Cultural Literacy

This study focuses on brand literacy in the emerging market of China. Results reveal Chinese consumer desire to express a deep resonance between Chinese values and aesthetics and a favored brand identity. Chinese brands such as Shanghai Tang and Shang Xia – developed in collaboration with leading European luxury brands – build upon Chinese culture, values, and aesthetics to create distinctive, culturally infused brand identities. At a basic level, culture, which includes aspects of particular histories of meaning, and moments of creative innovation, can be perceived as a resource upon which branding processes and practices can draw. Yet, brand culture refers not to a simple process of applying “culture” to a brand.
Under what conditions may we perceive the many ways in which branding – and brands themselves – go beyond cultural branding, and indeed, co-create culture in relation to consumer processes and practices? One way of thinking about how brands and culture interact draws upon the notion of brand literacy – how well consumers are able to “read,” understand, and engage brands and brand messages. We explore a growing brand literacy among Chinese consumers, and reveal how brand literacy is embedded in a cultural context and contributes to brand culture. This study highlights multidimensional aspects of brand literacy and represents an initial step toward a more developed framework in the context of brand culture.

This dissertation seeks to examine the canons of knowledge that have traditionally dominated Western culture, and asks whether it is possible to maintain such a canon in today’s fragmented, relativist society, especially one in which huge quantities of information are available at the touch of a button. It studies not only the conventional indicators, such as school and university curricula, but also the questions used in successful, prestigious quiz shows on TV and radio. The changing emphasis of these questions, and the social assumptions that underpin them, are discussed in the context of thinkers such as T.S. Eliot, Harold Bloom and Pierre Bourdieu, as well as members of the Frankfurt and Birmingham Schools. Social class, gender and age are considered as factors that affect the knowledge of individuals and thus their status in situations where specific types of knowledge are valued; and the impact of neoliberal economics is also taken into account.

Higher Education institutions face specific challenges preparing
graduates to live and work in transdisciplinary and transcultural
environments. It is imperative for these institutions to provide their
students with the skill sets that will give them the mobility and flexibility
to be able to operate efficiently in different cultural and professional
contexts. This position paper proposes that developing proficiency in
Cultural Literacy will allow graduates of Higher Education institutions
to transcend such cultural and disciplinary boundaries. In this paper
we define Cultural Literacy in Higher Education as a modus operandi
and a threshold concept, following Meyer and Land’s understanding
of the term. We also propose ‘Destabilisation’ and ‘Reflection’ as two
strategies for teaching Cultural Literacy, and examine three case
studies where these strategies were successfully embedded into
teaching and learning spaces.

Higher Education institutions face specific challenges preparing
graduates to live and work in transdisciplinary and transcultural
environments. It is imperative for these institutions to provide their
students with the skill sets that will give them the mobility and flexibility
to be able to operate efficiently in different cultural and professional
contexts. This position paper proposes that developing proficiency in
Cultural Literacy will allow graduates of Higher Education institutions
to transcend such cultural and disciplinary boundaries. In this paper
we define Cultural Literacy in Higher Education as a modus operandi
and a threshold concept, following Meyer and Land’s understanding
of the term. We also propose ‘Destabilisation’ and ‘Reflection’ as two
strategies for teaching Cultural Literacy, and examine three case
studies where these strategies were successfully embedded into
teaching and learning spaces.

This is an Accepted Manuscript of an article published by Taylor & Francis in INTERCULTURAL EDUCATION on 19 JANUARY 2017, available online: http://www.tandfonline.com/10.1080/14675986.2016.1241551].

This paper arises from research into the potential for drama to help make the Junior Cycle Shakespeare curriculum more accessible for students in a school designated as disadvantaged (DEIS). The chosen subject arose from the researcher’s belief that the teaching of Shakespeare’s plays to students in a low literacy environment could be significantly enhanced by the use of drama-based methods. The research formed the basis of the author's Master in Education thesis at Trinity College, Dublin.

Shakespeare’s unique position in the Junior Cycle English curriculum means that the issues involved are not just about access to culture but, potentially, to overall educational advancement. While the research design was focused on drama's suitability as a methodology for teaching cognitively demanding material in a low literacy setting, analysis of the data raised significant questions about the compulsory Shakespeare requirement for Higher level study within the Junior Cycle curriculum.

The research involved:
• an analysis of the literature concerning Shakespeare study within subject English, the Junior Cycle and Linguistic Disadvantage
• a drama-based project focused on teaching a Shakespeare text to a Junior Cycle DEIS school class group
• an online survey of the experience and attitudes of Junior Cycle English teachers in DEIS and non-DEIS schools, with particular regard to the use of drama as a methodology in the Shakespeare class.

The data collected from this research casts doubt on the value of Shakespeare as a neutral measure of suitability for Higher level study in the English curriculum, from both a cognitive and a socio-cultural perspective.

Σύμφωνα με τη διεθνή βιβλιογραφία, κατά το τέλος του 20ού αιώνα το είδος του εικονοβιβλίου χωρίς λόγια ή σχεδόν χωρίς λόγια καθιερώθηκε στην παγκόσμια Παιδική Λογοτεχνία και αποτέλεσε μια σύγχρονη εκδοτική τάση. Στην Ελλάδα, αποδόσεις τίτλων τέτοιων έργων υπάρχουν στην αγορά εδώ και δεκαετίες, ωστόσο μόλις στο τέλος του 2018 κάνει την εμφάνισή του το πρώτο βιβλίο χωρίς λόγια από Ελληνίδα δημιουργό, στις εκδόσεις Καλειδοσκόπιο. Πρόκειται για το σιωπηλό βιβλίο (silent book) Η φάλαινα, το αγόρι και η θάλασσα ανάμεσά τους, από την Πέρσα Ζαχαριά. Πώς διαβάζονται αυτού του είδους τα βιβλία και από ποιες ηλικίες; Τι σκοπούς εξυπηρετούν, πόσο κατανοητά είναι και τι δεξιότητες χρειάζονται για να διαβαστούν και να ερμηνευθούν; Σε ποιο βαθμό η οπτική αφήγηση μπορεί να καλλιεργήσει την κατανόηση του εαυτού και του άλλου μέσα από μια πιο φιλελεύθερη και αυτενεργούμενη προοπτική; Η μελέτη αυτή, αφού αναλύσει το συγκεκριμένο έργο, εντάσσοντάς το στα ειδολογικά του συμφραζόμενα, θα επιχειρήσει να φωτίσει πτυχές των πιο πάνω ερωτημάτων.

Η μελέτη διαρθρώνεται σε τρία μέρη, ακολουθώντας τον παραγωγικό τρόπο συλλογισμού, από τις ευρύτερες γνωσιολογικές και επιστημολογικές προκείμενες του θεωρητικού στοχασμού γύρω από τις σχέσεις Λογοτεχνίας και Ιστορίας, στη διατύπωση συγκεκριμένων διδακτικών εφαρμογών, και στις ειδικότερες όψεις των σχέσεων αυτών στα κείμενα. Στο πρώτο μέρος εξετάζεται η σχέση Ιστορίας – Λογοτεχνίας ως προς την εποπτεία της πραγματικότητας.  Στο δεύτερο μέρος αναλύεται η ιδέα της «κριτικής αγωγής στον πολιτισμό» και προτείνονται τρόποι με τους οποίους η “συνομιλία” Λογοτεχνίας και Ιστορίας μπορεί να συμβάλει σε αυτή την αγωγή, με παραδείγματα σταχυολογημένα από όλο το χρονικό φάσμα της νεοελληνικής ιστορίας και λογοτεχνίας (από τα ακριτικά και πτωχοπροδρομικά ποιήματα ώς τη μεταπολεμική λογοτεχνία). Τέλος, στο τρίτο μέρος γίνεται ειδική αναφορά στο εμβληματικό παράδειγμα της «ιστορικής ποίησης» του Καβάφη. Μέσα από την ανάλυση αποδεικνύεται ότι η ιστορική αίσθηση και ποιητική του Καβάφη είναι έκδηλα διαφορετική από εκείνη των ελλαδιτών ομοτέχνων του και εντυπωσιακά επίκαιρη για εμάς σήμερα, ως εκ τούτου πρόσφορη για την κριτική αγωγή στον σύγχρονο πολιτισμό.

This book assembles contributions from an international body of scholars interested in the multi and interdisciplinary study of literary tourism and film-induced tourism. The book contributes to the literature on these two research fields by being a platform for critical discussion, examining concepts, trends and methods, and documenting the advances in research on the intersections of literature, film and the act of travelling.  Encompassing a wide range of topics from literary museums, literary tours, motivations of literary tourists and film-induced tourists, women travellers, film tourism destinations, literary places to digital literary tourism, this book covers literature and film as drivers of sustainable tourism development, cultural identity, preservation of heritage, community relations and development, literary and cultural literacy, and destination marketing.

As Sir Winston (then Mr.) (sic) Churchill, said in February 1910, when he was announcing the setting up of a National Employment Service in Britain: he said "I believe that as a piece of social mechanism an employment service is absolutely essential to any well ordered community". (Australian Archives, Qld, 1957, p.10)

As the earlier sections have shown, the educational wastage is greater among females than males.  A major function of the guidance programme would be to break down the prejudice that secondary education is less necessary for girls and to spread information on the wide variety of professional and semi professional occupations now open to females.  Such changes in public attitudes will be affected by the printed word; but the individual will be more strongly influenced by the information and advice on her own problems conveyed in the personal interview with a guidance officer.  (R&G Bulletin, 1957)

The focus in this chapter will be on the emergence of post-war vocational guidance and careers counselling activities at both the State and Commonwealth levels of government directed at education higher than post-compulsory levels.  A previous chapter has already examined the establishment of vocational guidance practices in State Education Department's R&G Branch from the late 1940s for children at the primary school level.  The Branch also provided limited vocational guidance at the State secondary level from the beginnings of its operations.  By the end of the 1950s, however, the State was beginning to rapidly expand the provision of vocational guidance at the secondary level when, in 1963 with the abolition of the Scholarship examination, vocational guidance at the primary school level was no longer considered relevant.  Following the transfer of the grade eight students from primary to high schools in 1964, educational and vocational guidance services were provided by the State government only in the State high schools (R&G, 1965).   

Vocational guidance had also been available at the secondary level for school children and government assisted scholars at the university level by the Commonwealth government from the beginnings of the Commonwealth-based employment services (CES) until the early 1950s.  Through agreements made between the State and Commonwealth governments, the State Employment Exchanges including the JEB was closed and the responsibility for the administration of the CSS was transferred to the State government from 1952.  The purpose of the CSS was to lessen inequalities of educational opportunity at the tertiary level with 3000 entrance Scholarships being available each year for open competition by boys and girls who had completed a normal secondary school course.  A limited number, not exceeding two percent, of the 3000 Scholarships awarded each year were made available for competition by applicants of Mature Age.  Applications for Mature Age Scholarships were accepted from students who were not under twenty five and in general not over thirty years of age at the date of application and who had matriculated (Australian Archives, Qld, 1950).

It was not until the implementation of the Murray Report (1957) that the Commonwealth government again became directly involved in the provision of vocational guidance and careers counselling services to school children, particularly to those attending private and independent schools.  This renewed interest by the Commonwealth in vocational guidance for school children was in response to the guidance problem wherein wastage of scholastic talent from the educational ladder leading towards the university level was identified as a national extravagance. 

This chapter will focus on the implementation of a post-war guidance strategy by both the Commonwealth and the State governments in addressing educational and employment problems of reconstructing the post-war economy towards Full Employment and the rehabilitation of ex-Service personnel and civilian war workers.  Vocational guidance represented a new cultural technology of efficiency which was considered capable of facilitating governmental policy of equality of educational opportunity and avoidance of talent wastage through selecting the most suitable material available to be trained for the professions.

This chapter presents the analysis of the cultural literacy and cultural participation of the adult Latvian population, drawing predominantly from the survey of the study. The goal was to find out:
• how people evaluate their cultural activities,
• how skillful they feel in the implementation of their cultural practices,
• who are the people they listen to when choosing this or that cultural activity,
and
• what is the participation (or non-participation) of various social groups in specified cultural activities?
The survey data provide the opportunity to acquire some understanding of the logic behind various cultural practices, including the acquisition and assessment of information. Major attention in the analysis is focussed on these topics regarding:
• sources of cultural information, and
• gender distinctions.

Cosmopolitanism has been approached from a multitude of perspectives yet it continues to pose theoretical challenges in application. This paper assumes a post-disciplinary approach to critique these writings and analyse the intersections of tourism/ cosmopolitanism/worldmaking. Through these means a philosophical platform is built that advances cultural literacy as the defining principle of cosmopolitanism. Cosmopolitanism encompasses the both-and, and has much to do with cosmopolitics, worldview, cultural orientations and compossibilities of tourism populations. Tourism is at the coalface of inter-and intra-cultural exchange and cultural literacy provides an innovative tool to operationalize worldmaking and address the complexities of an increasingly cos-mopolitanized world. These ideas constitute an ontological shift in thinking about tourism and its many contexts.

This dissertation seeks to create a vision for virtuality culture through a theoretical expansion of Walter Ong’s literacy and orality culture model. It investigates the ubiquitous and multimodal nature of the virtuality cultural phenomenon that is mediated by contemporary technology and not explained by pre-existing cultural conventions. Through examining the theoretical underpinnings of orality and literacy culture, the dissertation explores the cultural shift that is just beginning to restructure human consciousness through the ways that society is connecting, exploring and communicating. Further, this dissertation examines the contrasts between virtuality culture features and those related to traditional literacy and orality types, including the gap between the theory of secondary orality and virtuality culture. This dissertation also proposes three ways that contemporary technology creates human presence related to virtuality culture. Finally, this dissertation describes the broad implications for the evolution of virtuality culture in areas such as education, technology, literacy, philosophy, politics, linguistics, ethics,
history, the arts and cultural studies. Copyright 2014

James Semple Kerr reported in 1874 that an idiot at the Normal School was taught with the other children and "the only fear was that he might kill one some day or other, as he became so excited; still the children are very kind to him".  (quoted in Wood, 1951, p.29)

The training of the mentally defective, while hardly a popular form of welfare work, is one which is of great value.  Not only is it a means of increasing the commercial value of the defective's work, it is the key to his happiness.  Work with the mentally defective is an invaluable experience to anyone interested in genetic psychology, for here mental processes are slowed down and tendencies and impulses can be studied in their simplest and starkest forms.  A rich field of research lies open to the investigator who would discover the best ways to help those mentally handicapped to make the most of their lives. ("From Mr. Bevington's Report", in QPP, 1930, p.789)

This chapter traces the historical transformation of the governmental problem of retardation in order to help gather the significant threads in the genealogies of both the mentally defective child and the modern good citizen.  The problem of retardation emerges historically from the broad problems of governing the colonial primary school classroom through the joint bureaucratic-pastoral objectives of establishing both commonality and differentiation within the general primary school population.  In other words, retardation will be examined as emerging as a governmental problem in relation to both the ethical and vocational formation of the modern good citizen and the classification of the pupil within the graded subject-centred classroom in the State primary school system. 

This chapter also traces the early beginnings of individual psychology as applied to the governance of retardation in the early 1920s in the technical classification of unfitness for the normal, graded and subject-centred classroom.  The technology of individual psychology would subsequently become absorbed into primary school pedagogic practices to address the bureaucratic-pastoral objectives of shaping the mentally defective child into the ethically and vocationally competent good citizen, through such pedagogic practices as individualised instruction and segregation.  This same technology trialled at the opportunity schools in the ascertainment of mental deficiency would from the late 1940s begin to migrate into both State and Commonwealth governmental arenas to address the problems of post-war reconstruction, ethical formation and distributions of the modern good citizen. 

As will be examined in Part Two of this book, guidance was thus transformed into a visible and scientific practice used in both the determination of fitness of the good citizen for higher education and the governance of the mentally and physically handicapped child.  Within the colonial period and for many years beyond, retardation was generally characterised in the governmental reports of District Inspectors as the outcome of a defective administration on the part of the classroom teacher.  It was not necessarily viewed as arising from an intellectual pathology of the child-body, that is, a physical illness, disorder or disease.  The specific need to find new ways to govern the slow or retarded white European child within the Queensland State primary school system appears to have been precipitated during the early 1910s as a direct result of the transformation of educational distribution through the post-colonial governmental imperative to minimise wastage and promote efficiency.  This transformation will be examined in the next chapter entitled the New Scholarship. 

The existence of an intellectual pathology of the child-body within educational practices in colonial Queensland was commented upon in the early 1950s in an historical review of the State education system by William Wood (1951) who was the first secondment from the Department of Public Instruction for psychological training with the ACER in the early 1930s.  Wood was the first Head of the R&G Branch established in 1949 in the Queensland State Education Department and he came to play a key role in the implementation of the current Radford Scheme in the late 1960s.  As the first quotation at the beginning of this chapter indicates, Wood (1951) suggested that retarded and in-educable children had been reported to have been in the schools since the early days of the colony.  However, this book is not concerned with the existence of intellectual pathology but its beginnings and development as a problem of government within the State primary school.  Accordingly, this chapter examines intellectual pathology as emerging from already established classroom practices of classification which graded the pupil's scholastic performance in terms of advancement and retardation in relation to a common State wide curriculum based standard.

The beginnings of individual psychology in the early 1920s in the Queensland State primary school system will also be examined as a technical response to the administrative problems of retardation and of classifying the visible features of the defective child-body (1), particularly in relation to a demonstrated capacity for scholastic performance.  These administrative problems first made an appearance more than a decade earlier due to significant governmental policy changes with the child-body becoming the focus of attention of an increasing network of expertise.  The key elements here include compulsory attendance of school aged children for all school days during the year; the raising of the school age to 14 years; the policy shift towards a New Scholarship to the secondary school for the average pupil; and the new administrative demands associated with the introduction of School Hygiene arising from the Hygienist movement.

Wood's (1951) history of the beginnings of psychological services in Opportunity Schools for backward children was represented as the result of an initiative taken in 1923 by District Inspector Bevington who prepared a formal plan for the treatment of those children who were not making normal progress in school.  Special classes in Backward Schools, as they were originally called, were formed with pupils being divided into two groups of backward children.  It was not until some years later that the revised Stanford Binet Intelligence test was used to measure the IQ of the pupil (Wood, 1951, p.31).

The segregation and treatment of backward children was characterised by Wood's history (1951) of psychological services as the beginnings of a pastoral caring treatment response to an individual problem of backwardness where a scientific method was used to gauge a measure of the natural intelligence of a particular individual.  However, the governance of retardation has a decidedly different character and beginnings.  I will begin by examining the origins of intellectual pathology as emerging firstly from the problem of classification in the colonial primary school classroom and then from the application of medical science to the child-body.  This will appear as the newly commissioned medical gaze over the primary school child-body at the beginning of the 1910s.

From the ERIC database: "James Bucky Carter argues for the transformative potential of graphic novels in the English classroom. He advises teachers to be actively aware of the newer and lesser-known graphic novels and suggests approaches for examining the complex social issues the novels address." Graphic novels can be used as a  tool for exploring multiple literacies and for transforming English teaching.

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Democratic culture refers to a set of values, attitudes, and practices shared by citizens and institutions, without which democracy cannot exist. Preschools and schools have a core role in teaching and transmitting democratic culture as they offer most children their early encounters with the public realm that provides social environments for democratic culture. The aim of this article is to increase knowledge on democratic education of young children and creative means to implement it. The core questions raised are: How do young children understand their classroom social environment and their own role in it? Which of the children's understandings of their classroom social environment reflect attributes of democratic culture? The data include 125 children's drawings and their linguistic explanations of them collected from schools that implemented the Cultural Literacy Learning Programme in Cyprus, Israel, Lithuania, Portugal, and the UK. The method used is data-driven content analysis, including qualitative categorizing of the data, quantification of its core features, and a reflexive interpretation of the contents of the drawings. The study reveals how children aged 5-6 are able to elaborate on the ideas, principles, and practices of democratic culture, including participation, collaboration, negotiation, dialogue, listening, and expressing one's own opinions. The analysis of the data elicited five thematic categories of how children think about social life in their classroom, approach democratic culture, and understand their role in practising it in school. The categories were based on the children's approach to rules; suggestions taking the action either alone or as a member of a group; and views of the purpose and beneficiary of this action. The analysis revealed how drawing with peers is a multimodal and dialogic process of learning democratic culture. Children engage in dialogic chains of thinking not only in verbal, but also in visual interaction. Since the ability to participate in a dialogue is seen as a core skill in democratic education, educators should better recognize visual dialogic chains of thinking as a way for students to familiarize themselves with and practise democratic culture.

No one at all interested in education can fail to perceive the unrest that prevails in the educational world; but the discussion of the causes of that disquiet, of the methods and systems by which it is proposed to bring about the calm of the grove amid the whir of wheels, of the differences between the opposing camps  the school of culture, and the school of utility, of what the child should be taught, and how he should be educated to make him a good man, a good parent, a good neighbour and a good citizen. (D. Ewart, "Report of the General Inspector", in QPP, 1902, v.1, p.650; also reported in QDPI, 1902)

Civics, usually treated in a perfunctory manner, should deal more with the living present.  Local, State, and Federal systems of Government should receive more attention.  In many schools the children had never heard of the "White Australia" policy.  Shop and Factory Acts, Old Age and Invalid Pensions, Workers' Compensation, Benevolent Homes, Institutions for the Blind, Deaf, and Dumb, Sanatoria, Baby Clinics.  These and many other humanitarian institutions which help to make the world a better place should be made the bases of lessons presented with the direct object of stimulating in the child's minds a keenly sympathetic interest, inspiring them to devote their lives to the betterment of humanity and making them feel that "there is no wealth but life". ("From District Inspector Baker's Report", QPP, 1925, v.1, p.806)

This chapter will examine certain governmental practices, institutions and agencies involved in the bureaucratic-pastoral shaping of the good citizen.  The period under review will be from the early years of the Queensland colony through to the First World War in the State of Queensland.  The purpose of the examination is to map out of those historical and cultural conditions necessary for the emergence of an expanded and articulated educational ladder referred to in this book as the New Scholarship.  As we will see in subsequent chapters, the governmental imperative of efficiency generated by the implementation of the New Scholarship sought ways of minimising wastage in the shaping of the competent good citizen, of avoiding square pegs in round holes.  Vocational guidance as a governmental practice thus would emerge from those ethical and pedagogic formations of the good citizen facilitated through elementary public instruction. 

These governmental practices, institutions and agencies are examined in relation to a range of bureaucratic-pastoral objectives particularly located within the field of elementary public instruction for Queensland children.  These objectives were aimed at forming the settled and self governing good citizen through habitual, civilising and Christianising activities compatible with the norms and mores of a white-European, Christian and British society.  During this period under review, the classroom, the family, the Christian mission, the government reserve, the orphanage and the State primary school represent an assemblage of institutional sites within which the attributes of character, of the self governing good citizen were shaped, observed, measured, classified and inscribed by the government official as Teacher, Pupil teacher, Missioner, Head Teacher, Superintendent, District Inspector, Police Officer or Protector, each being obedient servants of the State within a hierarchy of surveillance and authority.  According to one such governmental official:

The chief end of all true education is the formation of moral character, and the education that makes good citizens is not merely learning, but the cultivation of the powers of learning, thinking, and doing.  Much of the character forming is done silently in the schools, and it can be valued on inspectorial visits by its results, as a rule.  (District Inspector Benbow, "Reports of the District Inspectors for 1905", in QDPI, 1907, v.9, p.12)

We will also examine the key role of the exemplary teacher in the governmental strategies of controlling these institutional sites, observing and inscribing the attributes and character of the future good citizen.  The centrality of the inculcation of certain habitual practices in the repertoire of bureaucratic-pastoral techniques of the exemplary teacher will be examined in relation to white-European and Aboriginal children.  The central importance of these practices was attested to as follows in a particular school for white-European children by a District Inspector:

Discipline and tone were generally satisfactory, and in many schools commendable.  Habits of order, industry, politeness, and self reliance are being successfully inculcated. (District Inspector Benbow, "Reports of the District Inspectors for 1905", in QDPI, 1907, v.9, p.12)

It was thus not only the teacher in the classroom who was instrumental in shaping the good citizen but the complex fabric of school government itself which, in regard to white-European primary school children, included the supervision and evaluation by a District Inspector reporting on the moral space of character building  agricultural education, playground, state school cadets, arbor day, manuals of ideal conduct and so on:

Games in the school grounds are not always superintended, and often times the chance is lost of promoting manliness of character, self control, and the love of fair play.  School libraries are not on the increase in the South Western District.  If of the right kind, books are helpful in the formation of character.  They should hold up ideals of conduct; they should contain stories of heroism, self denial, and integrity, thus giving the teacher the opportunity of teaching the value of character. (District Inspector Benbow, "Reports of the District Inspectors for 1905", in QDPI, 1907, v.9, p.12)

This chapter will thus focus on the bureaucratic-pastoral shaping of the good citizen as a background to an examination of the ethical and vocational distributions of the colonial good citizen which will be examined in the next chapter.  During this period under review, the good citizen will also be shown to have been inscribed in secular harmony with the Judeo Christian image of man and woman pertaining to the nineteenth century British Christian society transplanted into the British colony of Queensland.  These "men and women", as gender differentiated good citizens, were ascribed fundamentally different roles and differing educational capacities and expectations.  This is a significant point to be noted, with particular regard to the continuity of the gendered modern good citizen which was only formally challenged in Queensland in the State legislative arena in the early 1990s.  In exploring this genealogy of the modern good citizen, I will firstly outline the origins of elementary schooling for white-European children in the Queensland colony.

Fifty years ago public men spoke with pride of the establishment of the educational ladder which would enable all children of exceptional ability to climb by means of scholarships from Primary to Secondary schools, and from Secondary schools to Universities and the professions. (R.H. Roe, "Report of the Inspector General of Schools", in QPP, 1913, p.1369)

We want more scholarships.  The main problem is to foster a favourable public attitude to the values of secondary and higher education, particularly in the minds of parents and the relations who are so closely associated with the children.  The hostility and indifference of parents, relatives and acquaintances play a big part in the decisions of children to undertake advanced training.  (Mr Davies, M.L.A., in Queensland Parliamentary Debates, 1957 58, v.218, p.448)

This chapter will begin to trace a genealogy of the modern good citizen through an examination of the educational ladder.  As suggested in the quotation above by R.H. Roe as Inspector General of Schools in Queensland, the term educational ladder represents a succinct conceptual formation of a particular governmental imperative which is of central significance to this book.  The joint bureaucratic-pastoral imperative is that of establishing both commonality and differentiation within the school population through formal education or public instruction.  The objective of formal education is to measure, calculate, standardise, differentiate, inscribe, shape and guide the school population through two interrelated facets of education: on the one hand, a bureaucratic element is adapted to a pedagogy for establishing norms of literacy, numeracy and vocational competence; and on the other hand, the pastoral element is applied to civilising and Christianising practices aimed at the ethical formation of the good citizen (see Hunter, 1994). 
The educational ladder is thus a formation of discrete levels of bureaucratic-pastoral and pedagogic norms, values and practices ranging from primary to secondary through to tertiary levels.  The colonial educational ladder, however, will be examined in this chapter as being uncoordinated and decidedly different from the way it appears today. 

The origins of the contemporary educational ladder can be traced to the legislation of the new colonial government with the Queensland Primary Education Act, 1860 and the Grammar Schools Act, 1860.  Articulation between the State primary school and the State Grammar school did not, in effect, begin until the implementation of the State Grammar school scholarship and the 1875 Lilley Royal Commission.  State supported education was formed by the colonial government as two separate and uncoordinated elements - elementary public instruction within the State primary school and elementary and secondary education within the State Grammar school.  Access to the State Grammar school was subject to British cultural and educational traditions for white-European good citizens and families with the necessary economic means, social standing and ambition for a higher education beyond the elementary level. 

The previous chapter has examined the pastoral origins of shaping the good citizen as specifically relating to the elementary level of public instruction.  This chapter will extend this examination into the secondary level of the State Grammar schools and will begin to focus on the shaping of the competent good citizen as a function of educational distribution at both elementary and secondary levels.  In doing so, we will establish the historical beginnings and continuity of the bureaucratic-pastoral imperatives of government which would become central to the beginnings of a vocational guidance through a State managed educational system, articulated, modernised and restructured by a number of government initiatives, in particular for our purposes, the New Scholarship. 

 

This study aims to determine the role of the school environment on moral and cultural literacy of elementary school students. This is descriptive qualitative research. Data collection techniques are observation, interviews, questionnaire, and documentation. Data analysis techniques are data reduction, data presentation, and conclusions. Data validity using triangulation. Triangulation is to ensure the data validity that takes into consideration aspects of credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability. The subjects are 3 teachers and 27 students of 4th, 5th and 6th grade in Muhammadiyah School of Sleman Regency. The results of this study are (1) teachers-students' relationships have role to foster the character of honesty, fairness, caring, and teachers as role model for students; (2) students-students' relationships also have role to habituate good behavior to students; (3) school discipline contributes to the students' moral and cultural formation such as self-awareness, honesty, justice, responsibility, obedience to the rules, good commitment and unfazed by the changing era; (4) these learning implements have role in self-awareness, responsibility and care, because the teaching implements provided by the teachers becomes the students' responsibility.

The traditional individualism of the American finds reflection in the American high school.  The desire to develop the individual to his fullest capacity, to find his needs and abilities and special talents, his interests and aptitudes, is illustrated throughout the school.  The Australian system tends rather to set up a standard to which it is desirable to make the individual conform, the type rather than the individual is stressed.... School uniforms, which are very attractive on small boys and girls and become increasingly less attractive as the individuals grow older, are outward evidences of the same desire to stress conformity rather than individuality.  Neither American pupils nor their parents would tolerate any prescribed uniform.  (Cramer, 1936, p.41) 

According to this conventional wisdom, the best schools are those where the subjects and activities offered match the individual student's temperament.  On a cursory glance, that might seem sensible.  But what it really is, unfortunately, is yet another instance of the "exams and tests are bad" mentality that has permeated the education systems of many developed countries, ours included.  It is not socially correct, under this pernicious dictum, to make such comparisons between students or anyone.  Everyone is equal.... Now-days, of course, it is viewed with disfavour to talk about failure.  In this Age of Euphemisms, under the thumb of those who know best, there are only different success levels.  The fact that this misguided scale starts from rank failure apparently is beside the point.  (Courier Mail, 1993a)

Throughout this book, we have examined historical threads of bureaucratic-pastoral practices within the fields of education and employment in Queensland, practices which have calculated, measured, inscribed, guided and shaped the competent good citizen.  This genealogy of the good citizen has not been examined in terms of theory, philosophy or ideology, but as having been shaped through a complex of governmental and community practices, techniques and agencies.  The examination has extended to a review of those progressivist histories of education and guidance which have supported the norms, values and technologies of a North American child-centred educational culture and which, in Australia, have unwaveringly condemned the centralised State governmental administration of the traditional subject-centred classroom.   

In this chapter, we will extend our examination of the genealogy of the good citizen, focussing on the migration of individual psychology and a child-centred pedagogy into the school, classroom and curriculum through the governmental guidance strategy of post-war reconstruction of the good citizen.  It is the Radford Scheme which provides the pivot around which this the concluding chapter is organised.  The Radford Scheme heralded both the psychological self-matching technology of vocational guidance and the progressive child-centred pedagogy at secondary level as a devolution of curriculum decision-making towards the school and classroom and away from the centralised bureaucratic structure of the State education apparatus.  The Radford Scheme also transformed the distributional technology of the good citizen which now entered the university through the devolution of the bureaucratic techniques of measurement, calculation and inscription away from the subject-centred classroom towards the bureaucratic-pastoral technology of individual psychology.  It is the theme of the whole personality, however, which provides an historical continuity for our review of the migration of a child-centred pedagogy into the Queensland classroom at primary and secondary levels through the guidance strategy.  Upon the implementation of the Radford Scheme in the early 1970s, the technologies of measuring, calculating and inscribing this whole personality may well have shifted away from psychometric testing towards a self-matching technology.  However, the success of the guidance strategy can be measured, not in terms of a humanistic condemnation of psychometric testing, but in terms of its significant influence in facilitating the migration of the persona of the whole personality into the educational fabric.  Moreover, this success is a measure of the adaptive capacity of individual psychology as a cultural technology to measure, calculate and inscribe the whole personality of the student in relation to cultural fields and institutional practices, the whole personality, however, being the raison d'etre of a child-centred pedagogy.

The early 1960s witnessed a general revival of a child-centred pedagogy.  This was a revival of the progressive pedagogy of the New Education invigorated by the successes of individual psychology during the Second World War and of the guidance strategy being applied to the post-war reconstruction of the good citizen.  This revival took the form of a series of conferences facilitated by the ACER, the R&G Branch and the Faculty of Education at the University of Queensland (see Bassett, 1962, 1964, 1971) held in Melbourne and Brisbane which converged on the theme of individual differences in the primary school.  Consistent with the ambitions of this progressive pedagogy, the subject-centred classroom was targeted as being a major obstacle in locating the unique individual - the pupil - and not the subject matter of the curriculum as the central pedagogic and ethical focus of the classroom (see Wood, 1962; Newling, 1962; Bassett, 1962a; and Radford, 1962).  The revival of child-centeredness as the pedagogic principle was specifically linked to the influence of the guidance movement, a movement that was now recommending the trialling and the introduction of new child-centred techniques such as programmed instruction and project work suitable for individualised learning.  The secondary school classroom, however, was to remain within the firm grip of the subject-centred curriculum and related forms of assessment for at least another decade until the radical implementation of the Radford Scheme. 

We will re-trace some of those genealogical threads of the good citizen to the New Education movement which proselytised a progressive child-centred pedagogy through the “germination” strategy of individual psychology.  This examination will show how this child-centred pedagogy and supporting psychological technologies subsequently migrated into the Queensland classroom to shape the cultural norms of the good citizen (1) through the germination strategy of individual psychology, through the post-war guidance strategy, though the agencies of the ACER and the R&G Branch enabling the teacher to establish, in the words of McCulloch (1964, p.60), a relationship with the pupil based on the concepts of the guidance movement.

Nurturing effective inter-cultural dialogue through tourism has been
positioned to be an emergent challenge to tourism professionals working toward sustainability in a globalised world (Robinson and Picard, 2006). This interdisciplinary study devises inroads into ways of addressing this challenge through ‘ reading ’ the language of cosmopolitanism as it appears in writings about tourism and travel through examining women ’ s travel writing to Iran. These authors were found to mobilise notions of liminality and authenticity as discursive tools to provide authority to the voice, ground discourse and structure the gaze. The cosmopolitan gaze was found to be selective in its focus by drawing from widely held ‘ legitimate ’ Western discourse to construct ‘ other ’ by falling back on preconceived ideas of the foreign. The article
addresses the scholarly conundrum of theorising cosmopolitanism and contributes in a useful way by forwarding a conceptual framework that can be applied to further understand the concept and the dynamics that characterise cultural exchange. In this way, it contributes to tourism scholarship by focussing on issues which are immediate to questions which surround sustainable tourism.

"And the right of a man to labour,
And his right to labour in joy 
Not all your laws can strangle that right;
Nor the gates of hell destroy;
For it came with the making of man,
And was kneaded into his bones,
And it will stand at the last of things,
On the dust of crumbled thrones."
(Eldwin Markham, quoted by the Hon. T.A. Foley, Secretary for Labour and Industry, in QPD, 1941, v.178, p.1657)

Guidance is not something new, foisted on to our system from without.  As long as there have been teachers, there have been guides, and this state of affairs will ever remain, for the school teacher is to his pupils guide, philosopher, and friend.  (QTU, 1941, p.1)

Vocational guidance first emerged as a practice in Queensland, not in the State primary school classroom as was envisaged by L.D. Edwards, nor as a theoretical breakthrough in psychology, but in the State's technical colleges as a direct outcome of governmental intervention into the Boy Problem, a particular aspect of the very serious problem of unemployment which had been accumulating in Queensland in the late 1920s.  Governmental action resulted in plans to remedy the unemployment problem of youth and the enforced idleness of unemployed lads.  All of these plans would necessitate the active involvement and participation of a mixed personnel, various community, charity and religious organisations as well as State government Officers  teachers, head teachers and police officers - serving in an official capacity at the local community level.  It was the boy problem which would subsequently come to highlight the central role of the family in the governance of juvenile employment through the implementation of vocational training, guidance and placement activities.  The boy problem represented the State government's acceptance of its responsibility to find employment for youths and young men between the ages of fourteen and twenty, and particularly in respect of those in the metropolitan and city areas.  According to the government, at least 8,000 boys were leaving school each year, and the question of securing employment for such lads was so vital that it concerned all classes of the community (W.H. Austin, "Third Annual Report of the Under Secretary, Department of Labour and Industry for Year ended 30th June 1933", in QPP, 1933, p.1031).

During this period of the Great Depression, the governmental problem emerged as how to guide rather than coerce, how to provide the necessary vocational guidance in accordance with labour market priorities, not through means of compulsion, but through techniques of persuasion, sound reasoning and common sense.  New technologies were demanded to address the boy problem, to be implanted in the bureaucratic-pastoral space at the institutional nexus of education, juvenile employment and the family.  Out of this nexus between the public and private and converging areas of governmental attention, the practice of vocational guidance emerged as a part of the matching and placement activities deemed necessary to alleviate problems of juvenile unemployment and to assist in the re distribution of juvenile labour away from the city to the country.  From this governmental intervention into the local community with vocational training programmes and rural placement training schemes was formed the State government's JEB in 1935. 

The practice of vocational guidance was well established by the late 1930s within the JEB but had not been taken up within the primary school system as had been anticipated by Edwards over a decade earlier.  The increasing complexity of the educational ladder, the demands upon government to remedy the dysfunctions of the juvenile labour markets caused by the Great Depression, the beginnings of a highly focussed campaign by advocates of a progressive child-centred pedagogy through the ACER calling for a scientific approach to a New Education, however, were all combining to generate a need for new technologies for shaping, calculating, measuring, inscribing and guiding the natural bent of whole personality.  Psychological techniques of testing and inscription trialled in the ascertainment and management of backwardness were trickling through from the opportunity schools, germinating to shape the whole personality of not only the backward child but also the primary school pupil and the juvenile seeking employment.  As we will see in subsequent chapters, however, this whole personality would not become fully formed until the abandonment of the subject-centred pedagogy and the full scale migration of a child-centred pedagogy from the 1960s through to the implementation of the Radford Scheme in the early 1970s.  By the end of the 1930s, the germination strategy of individual psychology was set to transform the primary school classroom with a systemic guidance programme to be introduced under the direction of Mr J.J. Pratt, a primary school teacher who had been specially trained at the headquarters of the ACER in Melbourne for two years (see Cunningham and Pratt, 1940).  The advent of war with Japan, however, forestalled the implementation of this guidance programme aimed at governmental efficiency through matching the right good citizen “pegs” in the right vocational holes.

Meanwhile, the JEB and its vocational guidance and placement function had continued under the control of the Department of Public Instruction until the beginning of the war years when it was taken over by the Commonwealth government through emergency legislation at the Commonwealth level in order to control the Australian labour market during the war.  Towards the end of the war the JEB was returned to the State government's control, continuing to provide a vocational guidance and placement service for juveniles from 14 years to 21 years of age.  It was eventually disbanded in the early 1950s with the Commonwealth taking over the comprehensive function of the State Employment Exchanges which had been in operation in Queensland for nearly a half a century.  Through the White Paper, Full Employment in Australia, the Commonwealth had thus entered the fields of education and employment for the first time in peace-time Australia in an endeavour to address the massive problems of post-war rehabilitation and reconstruction and had incorporated the guidance strategy into its arsenal of technical solutions.  By the end of the war, vocational guidance as a practice was thus well established in both spheres of government, with the State's JEB in the Department of Labour and Industry and with the newly formed Commonwealth-based employment services (CES) in the Department of Labour and National Service.  Vocational guidance, however, had been substantially transformed by those psychological technologies of testing and inscription which had been initially developed from those pedagogic practices of the ascertainment, segregation and management of backwardness and subsequently trialled during the war on the civilian and service personnel populations to assist in the efficiencies of the war-effort.

This book introduces ways of understanding and analysing popular culture that enable the reader to move beyond conventional dichotomies of high/low culture. Theories of reading and concepts such as narrative, genre, discourse, polysemy and intertextuality are used to explore the meanings of a range of texts including cinema, music, television, magazines and newspapers.

As a "History of Present", this book provides an historical examination of not simply how the classroom has been instrumental in the “shaping of the good citizen” but how this history is crucial to understanding a key aspect of the National Curriculum debate – the dismal failure by the Australian classroom to meet educational standards and the needs of a competitive, global economy. 

This book has identified how the child-centred classroom is convenient and pivotal to meeting the powerful interests and desires of a wider anti-intellectual culture which characterises a non-vocational, general education and a liberal-arts education as the “Mickey Mouse” option in the pursuit of finding a worthwhile career. This examination provides the rationale to understand how the heresy of a subject centred curriculum and the abandonment of failure in a child-centred classroom have been driven and given credibility by an anti-intellectual positivist psychology and associated, secularised white-European and Christian cultural mores alive and thriving in the twenty first century classroom. Problems of the contemporary dysfunctional “student-in-crisis” are revealed through this history of the present as being compounded by a failure of the child-centred classroom to provide the intellectual capital necessary to process the knowledge of the world of people outside the classroom, essential to facilitate wise and well-informed educational and vocational choices in a complex consumer society and educational marketplace in a liberal democracy.  The question of “failure” for the “student-in-crisis” is thus shown to be an outcome, not of the dysfunction of the individual student diagnostically mapped by a positivist psychology, but of the failure of a child-centred classroom to prescribe a content saturated curriculum visible, graded into levels of competency and publically accountable necessary for the good citizen to survive and thrive in a competitive yet ethical consumer culture, in a modern liberal democracy.   

The historical "Cultural Theme of Civilising and Christianising" maps the genealogy of the shaping of the “good citizen” to the civilising and Christianising practices central to the classroom in the Queensland colonial era through the absorption of these practices and cultural norms into the new matching psychometric science as central to the pedagogic, ethical and vocational shaping of the good citizen in the contemporary child-centred classroom..

The historical "Technology Themes from Phrenology to Eugenics to Positivist Psychology" identify the migration of child-centred technologies into the classroom, with new problems for government emerging in the form of pastoral governance of failure, retardation and the problem child, and in managing the distributions of the good citizens ambitious for a higher education.  In the absence of graded methods of achievement and the abandonment of failure previously made visible through the subject centred classroom and public examinations, new child centred technologies pioneered by the new psychological consultant, the vocational guidance officer, would become reliant almost exclusively on the "square pegs in round holes", the so-called trait-and-factor psychological model, pioneered by Sir Cyril Burt, the world’s first official psychologist. 

Foucault’s "Genealogical Method" of analysis is used in this book to reveal a specific history of the good citizen in a liberal democracy.  In particular, it, documents, analyses and describes through primary source material, historical records and discourse analysis, how the cultural identity, the ethical and vocational attributes of the modern “good citizen” in Queensland and Australia have been shaped historically through powerful institutional and government policies, practices and strategies.  The temporal and cultural framework is from the mid nineteenth century with the subject centred British colonial classroom driven by the cultural technologies of phrenology and eugenics, through to the north American child centred classroom in the modern era utilising the secular pseudo-science of a positivist psychology.  The genealogy of the good citizen maps multiple threads into the school and classroom as being saturated with white-European and Christian cultural mores of vocational and social performance, conduct, capacity and ability to the present day. 

Finally, as an illustration of the failure of the child-centred classroom, we will re-examine the case study of Paul J as illustrative of the impact of the Radford child-centred classroom on the question of cultural literacy, that is, on the question as to how does any student begin to make informed choices and decisions on the basis of little or no knowledge of the complex world of people, of history, culture and society, and lacks the necessary skills to research and process that knowledge.  The “reasoned” approach to careers counselling first articulated by Frank Parsons will be examined as a practical alternative to the dominant and pervasive psychological matching technology embedded in the Radford’s child-centred classroom of personal suitability.   

The various case studies have generated and are consistent with an anthropological understanding of some of the key cultural imperatives operating in the traditional career counselling practice with the objective of increasing flexibility and diversity in career planning. The particular case study of Paul typical of careers indecision experienced at university level highlights these cultural imperatives, including the self matching "parachute process". It also serves as a launching pad for a helicopter or "reasoned" strategy in careers planning. This anthropological approach places great importance on understanding the key relationship between cultural literacy and a reasoned process of decision making in the modern democratic state, and highlights the impact of this relationship on a viable careers planning strategy. This helicopter strategy incorporates multiple forms of knowledge as well as taking account of both ethical and technical considerations in the career decision making process.

It is often stated that education is not meeting the needs of the country, that it is designed solely with a view to the academic training of the youth, and that little account is taken of the fact that not more than 1 per cent. of the pupils ever reach the University.  (Leonard Morris, "Report of the Superintendent of Technical Education", in QPP, 1914, v.1, p.1466)

Very often the child of one talent is treated the same as the child with 10 talents, and, like its prototype in the Bible, its talent is hid, buried, or lost.  If a child of one or two talents was taught a few subjects it would be better able to master these and become more efficient and thorough.  Teachers should understand more fully the nature of the child they are expected to train.  Teachers and children should be classified accordingly, some children learn rapidly, others are dull, phlegmatic, and slow.  (S.T. Julian, "Letter to Editor", Courier Mail, 6th April, 1922)

This chapter will examine the beginnings of vocational guidance in Queensland as a bureaucratic-pastoral activity of the primary school teacher in identifying the natural-bent and vocational talents of the good citizen and in generating ambition in the family for a higher education.  The focus will be on the re-structuring of the colonial educational system from the turn of the century through to the early 1930s towards a complex range of vocational outcomes progressively coming under the direct control of the Queensland Department of Public Instruction throughout this period.  The restructured educational ladder was to represent significantly expanded opportunities for children and adults to participate in secondary, university, agricultural, technical and continuing education (1) in ways that previously had not existed within Queensland.  A vocational guidance scheme was first formulated from within the Department of Public Instruction under the heading of "Sagax, Capax, and Efficax" prior to the First World War in response to governmental imperatives for national efficiency.  Although it was a scheme which was articulated as necessitating co operation between the State primary school and the family, it was first proposed to be trialled by the Department of Public Instruction at the Central Technical College in Brisbane. 

However, as the words of S.T. Julian ("Letter to Editor", Courier Mail, 6th April, 1922) at the beginning of the chapter would suggest, vocational guidance had previously been available in Australia through private consultation during the colonial era and well into the twentieth century  through the application of the mental sciences of phrenology and physiognomy.  These mental sciences had operated within the moral space of an innate and fixed nature of the human condition, the visibility of which could be ascertained by the outward physical signs or the language of the body that specifically included a taxonomy regarding notions of character and abilities as being central to scholastic performance within school. 

In a properly arranged society, a proponent for phrenology argued (S.T. Julian, "Letter to Editor", Courier Mail, 6th April, 1922), men, women and young people would be placed in positions for which they were naturally best adapted.  If the Government were to lay the right foundation with children on phrenological lines then they could be taught subjects suited to their mental capacity.  The average child had to learn far too many subjects.

The practising Phrenologist in Australia had been able to provide a vocational guidance service to the public "By Authority of the Education Department as a Visitor to State Schools of Tasmania, Victoria, South Australia and Queensland".  It was claimed that this Phrenologist could ascertain the vocational nature of the child, that is, determine the occupation best adapted for the child through the visibility of physical features:

The body is simply the instrument through which the mind manifests itself while on earth.  The mind is manifested through forty or more organs.  Each is primary and independent in its functions, doing its own work, and not doing the work of any other.  Each of these powers is manifested by or through a particular nerve, organ, or portion of the brain.  The power of each organ  all other things being equal  is in exact proportion to the size and quality of that portion of the brain through which it is manifested.  The mental powers are possessed originally in different degrees by different individuals, and also by the same individual.  One possesses ten talents, another five, another one.  Each mental power grows stronger and becomes more skilful by proper exercise.  Our accountability is just in proportion as we make good or bad use of talents. Each mental power was created for the purpose of doing good, and was intended to be so used.  (Blumenthal, 1896)

In October, 1896, a letter (Blumenthal, 1896a) was received by the Queensland Department of Public Instruction from G.A. de Blumenthal who identified himself as Professor and Lecturer on Mental Science, as Practical Delineator of Character by the late Rev. Dr de Blumenthal's "Swiss System of Craniology, Physiognomy, and Physiology".  He requested from the Minister for Education the following:

I take the liberty of arguing permission to visit the state schools of Queensland after school hours for the purpose of examining phrenologically according to the Swiss system any schoolchildren, who may desire to submit themselves to such an examination. (Blumenthal, 1896a) 

Although a similar request had been made three years earlier and was refused by Mr J.G. Anderson, Under Secretary for Public Instruction, this particular request was this time accepted by Anderson with the comment appearing on the letter as follows:

I think no objection need be raised to the writer examining the heads of school children, so after school hours if they are willing with the approval of their parents organisations to submit to the process; but school work should not be interfered with.  (Reply to Letter from Blumenthal, 1896a)

These particular mental sciences were never formally included or became part of the institutional fabric of government in Queensland.  It was the science of individual psychology, as we have seen in previous chapters, that emerged within the early 1920s in the government of retardation as a technology capable of making visible and ascertaining the level of mental deficiency as a pedagogic classification of retardation. 

This chapter will examine aspects of those organisational changes and initiatives taken within the Department of Public Instruction, in particular the first official vocational guidance experiment titled "Sagax, Capax and Efficax", technical education and the New Scholarship.  Together, these initiatives represented the transformation of the colonial educational system which now included a complex range of vocational alternatives.  By the end of the 1920s, these alternatives were broadly categorised by Mr L.D. Edwards as the dichotomy of academic or practical. 

In this post-colonial era with government seeking new nation status among the enlightened and civilised nations of the world, higher levels of education at secondary and university levels were no longer to be the province of ambitious parents able to pay tuition fees at the State Grammar, technical and private schools.  A higher education would now be provided for those capable of perceiving the value of such education, capable of receiving formal instruction and having the power to make practical use of this knowledge.  Such an education thus was to be for those with the natural-bent and the scholastic talent.  It was to be an education for the mentally fit (J. Story, "Educational Pioneering in Queensland", Under-Secretary for Public Instruction, in QDPI, 1914, p.443).  The governmental imperative of efficiency now presented a need to generate new parental ambitions and to provide a significantly expanded number of scholarships and financial assistance so as to fill the greatly expanded capacity of the educational system after the implementation of the New Scholarship.  More importantly, however, was the need for new bureaucratic-pastoral techniques for identifying the natural talent of children for higher education.

By way of introducing the New Scholarship to the public through parliament, the guiding scheme of "sagax, capax and efficax" was presented in 1913 by J.W. Blair, Secretary for Public Instruction, as facilitating the bureaucratic-pastoral objectives of generating parental ambition and reducing the wastage of square pegs in round holes.  While the governmental focus of this vocational guiding scheme of "sagax, capax and efficax" was interrupted by the onset of the First World War and dissipated within a period of government inactivity, it would re emerge in the late 1920s as a result of a new problem for government  failed parental ambition to seek new educational and vocational opportunities provided by the New Scholarship.  This time vocational guidance was formulated as an experiment for small number of State primary schools, an experiment which lasted only a relatively short period.  The vocational guidance experiment had by this time absorbed new techniques from the embryonic science of individual psychology and from the North American progressive child-centred pedagogy.  As discussed in the previous chapter, these psychological techniques of calculation, measurement and inscription had been trialled in the governance of retardation at the primary school level.  Within a few years, vocational guidance was again taken up, not within the primary school but in the Manpower model of the JEB to address the Boy Problem.

Cultural literacy involves the ability to understand a culture that is foreign. One of the ways to
promote cultural literacy is through literary works. It is paramount for teacher trainees to obtain
cultural literacy especially when dealing with multicultural classroom. This study explores the
role of literary works in generating cultural literacy which will assist future-to-be teachers to
become culturally sensitive. The objectives of this study are: 1) to examine how culture of the
society is portrayed in the play, and 2) to investigate whether the culture portrayed in the text is
relevant to the current society. The instrument used for data collection is online discussion
forum. The findings suggest that the literary works contribute to the trainees’ cultural
understanding of that particular society. It was also found that the trainees were able to see the
relevance of the culture portrayed in the play to that of the current society. The findings also
revealed the trainees critical evaluation on the article writer’s opinion on the play. The writers
believe that literary works are very rich in language use and aesthetic values which help the
trainees to understand other cultures and become critical readers.

In 1987 E.D. Hirsch published his bestseller "Cultural literacy: What Every American needs to know." The education system of the time seriously underestimated the importance of background knowledge needed to successfully function in literate American society. Drawing on two decades of experimental research, Hirsch showed that without the background information needed for a given text, readers are effectively illiterate with regard to that text. He argued that quantitatively, too, background knowledge plays a major role in comprehension: the information explicitly stated in any text is only "the tip of the iceberg" of the intended meaning, the bulk needs to be supplied by the reader. In the light of this, Hirsch argued that one of the central goals of the educational system must be to provide American children with an adequate body of knowledge that would enable them to understand all communications addressed to the general public. This body of knowledge he called "cultural literacy."

This study aims to determine the role of the school environment on moral and cultural literacy of elementary school students. This is descriptive qualitative research. Data collection techniques are observation, interviews, questionnaire, and documentation. Data analysis techniques are data reduction, data presentation, and conclusions. Data validity using triangulation. Triangulation is to ensure the data validity that takes into consideration aspects of credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability. The subjects are 3 teachers and 27 students of 4th, 5th and 6th grade in Muhammadiyah School of Sleman Regency. The results of this study are (1) teachers-students' relationships have role to foster the character of honesty, fairness, caring, and teachers as role model for students; (2) students-students' relationships also have role to habituate good behavior to students; (3) school discipline contributes to the students' moral and cultural formation such as self-awareness, honesty, justice, responsibility, obedience to the rules, good commitment and unfazed by the changing era; (4) these learning implements have role in self-awareness, responsibility and care, because the teaching implements provided by the teachers becomes the students' responsibility.

The aim of this research is to determine
the opinions of social studies teacher candidates
about the concept of cultural literacy. The research
was designed according to the qualitative research
method. Participants of the study were determined
using convenience sampling from purposeful
sampling methods. The data of the research were
obtained by interview method and analyzed by
descriptive analysis. As a result of the research, it was
determined that social studies teacher candidates
defined the concept of cultural literacy in the context
of their "own culture". It was concluded that they
determined the characteristics of cultural literate
individuals through values and especially skills
rather than knowledge. According to them, cultural
literate individuals should be general cultured,
innovative, reading, researching and critical
individuals. It was also concluded that social studies
teacher candidates who think that social studies
teachers must be culturally literate individuals do not
see themselves as culturally literate individuals at a
sufficient level. Based on the deficiency in the
literature on cultural literacy in the field, it is
recommended to conduct a similar study with social
studies teachers. Within the scope of teacher
education, the opinions of teacher candidates and
teachers from different branches on cultural literacy
should also be examined.
Keywords: Cultural literacy, teacher candidate,
social studies

By using Black American Sign Language (ASL) as a vessel, Johnson and Love seek to reimagine inclusive literacy practices that recognize multiple literacies and dismantle power relations by asking whose cultural literacies have been deemed more and less valuable through literacy practices.

This qualitative research study was an attempt to analyze the National Social Studies curriculum and textbooks of Grades IV-V in the context of Global Citizenship Education after reviewing the National Education Policies of Pakistan developed in 2009 and 2017. These two policies emphasize developing individuals who are critical thinkers, intellectuals, independent, and responsible global citizens. Data were collected with the help of a checklist for the relational content analysis of student learning outcomes, teaching and learning process, assessment, and evaluation process within the scope of 8 global citizenship dimensions given in the UNICEF global citizenship framework (2013). Major findings of the thematic analysis include the integration of global citizenship elements in the National Curriculum and textbooks of Social Studies to a great extent. Learning objectives as well as teaching and learning process designed for Grades IV and V emphasize the knowledge and understanding of 'Economic and political processes' and 'World Geography'. Similarly, the predominant dimensions identified in the assessment and evaluation exercises developed for Grade IV were 'Economic and political processes', 'Peace and conflict', and 'Human diversity and cross-cultural understanding,' whereas, knowledge and understanding of 'World Geography' and 'Awareness of diverse perspectives' had been emphasized in Grade V.

The current globalisation era has various impacts, including increases in cross-cultural interactions.  To live peacefully, diverse communities are faced with the challenge of facilitating inter-dependence. In Indonesia, Social Studies Education is considered an important tool to develop the national goal of ‘unity in diversity’ in citizens. Towards this goal, policy documents direct schools and teachers to develop learning that fosters cultural expression.  Also university education subjects in ethno-pedagogy have been initiated to work towards peaceful inter-cultural interaction and understanding.  Concurrently further opportunities arise to incorporate other phenomenon of globalisation – increased digital technologies and connectivity – in working towards this goal.    The focus of this paper is to present activities undertaken to support student learning of ethno-pedagogy with social media technology.  This paper reports on data collected in the subject of Ethno-pedagogy For Civic Education at Indonesia University of Education, for Civic Education Masters students. A social media class group was set up with sharing of weekly class homework tasks within the group.  Class interactions and student reflections on the use of this social media group were collected and analysed to study the student’s learning related to the university subject themes: 1. Personal, local, national, global identities for intercultural understandings; 2. Cooperation Values; and 3: Links between Theory and Practice. The results suggest that social media was a beneficial tool to facilitate sharing of activities relating to cultural identities and helpful for students to process their thoughts on national and global identities,  while  mutually  extending  intercultural  understanding.    Cooperative  values  were  enacted  while  students developed links between theory and practice.  Inter-dependence was initiated with sharing of class-developed resources implemented in classroom practice by some of the members, along with some peer mentoring given. Application of social media offerings including a variety of sharing tools and easy forum for discussion, assisted in student engagement and motivation to enlarge knowledge and experiences for intercultural interactions and understandings.  The study concluded that social media activities and methodology supported learning of subject themes and goals. These findings are relevant to social studies education for global citizenship in both Indonesian and International contexts, in the 21st Century. 


http://repository.upi.edu/24276/1/Proc_2015_Commemorative%20Academic%20Conference.pdf

This study aims to determine the role of the school environment on moral and cultural literacy of elementary school students. This is descriptive qualitative research. Data collection techniques are observation, interviews, questionnaire, and documentation. Data analysis techniques are data reduction, data presentation, and conclusions. Data validity using triangulation. Triangulation is to ensure the data validity that takes into consideration aspects of credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability. The subjects are 3 teachers and 27 students of 4th, 5th and 6th grade in Muhammadiyah School of Sleman Regency. The results of this study are (1) teachers-students' relationships have role to foster the character of honesty, fairness, caring, and teachers as role model for students; (2) students-students' relationships also have role to habituate good behavior to students; (3) school discipline contributes to the students' moral and cultural formation such as self-awareness, honesty, justice, responsibility, obedience to the rules, good commitment and unfazed by the changing era; (4) these learning implements have role in self-awareness, responsibility and care, because the teaching implements provided by the teachers becomes the students' responsibility.

This extensive review essay assesses the politics and merits of fourtitles in the "culture wars" that raged in the mid-1990s: Gerald Graff's "Beyond the Culture Wars,"; Gertrude Himmelfarb's "Looking into the Abyss"; Russell Jacoby's "Dogmatic Wisdom: How the Education and Cultural Wars Have Misled America"; Michael Bérubé's "Public Access: Literary Theory and American Cultural Politics"

This is Chapter 4 of a book now titled - SHAPING THE GOOD CITIZEN: Beyond Phrenology to a Child-Centred Classroom and which was published as a paper in the Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling I - Vol 5 Nr 1 1995.  All other chapters in this book will eventually be included on Academia.com.

Teaching culture in beginning L2 classrooms is often difficult given the time constraints of an intensive curriculum and the limited abilities of students. This paper explores using target language music videos with bilingual subtitles to raise awareness of contemporary Russian culture in beginning-level Russian. In addition to discussing how cultural memetics provide a unique perspective on learning language and culture through this genre, this presentation discusses a pilot study assessing initial student perceptions and outcomes from such an approach. Data from teacher observations and a student self-report survey give insight into the efficacy of the project and lay the framework for future phases of the study. This study builds on prior research into the use of Web 2.0 technologies to enhance L2/C2 input and interaction, situate learning in culturally authentic multimedia contexts, and encourage autonomous learning in and out of the classroom.