Compulsory Education

From the perspective of alternative education philosophies, compulsory schooling seems ridiculous. Firstly there are the human and children's rights issues. The lack of care for the dignity of the person, the physical violence, the potential abuse because of power structures and so on. A perspective on compulsory schooling which performs like this is connected to schools as a social function in ways that emerge from within the failing aspects of the centre of the schooling enterprise. They are its shadow side but also perhaps its source of most hope. Secondly there is the law. In many countries schooling is not compulsory in any way. The UK and America are two countries where this reality has taken on a power and a life that begins - because of the growing numbers of home educators - to challenge the possibility of an assumption that education is schooling and to challenge also the philosophy that goes with it. Education alone is fairly compulsory these days. The mechanism by which that truth bears itself out varies and can vary. In countries where this “truth” is not the case and it is schooling that is indeed compulsory, interesting factors contribute to that situation: in Germany the compulsory nature of schooling was enshrined in law by Adolf Hitler and has not been changed since. In Sweden where home education becomes close to impossible, complaints of the rise of the political far right temporally tally with complaints from parents who find their choice about educating their children diminishes to the point where the state is the educator of the child. And so we are back to human rights, but this time of parents. This chapter will examine the very idea of compulsory schooling from the point of view of an alternative world of education, where different rules apply. This will highlight the role of educational philosophy from and in an alternative education perspective.

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This book addresses issues around elective home education (EHE- also known as home schooling) discovery, which for too long have been unnecessarily problematic. Three theoretical frames using Kuhn, Foucault and Hirschman, and a policy framework for assessing discovery motivations are offered to contribute to increased understanding of the difference of EHE. An educational philosophy of EHE is developed. “Educationism” is presented as a term describing a widespread form of educational prejudice operating against the marginality of alternatives such as EHE and thorough-going democratic schooling. Empirical data extracts from a street survey and from in-depth interviews with adults who have discovered an educational alternative to mainstream schooling attendance are used. These show surprising and even shocking insights into the extent to which education is blindly conflated with schooling: finding out that schooling is not the only pathway for education to occur can cause wholesale revelation and personal transformation of the social, political, familial, financial and ethical. Unmet needs of parents to have information about alternative educational pathways are highlighted. Ignorance of professionals about EHE difference and a need for greater training is raised. The issues discussed have wide ranging implications for the concept of education and for the conduct of educational studies around the world. A reconfiguration of how education is structurally organised is suggested: from one field with educational marginalia to multiple equal paradigms of practice. The rise of technology is seen as a key factor in a reconfigured educational studies and increased discovery of EHE as option.

The Constitutions of India and Pakistan guarantee justiciable human rights and incorporate the Directive Principles of State Policy. Fundamental rights are justifiable through courts, while the principles of policy enjoy immunity from judicial interference. Right to education was constitutionally recognized as one of the principles of policy, not as a fundamental right in both countries. Although its status was earlier elevated from the directive principles of state policy to a fundamental right, owing to judicial activism, however, it was incorporated by a Constitutional Amendment in the Indian Constitution under Article 21-A. While in Pakistan, it was the 18th Amendment of the Constitution which elevated it to the status of a fundamental right. Resultantly, now it is subject to judicial review, under newly inserted Article 25-A. Now, the governments are obliged for its provision to all children, aging from five to sixteen years. Learning a lesson from the Indian recognition, Pakistan must cover its distance more swiftly and smartly, instead of wasting time in litigation or enactment of supportive legislation.

My essay is focused on changes in school time in the Italian school from the 60s -70s of the XX century. The aim is to raise questions about the use of time in Italian education. The extension of the hours of attendance (Tempo pieno) in the seventies was not meant to be simply a change in the curriculum, but was conceived as a part of a wide programme of social reform that involved a conception of school as a part of welfare policy. My article considers different ideas of temporality corresponding to different pedagogical approaches and three points of view: Lucio Lombardo Radice, Bruno Ciari and the 1968 movement.
Parole chiave: Italia, tempo scolastico, scuola obbligatoria, anni Sessanta, contestazione

İlköğretim, insan yetiştirme ve yaşam boyu öğrenmenin temelini oluşturma açısından bir ülkenin geleceğidir. Türkiye, istikrarlı, demokratik toplum oluşumunu gerçekleştirmek, uluslararası düzeyde rekabet gücünü arttırmak ve ekonomik sıçrama yapabilmek için temel eğitim hakkını tüm yurttaşlarına sunmalıdır.

This study examined the perceptions of teachers on the effectiveness of organizational
communication in their schools and whether the perceptions differed between
teachers in primary and junior high schools as a function of gender, age, marital status,
seniority, and rank. Data were collected from a sample of 334 teachers in 63
schools, working in primary and junior high schools in the centre of Afyon and Usak
in Turkey during the fall and spring semesters of 2002-2003. A questionnaire developed
by Gürgen (1997) was used in data collection, after minor modifications for
teachers working in compulsory schools. Data were analyzed by percentages, means,
t-tests for equality of means, analysis of variance, and Chi-square tests. Results
showed that teachers scored high in the effectiveness of organizational communication,
in general. Additionally, there was not a significant difference in teachers’ perceptions
between primary and junior high schools as a function of gender, marital
status, or seniority. However, older teachers scored higher than the young in the
effectiveness of organizational communication. Furthermore, teachers with less educational
attainment (i.e., undergraduate or graduate education of two-year-college)
scored lower than those with more educational attainment (i.e., graduate of a fouryear
college) in the effectiveness of organizational communication. Moreover, primary
and junior high school teachers indicated that they were informed about what
to do at work by their principals. They were informed orally (65%), meetings and
workshops (27 %), or in formal writing (8 %). Finally, suggestions as to what should
be done to reach effective organizational communication in schools, help younger
teachers use effective organizational communication skills, and increase the communication
channels by principals and teachers were suggested.

A tankötelezettség felső korhatárának csökkentése, valamint a közoktatás reformjai miatt a tankötelezettség kérdése ismét népszerű vitatémává vált. A tankötelezettséggel kapcsolatos kérdések: Miért van rá szükség? Miért jelentős? Miért kötelezettség? Az oktatásban való részvétel nemcsak egyéni érdek, hanem közügy is. Az egyén az oktatásban való részvétellel járul hozzá a saját és hazája életminőségének javításához, a munkanélküliség csökkentéséhez, valamint a gazdaság fejlődéséhez. Munkám célja, hogy bemutassam a tankötelezettség kialakulásának előzményeit, okait, magyarországi fejlődését és hatályos szabályozását.

Tárgy és kulcsszavak: közoktatás, tankötelezettség, munkaerőpiac

Meskipun beberapa analis menyatakan bahwa program Compulsory Education dan Free Education di Indonesia belum maksimal, namun upaya pemerintah selama ini perlu di-apresiasi. Kebijakan pemerintah dalam memenuhi hajat rakyat terhadap pendidikan yang berkualitas telah dilakukan dalam batas kemampuan negara. Hal disebabkan oleh sejumlah prioritas pembangunan yang harus diwujudkan bersamaan dengan prioritas pembangunan pendidikan, termasuk peningkatan kualitas pendidikan agama dan pendidikan keagamaan.

"En el presente estudio se ofrece una indagación narrativa a través de relatos de vida, que toman como referente la experiencia escolar de estudiantes con una histórica académica y personal asociada al fracaso. El estudio se ha desarrollado junto a tres estudiantes de sexo masculino con edades comprendidas entre los 17 y 18 años, y que no han alcanzado a graduarse en la enseñanza secundaria obligatoria por los cauces ordinarios. Se trata de estudiantes que no han abandonado el sistema educativo, sino que en el momento de realizar el estudio estaban cursando un programa de cualificación profesional inicial (PCPI).

Los propósitos que me he marcado para el estudio han sido los siguientes:
(1) Diseñar y desarrollar un enfoque metodológico orientado a ampliar la comprensión pedagógica de las experiencias de fracaso desde el punto de vista de los estudiantes, en general, y de los chicos, en particular.
(2) Explorar el fracaso escolar en tanto que experiencia vivida, dentro de un proceso biográfico y sociohistórico de progresivo desapego hacia la institución, las relaciones pedagógicas, el trabajo académico y los saberes escolares.
(3) Comprender las experiencias de fracaso atendiendo al criterio de la diferencia sexual masculina.
(4) Estudiar las resonancias subjetivas de las experiencias de fracaso, prestando especial atención a (i) las representaciones que los estudiantes construyen sobre sí mismos como aprendices, y (ii) la trascendencia de estas representaciones respecto a sus proyectos de vida.

La investigación ha sido planteada con el propósito de conocer cómo los chicos dan sentido a sus vivencias, y la forma metodológica que he adoptado es la de los relatos de vida (Bertaux, 2005). Relatos que colocan el foco en la experiencia formativa y escolar y que toman como significante de esta experiencia los sentidos de la escuela para estos adolescentes, y que nacen de la narración sobre lo vivido en el seno de las entrevistas como espacio conversacional.

Los principales hallazgos de la investigación están articulados alrededor de los siguientes ejes:
(i) sostener la práctica de la investigación educativa como un espacio de posibilidad de ir al encuentro con los jóvenes (Hernández, 2011), donde además ir ampliando nuestra comprensión intelectual acerca de las preguntas de investigación, se vea modificada nuestra propia colocación pedagógica (van Manen, 2003; Contreras y Pérez de Lara, 2011); (ii) el proceso de individuación del fracaso, como consecuencia de los efectos de la cultura escolar sobre los estudiantes en términos de interiorización de determinadas barreras sociales como barreras personales; además, cómo esos procesos tienen sus repercusiones en términos de las relaciones con el saber que configuran aquellos estudiantes que arrastran experiencias de fracaso (Beillerot et al., 1998); (iii) la necesidad de releer las actitudes de rechazo e inhibición escolar no como síntomas individuales sino, además, como muestras de un malestar que tiene su correlato en las relaciones pedagógicas (Tizio, 2007); (iv) la necesidad de seguir pensando acerca de la dificultad de entablar una relación pedagógica con los chicos, y la urgencia de abordar este asunto en relación al propio desarrollo personal y profesional de los hombres educadores."

У раду је, на основу низа примарних историјских извора, представљен истраживачки осврт на Завод за принудно васпитање омладине, установу која је деценијама изазивала контроверзе у историографији и широј јавности. Анализирани су оснивање Завода, његов карактер, услови живота и рада штићеника, слободне активности, васпитни концепт управе као и примењене дисциплинске мере. Указано је на особен положај Завода који се налазио под надзором како просветних, тако и полицијских власти, али и политичког покрета Збор. Посебна пажња посвећена је проучавању сложених односа штићеника и васпитача као и динамике тих односа, која је у старијој историографији готово потпуно занемарена.

Given the economic crisis currently in Angola, which began in 2014, it appears that some families are facing immense difficulties in enrolling their children in public, public-private and private primary schools. After the entire process of decolonization in Angola that culminated in independence, on November 11, 1975, in which more than 85% of the working population was illiterate, the Novo Estado's commitment to a single-party system aimed at universalization primary education and combating illiteracy in all its forms. With the adoption of the democratic system in 1991, which allowed the emergence of private and public-private schools, more than 40 years after the end of the colonial period, it can be said that there were significant advances in the education of Angolans and in quality education, but also some setbacks, which leads us, today, to a set of paradoxes and challenges, among which is the issue of equity in the primary education system in terms of access. Thus, it was intended with this study, through a qualitative methodology, materialized through a bibliographic consultation, to discuss the meaning of the rules laid down in laws 17/16 of October 7th and 32/20, of August 12th, regarding the matter the mandatory and free primary education, and the possibilities of children's access to free primary education, so that none of them are left behind, due to lack of financial resources.

ÖZET Ülkelerin kalkınmışlık düzeyi sahip oldukları eğitimli bireylerin varlığına bağlı olduğu gerçeğinden hareketle, topluma önemli derecede yön veren zorunlu eğitim uygulamalarının ülkelerde iyi bir şekilde düzenlenmiş olması gerekmektedir. Eğitim hizmetlerinin topluma ulaşmasını sağlayan devletler, küreselleşen dünyada ayakta kalabilmek ve istikrarlı bir biçimde gelişmiş dünya ülkeleri arasında yer alabilmek için en temel insan hakkı olan eğitime, politikalarının en ön safhasında yer vermek zorundadırlar. Kaliteli insan gücü ihtiyacının giderek arttığı içinde bulunduğumuz yüzyılda devletler okullaşma oranlarını artırabilmek ve eğitim uygulamalarını daha özendirici bir hale getirebilmek için eğitim politikalarında belirli değişikliklere gitmektedirler. Ülkemizde de 2012 yılında 4+4+4 şeklinde belirtilen 12 yıllık bir zorunlu eğitim uygulaması hayata geçirilmiş ve okullar yeniden ilkokul ve ortaokul ve liseler olmak üzere 3 şekilde düzenlenmiştir. Bu değişikliklerden önemli derecede etkilenen kesim ise temel eğitim basamağında hizmet veren sınıf öğretmenleri olmuştur. Buradan hareketle araştırmada sınıf öğretmenlerinin yeni zorunlu eğitim uygulamasına ilişkin görüşleri belirlenmeye çalışılmıştır. Betimsel nitelikte olan bu araştırma tarama modelinde gerçekleştirilmiş; çalışma grubunu 2012-2013 eğitim ve öğretim yılının ilk döneminde, İstanbul'un Esenyurt ilçesinde görev yapan ve birinci sınıf okutan 82 sınıf öğretmeni oluşturmaktadır. Araştırmanın verileri araştırmacılar tarafından hazırlanmış olan yapılandırılmış görüşme formu ile elde edilmiş; verilerin analizinde nitel araştırma yöntemine uygun olarak içerik analizi tekniği kullanılmıştır. Analiz sonucunda ulaşılan bulgulara dayalı olarak sınıf öğretmenlerinin 12 yıllık zorunlu eğitim hakkında genel olarak olumsuz düşüncelere sahip oldukları ve sistemin öğrenciler ve sınıf öğretmenleri üzerinde genel olarak olumsuz etkiler bıraktığı sonuçlarına ulaşılmıştır. ABSTRACT Considering the fact that level of development of the countries depends on having educated people, compulsory education implementations that leads significantly the society should be arranged well in the countries. The countries which providing educational services for societies should give an important place for education in politics to find a place in developed countries steady and to stand on its foot in global world. In the century when it was required an increase for qualified work force, countries change their educational policy to enhance the schooling rate and make more attractive education implementing. In our country compulsory 12 year education implementation also known 4+4+4 has been carried out and all schools have been arranged as primary, secondary and lyceum. The class teachers have been mostly affected by these changes. Starting from this point of view in this study it has been tried to define the views of class teachers on new compulsory education implementing. In this research, descriptive survey model was used. The study group consists of 82 classroom teachers teaching to first graders in the primary school in Esenyurt, İstanbul in the first term of 2012-2013 educational years. The data was collected with the help of structured interview form prepared by researchers, and content analysis method which was approppriate for qualitative research method was used in analysing the collected data. Based on analysis results, it is concluded that the classroom teachers generally have

Zorunlu eğitimi kademeli olarak 12 yıla çıkaran ve kamuoyunda 4+4+4 diye adlandırılan 6287 sayılı İlköğretim ve Eğitim Kanunu ile bazı kanunlarda değişiklik yapılmasına dair kanun 11 Nisan 2012 tarih ve 28261 sayılı Resmi Gazete yayımlanarak yürürlüğe girdi. Bu çalışmanın amacı, kamuoyunda çok yankı yapan 4+4+4 uygulamasına ilişkin okul yöneticilerinin görüşlerinin belirlenmesidir. Çalışmada nitel araştırma yöntemi kullanılmıştır. Araştırmaya 17 okul yöneticisi katılmıştır. Yarı yapılandırılmış görüşme formu ile elde edilen verilen analizinde nitel veri analiz tekniklerinden betimsel analiz kullanılmıştır. Araştırma bulgularına göre 4+4+4 uygulamasını olumlu, doğru, yararlı şeklinde değerlendiren yöneticiler, bazı eksiklikler ve yöntem yanlışlığına dikkat çekmişlerdir. Uygulamanın kesintili olmasını doğru fakat bu kesintinin 5+3+4 olmasına ve okula başlama yaşının 72 ay olması gerektiğine vurgu yapılmıştır. Uygulamayı olumsuz olarak değerlendiren katılımcılar; özde kişilerin farklı ilgi alanlarına göre eğitilmesinin doğru fakat uygulamanın sadece İmam Hatip Liseleri ile sınırlandırılmış olmasının tarafsız bir eğitim-öğretim anlayışına gölge düşürdüğünü belirtmişledir.

The number of homeschooling families in the United States has been growing at a steady rate since the early 1990s. Attempts to make sense of homeschooling—including research—are inherently political. These attempts are, therefore, highly contested. It is impossible to provide an agreed-upon definition of homeschooling, much less a precise number of families that homeschool, why they homeschool, or what the learning outcomes of that homeschooling might entail. Instead, homeschooling is best understood as a set of educative practices that exists in and between institutional schooling and family life. As families and schools evolve and change, so will the meaning and significance of homeschooling.

Media consumption is an undeniable fact in present-day society. The hours that members of all social segments spend in front of a screen take up a large part of their leisure time worldwide. Audiovisual communication becomes especially important within the context of today's digital society (society-network), where information and communication technologies pervade all corners of everyday life. However, people do not own enough audiovisual media skills to cope with this mass media omnipresence. Neither the education system nor civic associations, or the media themselves, have promoted audiovisual skills to make people critically competent when viewing media. This study aims to provide an updated conceptualization of the "audiovisual skill" in this digital environment and transpose it onto a specific interventional environment, seeking to detect needs and shortcomings, plan global strategies to be adopted by governments and devise training programmes for the various sectors involved

Due to imbalanced social and economic development, education in poverty-stricken rural areas in China is lagging behind that of urban areas. The current study explores the role of the nonprofit organizations (NPOs) involved in rural compulsory education promotion. Results show that the NPOs are providing a variety of programs to promote rural compulsory education, and the types of programs, as well as their implementation strategies and impact, are influenced by their registration statuses and background characteristics. Due to lack of coordination and skills, there still remain service gaps, and the quality of the existing programs is questionable. The article proposes strategies to strengthen the nonprofit sector's work in rural compulsory education.

Glazba je dio djetetove svakodnevice. U obitelji i u predškolskim ustanovama njezina je funkcija različita u odnosu na školu. Nastavom glazbe u školi utječe se na cjelovit razvoj učenika, što se može sagledati iz pedagoške i umjetničke perspektive. Usmjerena je prema stjecanju znanja i razvoju umijeća učenika u umjetničkom području, potiče estetski odgoj, ali i očuvanje povijesno-kulturne baštine. Domena kojom se navedeno realizira u najvećoj mjeri je slušanje i upoznavanje glazbe. S namjerom približavanja umjetničke glazbe djeci i mladima, njezina intenzivnijeg doživljavanja i razumijevanja, u radu se ukazuje na potrebu interdisciplinarnog i korelativnog odnosa glazbe s drugim predmetima, ali i glazbenih aktivnosti međusobno. Budući da je namjera autorice ukazati i na važnost osmišljavanja novih metodičkih strategija za rad u nastavi glazbe, ukratko se opisuju koncepti Stage-English-Music, model Slušanje glazbe–skladanje i Spoznajno-emocionalni pristup slušanju glazbe. Navedene strategije za osuvremenjivanje slušanja glazbe u školi temelje se na interdisciplinarnom i intradisciplinarnom povezivanju sadržaja, ovisno o tome uključuju li u rad izvanglazbene aktivnosti (npr. engleski jezik i dramski odgoj) ili se rad provodi unutar glazbenih aktivnosti poput pjevanja, sviranja, plesa s muzikološkim, ali i humanistički orijentiranim ishodima. Praksa i istraživanja ukazuju na to da osim stjecanja glazbenih znanja i razvoja glazbenih umijeća, višemodalni pristupi utječu i na holistički razvoj učenika.

Este trabajo indaga en la función que ejerció la enseñanza musical en la educación obligatoria española durante la época franquista según se desprende de la legislación orgánica (1936-1982). También se ocupa de la con- sideración que ha recibido tanto en el momento de ponerse en práctica como a partir de recientes investigaciones en historia de la educación. Al efecto, se vaciado el corpus legal sobre educación presente en el Boletín Oficial del Esta- do, realizándose un análisis cruzado entre dicha normativa y prensa periódica y literatura científica pertinente sobre el particular. Los resultados obtenidos sugieren que la enseñanza de la música se convirtió en uno de los medios óp- timos para difundir la doctrina totalitaria entre la sociedad civil española, entendiéndose casi exclusivamente como canto colectivo y en el ámbito de la formación de la mujer.

This paper enquires about the function of music education in Spanish compulsory schooling according to legislation promulgated between 1936 and 1982. It also argues the consideration these laws received at the time they were implemented and in recent researches on history of education. For this purpose, a comparative analy- sis amongst legal regulations, contemporary periodical press and relevant scientific literature has been carried out. The results obtained suggest that music education became one of the most relevant means in order to establish tota- litarian doctrines amongst Spanish civil population, as it was conceived almost exclusively as collective singing and strongly emphasized in women education.

Kyle Greenwalt’s new book, Home/Schooling: Creating Schools that Work for Kids, Parents and Teachers, examines how, during the nineteenth century, American social reformers took hold of an already existing institution—the school—and sought to make it compulsory. In the process, they supplanted parents and domestic life—the home—as  the primary educational force for children. Greenwalt argues that as education was taken out of the home, American classrooms were at the same time remade into a particular kind of home life—one based upon a sentimentalized maternity, where love can always triumph over the “public” and “masculine” forces of competition, merit, and hierarchy.  In this model, a good teacher loves her students. She makes her classroom into a home. Like a good mother, she sacrifices for them, enduring long hours of isolation, low pay, and little public support or recognition. Students, in their turn, should love their teacher. To please her, they should learn the values that would sustain a more virtuous republic.  Parenting, through all of this, was redefined as a private activity. Battle lines were drawn and the stakes were love, learning and control. Greenwalt argues that it doesn’t need to be this way. That it is time to rethink the ways in which parents and teachers interact with one another. That it is time to redefine “homeschooling” as something all families engage in and that all public schools should seek to support.

Este capítulo nace de un estudio reciente centrado en las experiencias de fracaso escolar de tres estudiantes adolescentes en la enseñanza secundaria obligatoria (Sierra, 2013). En él se proponía una indagación narrativa acerca de la conformación de sus subjetividades en términos de relaciones con el saber, como consecuencia de haber sido designados como `fracasados escolares´. Tomando este estudio como referente, en el capítulo trato de poner en cuestión ciertas visiones dominantes sobre la educación de la gente joven, problematizando el lugar privilegiado que el tópico del fracaso escolar viene ocupando en la cultura social. A su vez, pretendo suscitar la reflexión en torno la atención pedagógica por las nuevas generaciones. Entiendo que es importante proponer formas de mediación discursiva que arrojen luz sobre los malestares que habitan las instituciones educativas contemporáneas; todo ello como un intento por revisar nuestras formas de contemplar -nos en- los escenarios educativos.

Cilj je slušanja glazbe u školi oblikovati kulturno-umjetnički svjetonazor učenica i učenika te doprinijeti njihovom estetskom odgoju. U hrvatskim osnovnim školama realizira se prema tzv. standardnom modelu kojemu je težište na spoznajnoj dimenziji. Kako bi se povećali pozornost, motivacija, slušalačke navike i prihvaćanje umjetničke glazbe, predlaže se spoznajno-emocionalni pristup koji višemodalno povezuje glazbene i izvanglazbene sadržaje. Cilj istraživanja bio je usporediti utjecaje spoznajno-emocionalnog i standardnog pristupa u nastavi glazbene kulture na spoznajni i emocionalni aspekt slušanja glazbe. Sudjelovalo je 557 učenika i učenica iz 30 petih razreda. Slušali su Hačaturjanovu Maskaradu, Beethovenovu Wellingtonovu pobjedu, Rimski Korsakovljevu Šeherezadu i Fauréovu Pavanu te odgovarali na pitanja vezana za spoznajni i emocionalni aspekt slušanja glazbe. Petnaest razreda imalo je nastavu po standardnom, a 15 razreda po spoznajno emocionalnom pristupu. U spoznajnom aspekt...

The area of listening to music is extremely suitable for music understanding. In order to achieve the goal of listening, it is important to use a valid didactic approach. In this paper attention is paid to the standard and cognitive-emotional approach to music listening. Two types of lesson plans are compared, with two different didactical approaches. The standard approach includes the analysis of cognitive elements, while the cognitive-emotional approach is accompanied by the musical elaboration of works and composers in the context of time and environment, as well as enriched through musical and non-musical elements. Four musical themes (units) were realized: Masquerade (A. Khachaturian), Wellington’s Victory (L. van Beethoven), Scheherazade (N. Rimsky-Korsakov) and Pavane (G. Fauré). In the lesson plans regarding the standard approach, the theoretical aspect of the work elaboration is visible, while in the cognitive-emotional approach the musical aspect, socio-humanistic and aesthetics aspects of the art work elaboration can be observed. The lesson plans made as a part of the cognitive-emotional approach are suitable as a creative lesson plan for the teacher and to foster the overall students’ development.

Resumen
Medir el nivel de competencia mediática de la ciudadanía se torna imprescindible en la actual Sociedad de la Información. Por ello, desde el año 2010 se ha impulsado un proyecto nacional de I+D que, entre otros colectivos, pretende evaluar la competencia mediática en la enseñanza obligatoria en España, tanto en alumnos como en profesores. El contenido ha sido definido en base a las seis dimensiones desarrolladas por Ferrés (2007) para evaluar el nivel de competencia audiovisual de la ciudadanía. El objetivo que se persigue es intentar promover que se incluyan en los planes de estudio materias vinculadas a la formación en medios para la adquisición de una competencia básica audiovisual y digital. Para la evaluación, se han diseñado ad hoc cinco cuestionarios: uno para infantil, otro para primaria, un tercero para secundaria, el cuarto para bachillerato y uno específico para el profesorado. Todas las herramientas se han diseñado para ser implementa-das on line y para cada uno de ellos además se ha construido una plataforma de seguimiento en tiempo real. Cabe destacar que debido a las características a veces bastantes dispares entre el colectivo al que se le había de aplicar los cuestionarios, éstos se han diseñado teniendo en cuenta dichas apreciaciones. Tanto en contenido como en diseño, cada una de las cuestiones planteadas en el cuestionario han sido elaboradas según dichas premisas.

Abstract
To the level of media competence of citizenship becomes essential in today’s society of information. Therefore, since 2010, a national R & D has been promoted, among other groups, aims to evaluate the media literacy in compulsory education in Spain, both students and teachers. The content has been defined based on the six dimensions developed by Ferrés (2007) to evaluate the level of audiovisual skills of citizens. The goal which is pursued should be trying to promote the inclusion of audiovisual skills in programs related with media training to acquire basic audiovisual and digital skills. To evaluate it, we have designed five questionnaires: one for children, one for primary students, a third one for high school students and the fourth one to specific teachers. All tools are designed to be implemented on-line and to each of them. Also it has built up a tracking platform in real time. Note that due to the different characteristics between the groups sometimes, groups to which the questionnaires have to be applied; these are designed keeping in mind those findings. Both content and design, each of the issues raised in the questionnaire have been developed according to these premises.

This paper examines how stances and understandings pertaining to whether home education is civically legitimate within liberal democratic contexts can depend on how one conceives normative roles of the secular state and the religious neutrality that is commonly associated with it. For the purposes of this paper, home education is understood as a manifestation of an educational philosophy ideologically based on a given conception of the good. Two polar conceptions of secularism, republican and liberal-pluralist, are explored. Republican secularists declare that religious expressions do not belong in the public sphere and justify this exclusion by promoting religious neutrality as an end in itself. But liberal-pluralists claim that religious neutrality is only the means to ensure protection of freedom of conscience and religion, which are moral principles. Each conception is associated with its own stance on whether exemptions or accommodations on account of religious beliefs have special legal standing and thereby warranted. The indeterminate nature of religion and allegedly biased exclusion of secular beliefs, cited by some when denying religious exemptions, can be overcome by understanding all religious and conscientious beliefs as having equal standing as conceptions of the good. Analysis of court documents from the Uwe Romeike et al asylum case are guided by these understandings, and relationships among themes are explored. In summary, any stance regarding home education may depend on one’s view of secularism, particularly in relation to whether one views religious neutrality as a means to ensure protection of freedom of conscience or an end in itself.

Although it has one of the less expensive costs of attendance, universal access to higher education in México is still far away from becoming a reality. The federal government along with the public and private educational institutions have implemented different approaches to increase access but the gap among higher and lower strata of the population represented in HEIs seems to be widening. Recently, the federal government proposed to change the Constitution to include higher education as a right and therefore, compulsory. This essay intends to show a brief picture of the state of college access in Mexico as well as the implications of moving to a compulsory system. It ends with a series of recommendations for stakeholders to get involved in addressing the manifold issues pertaining to the state of college access and success in México.

This paper presents an ethnographic interpretation of education as a social technology of state sovereign power and governing in the borderlands of contemporary China. Illustrated with snapshots from ethnographic fieldwork conducted in a Pumi (Premi) ethnic village located along China’s south-western territorial margins, it is argued that the hierarchical structure of the education system, coupled with the arduous and yet compulsory mobility entailed in educational participation, powerfully shapes the social and political imaginaries of peripheral citizens. Education serves simultaneously as a distance-demolishing technology and a hierarchy-establishing technology that counters the ‘frictions of terrain’ that traditionally presented a problem to the state for governing such geographically inaccessible borderlands.

Although it has one of the less expensive costs of attendance, universal access to higher education in México is still far away from becoming a reality. The federal government along with the public and private educational institutions have implemented different approaches to increase access but the gap among higher and lower strata of the population represented in HEIs seems to be widening. Recently, the federal government proposed to change the Constitution to include higher education as a right and therefore, compulsory. This essay intends to show a brief picture of the state of college access in Mexico as well as the implications of moving to a compulsory system. It ends with a series of recommendations for stakeholders to get involved in addressing the manifold issues pertaining to the state of college access and success in México. Download article from: https://www.ojed.org/index.php/jcihe/article/view/1132

The article elaborates the role and importance of introducing the activity of playing instruments in regular music class. Although represented in most previous curricula, in the 2006 curriculum playing an instrument has been given a great possibility for a qualitative realization. By studying through literature units, and interviewing teachers, the author systematized the advantages and limitations of playing instrument(s) in regular class. Also, the new model for playing instruments in class has been described.

Free and compulsory education has become a constitutional right of all the Pakistanis since the eighteenth amendment has come into effect. Compulsory and free education requires the laws to implement the education offerings in the compulsory age group. This study draws on a desk review of the compulsory education offerings in five countries: India, USA, UK, Singapore and Finland. The study is aimed at getting insights into how compulsory education is being organized in the region and globally, and forwards some recommendations regarding how it may be organized by various provinces of Pakistan.

La definición de las características de un espacio de aprendizaje nos sitúa frente a la existencia de tres dimensiones de análisis clave para su diseño conceptual: la dimensión ambiental, la dimensión pedagógica y la dimensión digital (Bautista y Borges, 2013). El artículo muestra los resultados de una investigación que tiene por objetivo analizar los conocimientos, preferencias, percepciones y necesidades del profesorado respecto a la configuración del aula como espacio de aprendizaje, concretamente en relación a la dimensión digital. Para ello se realizó un estudio cuantitativo mediante el método de encuesta a una muestra de 847 docentes de educación infantil, primaria y secundaria. Los resultados obtenidos muestran que los docentes perciben que la dimensión digital debería ser uno de los elementos clave para plantear nuevos espacios de aprendizaje en las escuelas. The definition of the characteristics of a learning space places us before the existence of three dimensions of key a...

The grade point average of Swedish year-9 students has been rising steadily over the last three decades. The rate of increase is greatest in the practical and aesthetic subjects, and among these, music. Two recent national commissions, several reports from government agencies and research publications argue that at least part of this increase is due to grade inflation, especially so the increase in the share of students attaining the higher grade levels. Previous research point to the switch to a criteria-referenced grading system in the 1990s, the decentralized nature of the Swedish grading system, school competition (including if schools are privately or publicly run), and deficits in teacher qualifications as factors contributing to grade inflation. The practical and aesthetic subjects’ greater susceptibility to the pressures leading to grade inflation is often explained by their lack of centralized tests. Complicating the issue further, music teachers have traditionally had a fraught relationship with curricula and summative assessment. Simultaneously, there are indications that assessment in the music subject in Swedish compulsory school is moving towards a more atomized conception of musical knowledge, skills, and abilities, as well as towards assessment of criteria compliance rather than assessment of (or for) learning. This paper reports a pilot study into this problem area. Using statistics from the Swedish National Agency for Education, I will identify lower secondary schools where the mean final music grades have been rising faster than average during the period 2012–2021, while controlling for changes in the composition of students (gender, SES). Using this data set, I will investigate whether this can be related to three factors hypothesized to effect susceptibility to grade inflation: teacher qualification, location (countryside, low competition, city, high competition), and whether the school is publicly or privately run.

In Spring 2020, the COVID-19 health emergency caused all Italian schools to close from March to the end of the school year. An intervention was organized with the aim of offering primary and lower secondary teachers the possibility to organize remote coding activities with their students. Nine workshops were held to introduce teachers to the Scratch online programming environment, and then a coding day was organized involving students from the last year of primary and lower secondary schools. The chosen activities proved to be motivating to the students, favoring social interactions and participation, and increasing their interest in coding. Teachers were positively impressed by the ease with which their students managed programming in Scratch, but some of them felt that they did not master programming well enough to autonomously support class activities. A longer teacher training period is needed.