PHY103notes-1

Temperature and Heat
• Thermodynamic system: a
quantity of matter of fixed
identity under investigation,
• Surroundings: everything
external to the system,
• System boundary: interface
separating system and
surroundings, and
• Universe: combination of
system and surroundings.
Systems can be
• open – mass and energy can flow through boundary
• closed – only energy can flow through boundary
• isolated – nothing gets through boundary
Thermal equilibrium
If two objects are in thermal
contact, the hotter object cools
and the cooler object warms until
no further changes take place in
the objects, the two objec are in
thermal equilibrium.
Temperature
• Temperature of a body is that property which
determines the direction of flow of heat between
the body and its surroundings.
• Heat is a form of energy that is transferred from

one system to its surrounding due to a temp
difference between them.
Zeroth law of thermodynamics
If A and B are each in
thermal equilibrium with
C, then A and B are in
thermal equilibrium with
each other.
How do we measure temperature?
• We measure temperature with a thermometer, which

- Comes into thermal equilibrium with the system to be measured
- has a property which changes with temperature
Thermometers
liquid thermometer – change in dimensions
gas thermometer – change in pressure
thermistor – change in resistance
Galilean thermometer – change in buoyancy
EM radiation – artery thermometer
The Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin
Temperature Scales
The absolute-zero reference point forms basis of Kelvin temperature
scale (absolute temperature).
So
A common temperature scale in everyday use in the United States is
the Fahrenheit scale.
Example
• The temperature gradient between the skin and the air is regulated by
cutaneous (skin) blood flow. If the cutaneous blood vessels are
constricted, the skin temperature and the temperature of the
environment will be about the same. When the vessels are dilated,
more blood is brought to the surface. Suppose during dilation the skin
warms from 92.0°F to 104.0°F. What is the difference in the
temperatures in Celcius?
• Convert the temperatures from Fahrenheit to Celcius and find the
difference.
Heat
• Energy transfer due to
a temperature
difference.
• The temperature
difference determines
the
direction of heat
transfer.
Thermal Expansion
Thermal expansion is a
consequence of the change
in the average separation
between the atoms in an
object.
As the temperature of the
solid increases, the atoms
oscillate with greater
amplitudes; as a result, the
average separation
between them increases.
Coefficients of Expansion
• Linear Expansion
Suppose that an object has an initial length Li along some
direction at some temperature and that the length increases by an
amount "L for a change in temperature "T. Because it is convenient to
consider the fractional change in length per degree of temperature
change, we define the average coefficient of linear expansion as
can be rewritten as
Where is the initial length

is the final length,
where and are initial and final length
and is the average coefficient of linear expansion for a given

material
The coefficient of linear expansion α of a given material, at a given

temperature is defined as the fractional increase in length that
takes place on heating through one degree:
each substance has its own
characteristic average coefficient
of expansion. For example, when
the temperatures of a brass rod
and a steel rod of equal length
are raised by the same amount
from some common initial value,
the brass rod expands more than
the steel rod does because brass
has a greater average coefficient
of expansion than steel does.
Area Expansion
The coefficient of area expansion β is defined as the
fractional change in area per degree of temperature
change.
∆𝐴
𝛽= )
𝐴𝑖 ∆ 𝑇
Where β is the average coefficient of area expansion
which is two times the average linear expansion
coefficient. Where
Volume Expansion
• For liquids and gases, the natural measure of expansion is the
coefficient of volume expansion,β.
• Because the linear dimensions of an object change with
temperature, it follows that surface area and volume change as
well. The change in volume is proportional to the initial volume Vi
and to the change in temperature according to the relationship
Where γ is the average coefficient of volume expansion which is

three times the average linear expansion coefficient.
Example
• A segment of steel railroad track has a length of 30.000m when the
temperature is 0.0°C.
(A) What is its length when the temperature is 40.0°C?
Solution
Measuring Heat Flow: a Unit of
Heat
• The unit of heat which is the calorie is define as the heat required
to raise the temperature of 1 gram (1g) of water by 1 degree
Celcius.
Where J is the S.I unit Joule

the quantity of energy required to raise the temp of a given
substance is proportional to the mass (m) of the substance and to
the change in temperature (ΔT) :
where c is the specific heat capacity
Quantity of Heat
The specific heat of a substance is the quantity of heat required in
calories to raise the temperature of a unit mass of the substance by 1
degree Celsius.
unit J/(kg.K)
Example
• Calculate the heat required to raise the temperature of 0.5kg of water
by 288K, given that the specific heat capacity is 4,200JKg-1K-1.
Latent Heat and Phase Change
• A substance usually undergoes a change in temperature when
energy is transferred between the substance and its
environment.
• However, in some cases, the transfer of energy doesn’t result in a

change in temperature.
• This can occur when the physical characteristics of the substance

change from one form to another, commonly referred to as a
phase change.
• Any such phase change involves a change in the internal energy,
but no change in the temperature.
• The energy Q needed to change the phase of a given pure
substance is
Where L is the Latent heat of the substance which depends on the

nature of the phase change as well as on the substance.
• The word latent means “lying hidden within a person or thing.”
The positive sign in the equation is chosen when energy is
absorbed by a substance, as when ice is melting. The negative
sign is chosen when energy is removed from a substance, as
when steam condenses to water. The latent heat of fusion is
used when a phase change occurs during melting or freezing,
whereas the latent heat of vaporization is used when a phase
change occurs during boiling or condensing.
Heat transfer
• Heat transfers energy between a system and its surroundings due to
temperature difference between them. There are three process of
heat transfer.
• Thermal Conduction
• Convection and
• Radiation
Thermal Conduction
• The energy transfer process most
closely associated with a
temperature difference is called
thermal conduction or simply
conduction.
• Conduction occurs only if there is a
difference in temperature between
two parts of the conducting medium.
• Consider a slab of material
The slab allows energy to transfer from the region of higher temperature
to the region of lower temperature by thermal conduction such that the
amount of heat flow depends on:
• The time of flow
• The cross-sectional area
• Temperature gradient
• The type of material
Therefore the rate of energy transfer is
proportional to the cross-sectional area and the
temperature difference and is inversely
proportional to the thickness of the slab:
Where power has units of watts when Q is in

Joules and is in seconds
Where is called the thermal conductivity which

depends on the material.
Convection and Radiation
• The transfer of energy by the movement of a substance is called
convection.
Convection currents assist in the boiling of water.
Radiation is a process of transferring heat energy by electromagnetic

waves due to thermal vibrations of their molecules.
Radiation
The rate at which an object radiates energy is proportional to the
fourth power of its absolute temperature.
Where P is the power in watts(or Joules per second)

σ is Stefan-Boltzman constant equal to
A is the surface area
e is the emissivity of object
T is the body’s kelvin temperature.
Example
• A member of the Polar Bear Club, dressed only in bathing trunks of
negligible size, prepares to plunge into the Baltic Sea from the beach
in St. Petersburg, Russia. The air is calm, with a temperature of 5°C. If
the swimmer’s surface body temperature is 25°C, compute the net
rate of energy loss from his skin due to radiation. How much energy is
lost in 10.0 min? Assume his emissivity is 0.900 and his surface area is
1.50
Solution
• Convert temperatures from celsius to Kelvin
Conpute the rate of energy loss

Macroscopic description of an Ideal
Gas
• The macroscopic variables Pressure P, Temperature T, Volume V and
Amount of gas in a container are related to each other by an Equation
of state.
• Most gases at room temperature and atmospheric pressure behaves
approximately as an Ideal gas hence making the equation of state
simple.
Ideal Gas Model
• An ideal gas is a collection of atoms or molecules that move
randomly and exert no long range forces on each other.
• A gas usually consists of a very large number of particles, so it is
convenient to express the amount of gas in a given volume in
terms of the number of moles, n.
• One mole of any substance is that amount of the substance that
contains Avogadro’s numberof constituent particles (atoms or
molecules).
Avogadro’s Law
• Avogadro suggested that all gases contain the same number of
molecules or atoms when they occupy the same volume under the
same conditions of temperature and pressure.
Therefore the number of moles of a substance is related to its mass by
where is the avogadro number

M : Molar mass of that substance.
m: is the mass of the substance

PHY103notes-1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PHY103notes-1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

PHY103notes-1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Temperature and Heat

• Heat is a form of energy that is transferred from

• We measure temperature with a thermometer, which

Where is the initial length

and is the average coefficient of linear expansion for a given

The coefficient of linear expansion α of a given material, at a given

Where γ is the average coefficient of volume expansion which is

Where J is the S.I unit Joule

• However, in some cases, the transfer of energy doesn’t result in a

• This can occur when the physical characteristics of the substance

Where L is the Latent heat of the substance which depends on the

Where power has units of watts when Q is in

Where is called the thermal conductivity which

Radiation is a process of transferring heat energy by electromagnetic

Where P is the power in watts(or Joules per second)

Conpute the rate of energy loss

where is the avogadro number

You might also like