Early Medieval Swords

In the literature about swords, their use has predominantly not been analysed. This article tries to reconstruct some aspects of the use of Viking Age swords from Northern and Eastern Europe. The reconstruction is based on biomechanics, martial arts principles, late medieval fencing books and

Raně středověký meč, který je uložen ve sbírkách Středočeského muzea v Roztokách u Prahy, je spojován s hradištěm na Levém Hradci, byť jeho nálezové okolnosti nejsou známy. Zbraň má jílec Petersenova typu Y, a již předchozí rentgenový průzkum prokázal damaskovaní čepele a přítomnost tzv. železné tauzie. Nově provedený rtg. tomografický průzkum umožnil bližší specifikaci plošného damasku a především tauzie; odhalil, že čepel nese damaskovaný nápis „(ABO)FECIT“ na jedné straně, a složený geometrický znak na straně druhé. Všechny nově získané informace jsou v článku podrobně popsány a diskutovány.

Vlijmscherp verleden
Vlijmscherp verleden vertelt het verhaal over de geschiedenis van het zwaard en de rituele en symbolische betekenis ervan. U ziet bijna tweehonderd bijzondere zwaarden, afkomstig uit de prehistorie tot de twintigste eeuw. De pronkzwaarden, slagzwaarden en steekzwaarden komen uit bijna alle werelddelen. Blikvangers zijn de 'magische' bronzen zwaarden uit de prehistorie, Vikingzwaarden uit de omgeving van Dorestad, een Frans koningszwaard uit de Merovingische tijd en het Nederlandse Rijkszwaard, dat met de overige regalia een tastbaar symbool is van het koninklijk gezag.

Meer dan slechts een wapen

Het Rijksmuseum van Oudheden bezit de grootste collectie archeologische zwaarden van Nederland. Bruiklenen uit binnen- en buitenland verrijken de tentoonstelling en vullen het verhaal aan tot de twintigste eeuw. De zwaarden uit de verschillende perioden en landen geven u een beeld van de grote verscheidenheid in vorm, materiaal en versiering. U ontdekt hoe ze de afgelopen drieduizend jaar zijn gemaakt en u maakt kennis met hun (vaak) rituele en symbolische betekenis. Niet voor niets zijn zwaarden van oudsher een teken van macht, gerechtigheid en krijgskunst.

Zwaarden met persoonlijkheid

Een zwaard is niet alleen een wapen, het is veel meer dan dat. Al eeuwenlang staan zwaarden symbool voor macht, gerechtigheid en krijgskunst. Ze hebben vaak een aparte status en worden gezien als objecten met een eigen 'persoonlijkheid'. Zwaarden spreken nog steeds tot de verbeelding, net als degenen die ze droegen: strijders, ridders en soldaten.

On the 3th of August 2015, the British Library has appealed for help in cracking an enigmatic inscription on a mysterious medieval blade. The double-edged sword, which is on loan from the British Museum (until Tue 1 Sep 2015), was found in Lincolsnhire's River Witham in 1825 and bears a peculiar inscription that to date nobody has been able to decipher. Interpreting medieval sword inscriptions is like trying to crack a mysterious code. On the 10th of August 2015 I have suggested a possible interpretation of the inscription, which is: (I)N(OMINE) D(OMINI) [NOSTRI JESU] X(RISTI), O(BTEGE), X(RISTO), CH(A)WD(O)ȵG(AN), (I)N(OMINE) D(OMINI) X(RISTI), O(BTEGE) [eum], R(EX) V(NIVERSI) I(ESUS).

Indulge yourself in Carlo Paggiarino’s private tour of one of the world’s finest collection of antique arms and armour and discover, through his unique style of photography, the overwhelming beauty of the medieval and renaissance masterpieces at Hertford House.

An uninterrupted series of superb photographs, together with Jeremy Warren’s stimulating foreword and Tobias Capwell’s intriguing introduction, will add to your knowledge of this fascinating wold, revealing once again the secrets of the top armourers.

Carlo Paggiarino has the rare gift of understanding the forms and the functions of antique arms and armour, and so is extraordinarily skilful in conveying the sculptural qualities of these princely works of art in two dimensions.

We all wish you all the most pleasant of tours!

ENG: The study of most of the Florentine Arti Minori, has aroused until today, a scarce interest by the scholars. This first survey, concerning the Arte dei Fabbri (Art of Blacksmiths) in Florence and its countryside. between the end of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, based on the analysis of the statute and the matricole, shows the great importance of this economic and productive sector in the reality of that time. Particular attention is paid to the structure of this (work specializations, access modalities), to the production of artifacts and to the activities carried out, as well as to the general trend in the chronological period examined.

ITA: Lo studio della maggior parte delle Arti Minori fiorentine, ha suscitato sino ad oggi, uno scarso interesse da parte degli studiosi. Questa prima indagine, riguardante l’Arte dei Fabbri a Firenze e nel suo contado, tra la fine del XIV ed il XV secolo, basata sull’analisi dello statuto e delle matricole, mostra la grande importanza di questo settore economico e produttivo nella realtà dell’epoca. Una particolare attenzione è rivolta alla struttura di questa (specializzazioni lavorative, modalità di accesso), alle produzioni di manufatti ed alle attività svolte oltre che all’andamento generale nell’arco cronologico preso in esame.

The Fechtbuch (Fight-Book) from 1459 AD by Hans Talhoffer is truly an uncanny work. In this edition of his work, the fight-master opens a window for us to his world. He shares knowledge from his own field of expertise – the martial arts of Renaissance Europe. Yet he also presents works from masters of the same and other fields – Zwaintzig Ussrichtung (Twenty Directives) by fight-master Johann Liechtenauer; Bellifortis (Battle Force) by military engineer Conrad Kyeser; and Hie Lert (Here Teaches) by astrologer-physiologist Jud Ebreesch. By text and by pictures, numerous diverse and lively scenes are shown that are sometimes quite bizarre – vigorous fighting lessons, for judicial dueling and for battle; war-machines, strange inventions and secret formulas; and treatises upon cosmology and physiology.

In this rich personal edition of his work, Talhoffer deals with a wide variety of things, from the lofty to the earthy. He has something to offer everyone – whether fighter, artist, botanist, philologist, herbalist, chemist, metalsmith, carpenter, jurist, kinesiologist, astronomer, culinarian, theologian, costumer, physician or otherwise.

Although fighting-arts are the focus of Talhoffer’s book, it is really something of a kaleidoscopic view of the interests and pursuits of the Renaissance German warrior, inclusive of manifold things meaningful to his life. However atavistic or unreal his world may be deemed now, it did truly exist and held wonder and honour worthy of our admiration.

The diversity of this book stands witness to Hans Talhoffer as one of the dynamic personalities of his generation – one whom we must deem was a true Renaissance Man.

All imagery herein is from the 1459-Thott edition, courtesy of the original 15th Century manuscript held by sterwardship of Det Kongelige Bibliotek in Copenhagen Denmark. I made this PDF to present that work here for the free learning of all sincerely interested persons. It may be viewed via personal computer, saved onto CDR and/or printed into hard-copy, allowing complete archiving of the document in whatever quality format one may choose – with the understanding that it is meant for noncommercial and nonprofit educational usage. The imagery herein is colour-corrected; and where needed in four folios, the action of the artwork is conceptually restored. The original uncorrected DKB facsimile still exists online. DKB is found in the Web at this URL: http://www.kb.dk

So first is the facsimile of the original book itself, which lets you see the words and pictures for yourself. Next are my transcription of its German and my translation of that into English – the transcription gives you direct comprehensible reference to the original German wording, while the translation gives you the first and only rendering of that wording into English. Lastly is my interpretive commentary, which helps you better understand many aspects of the words and pictures.

This book assesses the results of recent metallographic examination of 45 sword blades (mid-2nd century BC to early-16th century) from the territory of what is now Poland. Pre-Roman blades were usually made from one piece of metal of varying quality (better quality items were perhaps imported). Most high quality and complex technology Roman blades were in all probability of Roman provenance, while some low quality onepiece examples may have been made locally. The Migration Period and Early Middle Ages witnessed the greatest diversification of technological solutions. However it is much more difficult to define the provenance of blades based on their technology in these periods. The range of technologies in use strongly decreased in the High and Late Middle Ages.

This essay is the first and only exploration of what the German Tradition of Chivalric Arts (Ritterlich Kunst)—with its three main lineages of Liechtenauer, Nürnberg, Gladiatoria—meant by masse for fencing and wrestling.  The findings may prove both revealing and riling: My conclusion is that masse meant “mass” in context of those past martial arts.  That simple and obvious equation differs from the current and hitherto uncontested consensus that masse et.al. meant “measure”.  Moreover, said consensus has no regard for whether the context be fechten (fencing) or ringen (wrestling), where multiple meanings for the same word may have existed.  Accordingly, many otherwise smart and talented fencers, wrestlers and scholars may misunderstand what masse really meant in context of Chivalric fencing and wrestling.  Counter to that, I hope to present a definitive and contextual analysis of relevant passages from those major German fechtbücher (fencing/fight-books) which spoke of masse; and accordingly provide a new, alternative and correct understanding for that significant word plus other related and relevant terms of Medieval German fighting arts.

The following passages from major Fechtbücher (fencing/fight-books) of the German Tradition are meant to show the presence and the relevance of the principle of Indes (Inthereof) as found originally in the Liechtenauer Lineage of Bloszfechten (bare/unarmoured longsword fencing).  The word is a strange combination of genitive article, adverb, preposition and pronoun.  MHD Indes equates with NHD indes or indessen, and was synonymous with MHD underdez and MHD dÿ weile and even MHD mit.  It may translate into NE as meanwhile, meantime; or the suitable instantly, immediately; or the commendable within; but really neither the questionable just as, nor the suicidal simultaneously.  All such have served in various modern translations.  However, I think that Indes is best served by the wholly original translation of:  Inthereof.  That word serves the demands of its unique martial context for a meaning relevant to both time and space.  “Inthereof” provides us a new & superior understanding of Indes.

Over the almost two centuries of excavations at the site of Dorestad, over 20 broadswords were found, in various contexts. But among the 2500 skeletons dug up here, just a few have sword wounds. Among the larger assemblage of weaponry and horse gear excavated here, the broadswords stand out, in numbers and in quality. The variety in excavated swords from Dorestad, the ways they were (re-)used and discarded here, and their status and reputation is supported by depictions of swords in Carolingian art.

Das im Rahmen einer Rettungsgrabung in den
Jahren 2011 und 2012 untersuchte Gräberfeld von Visbek,
Ldkr. Vechta, war bis zu diesem Zeitpunkt völlig unbekannt.
Es besteht aus zahlreichen Pfostengruben ehemaliger
Brandbestattungen, die über eine Fläche streuen, in
der sich auch 185 Körpergräber und über 40 Tiergräber befinden.
Kreisgräben scheinen von ehemals überhügelten
Gräbern zu stammen, wenngleich der Friedhof in direkter
Nachbarschaft eines vorgeschichtlichen Gräberfeldes
liegt. Neben der hohen Zahl der Tiergräber ist besonders
die Varianz dieser Bestattungen kennzeichnend für die Visbeker
Nekropole.

The study is focussed on a (then) innovative intercultural and interdisciplinary comparison between sword-culture in Europe and Japan. It contains the first published  results of a direct comparison between blade surfaces on medieval Japanese and Merovingian Period European sword-blades polished in the traditional Japanese manner. In this context the crucial role of surface-technology by grinding and polishing for functional sword-blades is highlighted in detail for the first time. There is an English and a Japanese summary contained.

The paper presents a compilation of the current knowledge on the so called ‘blatnica deposit’ and its individual components, extended by a series of my own studies dedicated particularly to the gilded set of bronze fittings. The article is divided into two main parts: the first one presents a more focused perspective on the issue and provides all the necessary pieces of information about each part of the deposit together with respective chronological and stylistic findings. The second part, on the other hand, introduces a broader perspective, embedding the history of the deposit and studies on it in the methodological context proposed by Thomas S. Kuhn. Based on the kuhnian model of science and the concept of paradigm i have analysed and then decomposed the so called Blatnica-Mikulčice horizon concept that proved to be based, at best, on some misunderstandings or, at worst, on a hoax. Detailed typological and stylistic analyses of these items became a starting point for re-evaluation of their chronology and led me to draw a conclusion that the youngest
components of the deposit cannot be older than the second third of the 9th  century. Both the archive query and the analysis of archaeological sources seem to disprove arguments used to support the hypothesis that the ‘Blatnica collection’ served as equipment of a nobleman grave. Most probably it was only a loose collection of relics co ming from different and so far unknown sources, later transferred in bulk to the museum. Therefore it seems reasonable to conclude that the source value of the ‘Blatnica relics’ has long been overestimated and in any case should no longer serve as a chronological benchmark for other archaeological materials.

Throughout history armour and weapons have been not merely the preserve of the warrior in battles and warfare, but potent symbols in their own right (the sword of chivalry, the heraldic shield) representing the hunt and hall as well as the battlefield. This series aims to provide a forum for critical studies of all aspects of arms and armour and their technologies, from the end of the Roman Empire to the dawn of the modern world; both new research and works of synthesis are encouraged.

Knightly Dueling is a complete overview of the fighting arts of German chivalric dueling, on horse and on foot, during the late Medieval and early Renaissance. Through the words and pictures of original source texts of the great German fight-masters of the 14th through 16th centuries – extraordinary works that poetically preserved medieval methods of the true knightly dueling of mortal combat over grave matters with battlefield arms & armour.Until now, no single book has encompassed and clarified the scattered existing historical information on German dueling with swords, lances, daggers, pollaxes etc. Knightly Dueling shows the ruthless reality of man-to-man combat of the German Kunst des Fechtens (art of fighting), providing a thorough understanding of Johannes Liechtenauer's Roszfechten (horse fighting) and Kampffechten (duel fighting). It gives Middle High German transcriptions, as well as the first and only modern English translations, of works from various fight books by Liechtenauer's renowned masterly interpreters, including Hanko Döbringer, Peter von Danzig, Hans Talhoffer and Andre Lignitzer. The book also presents an illustrated blow-by-blow account of a deadly duel from a German Fechtbuch (fight book); primary source information regarding specific training of noblemen for duels and the training of noble youth in the combat arts; and a unique glossary of historical German chivalric terms for arms and armour.Lavishly illustrated with lots of period artwork, Knightly Dueling restores the concept of German chivalry to its rightful martial role and is a must for any serious scholar of the dynamic field of European martial arts.

Axiom : When a new kind of sword originates and becomes prevalent, then it logically follows that both the sword and its new kind of fencing evolve and become perfected.  That is what must have started happening in Chivalric Europe circa 1100, when a new kind of sword—called variously longsword, langschwert, war sword, espée de guerre, great sword, grans espée, two-hand-sword, etcetera—came into being.  Its history is well-epitomised by the Liechtenauer Lineage of the German Tradition of the Art of Fencing, its Kunst des Fechtens.  The longsword probably first arose somewhere in Germany (i.e. Holy Roman Empire) and eventually spread via migratory innovation and/or native industry to England, Austria, Denmark, Sweden, France, Switzerland, Italy, Benelux, Iberia, Poland, Bohemia, Prussia and Baltica.

Der vorliegende Artikel untersucht Formen und Verwendung von Schilden und Schildbuckeln von der vorrömischen Eisenzeit bis ans Ende des Frühmittelalters. Der geographische Schwerpunkt liegt dabei auf Nordeuropa, dem römischen Reich sowie dem Karolingerreich und dem angelsächsischen Raum.

The paper analyses components of early medieval burial equipment from grave 23 in Závada, district Topoľčany/SK after restoration that took place in 2017. The grave contained a type X sword, a pair of spurs, an incomplete set of sword belt fittings and a knife. Formerly accepted dating of the items found in grave 23, based on the concept of the Blatnica-Mikulčice Horizon, determined the chronology of the grave back to the first third of the 9 th century. However, based on more recent finds about the chronology of an equestrian's equipment, the chronology of the assemblage should be shifted rather to the period between the mid-9th century and the beginning of or even the mid-10th century.

The extraordinary grave of the Early Migration Period warrior from Juszkowo, Pruszcz Gdański com.
During excavations held by the Archaeological Museum in Gdańsk in July 2010 at Juszkowo, near Pruszcz Gdański, an isolated grave from the Early Migration Period was found apart from numerous features from the Early Iron Age, Roman, Medieval and modern periods. It was an inhumation grave of an approximately 30 year old male, equipped with a long double‑edged sword: the so called Asian spathae. The weapon has a lot of parallels in the areas inhabited by the Huns and subordinated peoples like the Alans or the Gepids. Such a form of sword was also proved for regions reached by Barbarian armies led
by the Huns, i.e. in western or southern Europe. However, the find from Juszkowo is unique so far to the north. Additionally, a sword bead of amber was documented in the Juszkowo grave, which is a quite typical
addition to an Asian spatha. The next element of grave furnishing was an iron brooch representing the Hăneşti type or a late form of crossbow fibulas (a tendril or with solid catch‑plate). Furthermore, a belt buckle of gilded bronze with silver inlays was spotted in the grave furnishing. It belongs to the Strzegocice‑Tiszaládány‑Kercz type, known from a wide zone between the Black Sea and the Baltic Sea with particular concentrations in the middle Danube basin and Pannonia. The interment from Juszkowo should be dated to phase D2. It was a period of the abandonment in the area in question: the earlier settlement of the Wielbark culture ceased to exist. Moreover, the Wielbark culture burial rites excluded weapons fromgrave equipment. Therefore the question arises: who was buried at Juszkowo? In trying to answer this question, the authors suggest taking into consideration the possible return of warriors fighting in the south, submitted to the Huns, but also other possibilities, e.g., the existence of military outposts organized by the Huns to control the region, important to maintain contact with Scandinavia.

This article aims at presenting for the first time a different interpretation
of the origin of part of the archaeological findings from the Bulgarian lands related to the Early Middle Ages armament for close combat and in particular with the swords and their structural elements. On the basis of parallels and reports from artistic and written sources, the examined samples of arms are viewed through the prism of the Arab (Middle East) military art, which undoubtedly influenced the development of
Byzantine military art. It is known that the Eastern Roman Empire (as any empire) is multicultural in its population. A large number of cultures scattered across vast areas of Eastern Europe and Asia are intertwined. This is the reason why we would expect to find the elements of armament, specific for territories far away from Balkans and to relate their occurrence on the lands of First Bulgarian Kingdom with the direct Byzantium influence. Close attention has been paid to the Middle
East narratives, which mention the development of Middle East arms centers during the Early Caliphate – VII – VIII century. The great similarity in the constructive meaning of the Early Medieval cut and thrust weapons and their structural elements found in the territory of the Balkans and Middle Europe with examples from the Middle East, suggests that if not directly imported from Asia Minor /by commerce,
military way or gifts/they were manufactured under Middle Eastern influence and probably represent a derived part of Middle Eastern military art.

Within the chronological system of the 10th-century Carpathian Basin, the Hungarian research attributes an important role to the straight double-edged »Viking swords«. According to Gy. László, K. Bakay and L. Kovács, these swords appeared in the archaeological material of the Magyars in the second half or last quarter of the century. The chronological position of the swords is based on the hypothesis of a military reform, a »weapon change« and the organisation of a new army by dux Géza and rex Saint Stephen I, since they recognised that the nomadic Magyar tactics and weaponry are inferior to the contemporary West European armoured heavy cavalry. In this paper, a historical and archaeological critique of the hypothesis is attempted, discussing topics like the possibility of an early medieval European military reform, the unconditional linking of certain weapon types to certain tactics, the archaeological identification of military matters like tactics and retinue, the comparison of the efficiency of sabre and sword, and finally the assumed certain West European origin of these swords.

vamz / 3. serija / lii (2o19) 113 goran bilogrivić: formiranje identiteta elite u istočnojadranskome zaleđu na prijelazu sa 8. u 9. stoljeće... Krajem 8. stoljeća na prostoru današnje Hrvatske te Bosne i Hercegovine pojavljuju se prvi predmeti karolinške provenijencije. Njihova se zastupljenost sve više intenzivira u sljedećim desetljećima, a najzastupljeniji su nalazi oružja i ostalih elemenata ratničke opreme koji potječu mahom iz grobova. Pojedina se groblja i grobovi svojim bogatstvom i kontekstom ističu te predstavljaju primjer u pogrebnom obredu koji slijede i drugi lokaliteti. U ovome se radu proučava aktivna uloga koju su ti predmeti imali u pogrebnim obredima, ali i u definiranju društvenih odnosa uopće, u kontekstu borbe za vlast i konstrukcije identiteta lokalne elite u vrijeme formiranja prvih kneževina u dalmatinskome zaleđu i definiranja odnosa s Franačkim Carstvom. 1

The purpose of pattern-welding, used for the construction of some Anglo-Saxon swords, has yet to be fully resolved. One suggestion is that the technique enhanced the mechanical properties of a blade. Another explanation is that pattern-welding created a desired aesthetic appearance. In order to assess whether the technique affects mechanical properties, this experimental study compared pattern-welded and plain forged blanks in a series of material tests. Specimens were subject to tensile, Charpy and Vickers diamond hardness testing. This was to investigate the relative strength, ductility and toughness of pattern-welding. The results were inconclusive, however the study revealed that the fracture performance of pattern-welding may relate to its use.

VLFBERHT or ULFBERHT is the most frequent inscription on Viking Age sword blades. The majority of these swords have been found in Scandinavia, much less in the Frankish Empire so that it might seem that they have been produced in Scandinavia. But this is most probably a result of different burial customs. The blades were most probably produced in

The following paper discusses the usability of digital computed tomography as a non-destructive method to examine the
construction of the early medieval Spatha focussing mainly on its blade. First results of these examinations are presented.
Within a cooperation project of the Altertumskommission für Westfalen and the LWL-Archäologie für Westfalen 28
finds from graves in the Westfalian region, dated to the 6th - 8th century, were being analyzed. All examined blades
were pattern-welded and consisted of both cutting edges and a changing number of composite rods, consisting of two
distinct iron alloys. As these materials are affected differently by corrosion, it is possible to display the existing structures
in the object layer-by-layer. Due to the certain development of the structures inside the composite rods, even once visible
patterns on an already disintegrated surface of a blade can be reconstructed. One of the key results is the fact that the
core of most Westfalian sword blades was made from two layers of halved composite rods. Instead of the often displayed
herringbone patterns these weapons depicted mainly curving patterns on the surface.