sensitization of the danger of consumption of substance of
abuse not only for sports but for other uses.Cameroon's Minister of Territorial Administration recently, has called
for combined efforts from Cameroonians to fight against illegal drug trade and abuse which he said is gaining
grounds in school milieu especially in the commercial capital and urban towns, Drug abuse is growing in the city,
in primary schools, colleges and even universities, and there are a lot of drugs circulating among the students.
There is the need for the state to sensitize with the local population and have an evaluation of investigating the
sources of substances of abuse. Illicit drug abuse and trade is dangerous for sports and is the cause of crimes and
corruption, which hinders socio-economic development and also causes huge losses to individuals and families. In
low income limited countries, there is a need for information to provide baseline assessments of new trends in drug
abuse. This information is useful in making decisions on allocating resources to tackle drug abuse problems. The
United Nations International Drug Control Programme (UNIDCP), in collaboration with the Economic Community
of Central African States (ECCA) and the World Health Organization, mapped out countries in Central Africa sub
regions in which to carry out a rapid assessment of drug abuse. This paper reviews the stakes and challenges of
doping in resource limited coutries for competitive sports, illustrate the profile of drug use and abuse, give an
insight into ways of diagnostics, and control strategies.

The media storm that accompanied the protracted disgrace of Lance Armstrong focussed not only on the systematic approach that both he and his team took to the use of performance enhancing drugs, (PEDs) but extended to his personality and his

Aim: We qualitatively explored the Sport Drug Control Model (SDCM; Donovan, Egger, Kapernick, & Mendoza, 2002), in order to examine coaches’ perceptions of adolescent athletes’ attitudes and susceptibility towards doping.
Methods: Eleven coaches (M = 10) from four countries, who worked in seven different sports (athletics, basketball, kayaking, racquetball, rowing, rugby league, and rugby union) were recruited to take part in semi-structured interviews. Transcribed interviews were analyzed via a three-stage inductive and deductive coding process, which allowed us to identify common themes among the participants.
Results: The coaches believed that adolescents’ attitudes towards doping were influenced by perceptions of threat and benefit appraisals, morality, self-esteem, legitimacy, and reference group opinion. We also identified additional factors, which included age/maturation, sport level, pressure, country of residence, and ethnicity. 
Conclusions: Our findings provide qualitative support for the SDCM, but also offer fresh insight into some of the nuances specific to adolescent athletes from different countries and cultures. Further research is required to test our proposed model with larger samples of adolescent athletes.

In February 2022, a panel of the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS) issued a decision permitting 15-year-old Russian figure skater Kamila Valieva to compete at the 2022 Olympic Games, despite World Anti-Doping Code rules that mandated her provisional suspension due to a positive drug test.  Public reaction to the CAS decision was generally negative with some observers, including the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), accusing CAS of judicial activism by encroaching on the policy-making role of WADA.  However, a closer examination of the decision reveals that the arbitration panel was not only acting within the scope of its authority but fulfilling a necessary institutional role in the international sport system.  This institutional role ensures that international sport organizations, such as WADA, are held accountable for violating athletes’ fundamental rights and that athletes are able to participate in the evolution of sport rules – a role they would not otherwise have due to their lack of representation and decision-making power in the governance structures of sport organizations.

Osrednja etična dilema sodobnega športa je vprašanje dopinga.
Mnogo razprav, časa in denarja je usmerjenega v boj
proti dopingu. Doping je namreč nelegalen, zato naj bi bil
slab in nemoralen. Le redko pa je mogoče zaslediti pogled z
druge strani. Ob vsej energiji, usmerjeni v boj proti dopingu,
se zdi, da pozabljamo, zakaj je doping v športu sploh prisoten.
Blažiti simptome nima smisla, če si nismo vsaj nekoliko
na jasnem glede vzrokov bolezni. Nenazadnje je za uspešen
boj potrebno poznati sovražnika, proti kateremu se borimo.
Zakaj je doping prisoten v športu, zaradi katerih razlogov
ga športniki uporabljajo in zakaj so nekateri prepričani, da
bi doping morali dopustiti, ga legalizirati? Razmislek nima
namena rušiti prizadevanj za šport brez dopinga, ampak želi
opozoriti na kompleksnost situacije in neprimernost pavšalnih
obsodb športnikov, saj smo sokrivci za problem dopinga
v športu vsi.
//
The central ethical dilemma of modern sport is the issue of doping. A lot of discussion, time and money goes into the fight against doping. Because doping is illegal, it is bad and immoral. Rarely can one see the view from the other side. With all our energy focused on the fight against doping, it seems that we are forgetting why doping is present in sport. It does not make much sense to cure the symptoms unless we are clear about the causes of the disease. A successful battle requires knowing what the enemy is. Why is doping present in sports, what are the reasons for athletes to use it, and why are some convinced that doping should be allowed and legalized? The aim of this paper is not to ruin the pursuit of sports without doping, but wants to draw attention to the complexity of the situation and the inappropriateness of general convictions of athletes, because all of us are in a part responsible for the problem of doping in sports.

There is evidence of a small but significant proportion of
adolescents engaging in doping practices. Young athletes
face very specific pressures to achieve results as they strive
for a career at an elite level. This study used an anonymized
questionnaire to survey 403 (12–21 years old) talented young
athletes’ attitudes toward performance-enhancing substances
and supplements. Two-thirds of the sample comprised
males. Athletes were generally against the use of
doping substances to enhance sporting performance. Within
this generally unfavorable view, males tended to express a
more permissive attitude toward performance-enhancing
methods than females. Those convinced of the necessity of
supplementation for sporting success were alsomore likely to
express permissive attitudes. When asked whether they
would take a ‘‘magic’’ drug that, while undetectable, would
significantly enhance performance, the overwhelming majority
of athletes said ‘‘no,’’ but many thought others would take
the substance. Interestingly, there was a significant association
between the projected use of the hypothetical drug by
competitors and the individual respondent’s willingness to
take the hypothetically ‘‘magic’’ substance. The study offers
an insight into young athletes’ attitudes toward specific
forms of performance enhancement, and the strength of their
beliefs in the face of a tempting hypothetical scenario.

Morally speaking, employing Performance-Enhancing Medicines (PEMs) in sports is not acceptable because using these medicines in sports competitions is associated with negative legal consequences. However, due to rapid advances in the genetic modification technologies, there is a fear that these therapeutic technologies have been applied to athletes (e.g., to prevent Myostatin from incapacitating skeletal muscle groups). Additionally, taking and giving performance-enhancing medicines are not only unethical, but such activities could even be illegal because of the dangerous side effects of drugs associated with it. The main issue that this paper is going to discuss in the absence of criminal provisions addressing the actions of doping generally and gene doping in many existing legal systems around the world. Another issue that this paper deals with is the lack of laboratory screening methods that can discover the occurrence of gene modifications. In this regard, this study attempts to...

Transparency is both a powerful idea and a technology of power associated with accountability, justice and democracy, which opposes the secretive and shadowy power of surveillance wielded by states and corporations. This article examines surveillance and transparency not as a dichotomy but as a constitutive relation in the field of academia, focusing specifically on ranking and rivalry in the context of competitive performance. Transparency-as-openness (open access platforms) is enmeshed in enclosures assembled from (self-) surveillance, personal data, public institutions, and private enterprise. The analysis pays particular attention to how altmetrics and credibility metrics – used to enhance personal prestige and professional standing – reinforce the neo-liberalisation of higher education. The article concludes by engaging critically with the politics and poetics of open enclosures with a view to re-imagining the practice of academic freedom.

The paper presents moral and legal aspects of the human’s nature enhancement in the context of answering the questions to what extent and to whom the modern technologies may be applied, which purpose is not the recovery (therapy), but the improvement of natural human potential by increasing the strength, endurance, immunity, physical fitness and human’s  ability to regenerate, as well as by improving the cognitive capacities in the  form of the betterment of human thinking and memory. The problems of  enhancement are associated with the movement of transhumanism, which postulates the perfecting of a man and assumes the possibility to control more and more the domains of human activities, both physical and intellectual. In  finding the answer to the question of the limits of moral acceptance for the  enhancement of human nature, we analyze the cases of a soldier and  sportsman, which illustrate the most important problems of the issue. The  choice of such examples was due to the belief that social function and the types of activity connected with the exercise of these professions are very important for the determination of the acceptable limits of human enhancement. In our opinion the determination of the limit should be made by referring to the types of activity, based on the division of human activities elaborated by A. MacIntyre. According to MacIntyre, in the case of human activities known as practices, a man achieves internal goods, which define the practice and can only be achieved by improving human skills/abilities. While the external goods, like fame, money or prestige, do not belong to the essence of a practice. For these goods can be achieved both through honest work and self-improvement, and by the fraud. After considering a number of theoretical and practical problems, we argue for the thesis that the admissibility of artificial enhancements and the establishment of its acceptable limits are to be resolved by determining whether a given activity is oriented to achieve essential goods, like life, health or national security, which constitute the moral or social good (in such cases the use of enhancements sometimes will be even a duty), or this activity merely consist in the practice of virtues for the moral improvement of man, which should be made exclusively by using the natural human potential. Thus, the limit of the morally acceptable enhancement of the human nature is to be Dopuszczalność ulepszania natury ludzkiej (enhancement determined (at the stages of law-making and law-application) by indicating the nature of a given activity, its social function and importance, and therefore  its moral or social significance.

Starting with a short description of the regulatory mechanisms of the doping detection system in sport that are in the World Anti-doping Agency Code, the major cheating at the 2014 Winter Games in Sochi has highlighted the existence of some loopholes in this tightly controlled system of regulated science.
The governance of the accredited anti-doping laboratories is actually stretched between incompatible forces that make an ideal, robust, fully objective, independent and neutral status impossible to reach in
practice.
The clean athlete, the essential stakeholder in the whole sport business,
has to be reassured with the rapid and efficient measures that the concerned regulatory authorities have to implement on without delay. To regain credibility and trust, it is explored how to prevent these
unethical behaviours at the laboratory’s governance level. To better control these failures, major changes in the direction
of the accredited laboratories by WADA are sought necessary. It is proposed to impose the application of modern principles of corporate governance and to add a board of several competent
directors with scientific, economic and forensic competences at the top of each of these entities, whether they are publicly or privately owned.