UNIT 5

HEAT TRANSFER
INTRODUCTION

• Heat transfer is transmission of energy from one region to another as a result of

temperature difference or gradient.

• Since differences in temperature exist all over the universe, the phenomena of heat
flow are as universal as gravitational acceleration.

• Mechanical engineers deal with the problem of heat transfer in the design of A.C
engines, refrigeration and air-conditioning plants, steam generation systems and many
others.

• The electrical engineers require the knowledge of heat transfer for designing the
cooling systems of motors, generators and transformers.

• The knowledge of heat transfer is essential to the civil engineers in the construction of
dams, tunnels and civil structures.

• The heat transfer is equally important to the chemical engineers in freezing,

condensation, evaporation and boiling point.

MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER

• Modes of heat transfer are conduction, convection and radiation. In all heat transfer
modes, a temperature difference must exist to cause heat flow and heat always flows in
the direction of lower temperature.

• Heat conduction due to the property of matter which causes heat energy to flow
through the matter even if the body is impermeable to any kind of radiation and its
parts are not in motion relative to one another (in the macroscopic sense).

• Heat convection is due to the property of moving matter (naturally or under force) to
carry heat energy from higher temperature region to lower temperature region as
internal energy (transporting load from one place to another).

• Heat radiation is due to the property of matter to emit and absorb different kinds of
electro-magnetic radiations. The radiation heat transfer between two bodies takes place
without any carrying medium as required in conduction and convection.
 • It is not the purpose of this chapter to introduce the students with the behavior of the
molecules under each mode of energy transfer but to introduce the laws and ways to
find net transfer of heat energy by each mode or by combined modes.

STEADY AND UNSTEADY STATE HEAT TRANSFER

• Steady state heat transfer through a body and between the bodies implies that the
temperature of the body varies with the position but not with time. The temperature at
each point of the body remains constant in course of time. The statement can be
represented as,

dT/dt =0 dT/dx 0

Where T is temperature and t is time. The heat flow rate (kJ/m2-hr) through the body or
from the body remains constant steady state condition.

• In unsteady state heat transfer process, the temperature of the body varies with time
and not with position. This can be stated (dT/dt) = 0. The heat flow rate through the
body or from the body varies with time and location.

• The present chapter will deal mostly with steady state heat transfer process.

FOURIER LAW OF CONDUCTION AND THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

Fourier law of conduction is represented by the equation

Where

Q = heat flow through a body per unit time.

A = surface area of heat flow (perpendicular to the direction of flow)

dT = temperature difference of the faces of block of thickness dx through

which heat flows.

dx = thickness of body along the direction of heat flow.

The above law can be represented by the equality as.

Where k = constant of proportionality and known as thermal conductivity of a body.

• The negative sign of k in the equation is to take care of the decreasing temperature
along the direction of increasing thickness or the direction of heat flow.

• The temperature gradient is always negative along positive x direction and therefore
the value of Q must be positive.

Units of k are given by

• The thermal conductivity of the material is defined as the amount of energy conducted
through a body of unit area and unit thickness in unit time when the difference in
temperature between the faces causing heat flow is 1°C.

• Thermal conduction of different bodies is different. The conductivity of the body

depends mainly upon its molecular structure, the specific gravity, moisture content,
temperature and many other factors also affect the thermal conductivity.

• Metals are good conductors of heat whereas insulators are poor conductors of heat.

CONDUCTION OF HEAT THROUGH A SLAB

Heat flow through a small elemental thickness dx of a slab (Fig.1) under steady state
condition is given by Equation. This equation is known as Fourier law of conduction.

Integrating the above equation between the limits of x= 0 to L and T = T1 to T2 as temperature

changes from T1 to T2 through a thickness of slab L,
 Fig. 1 Heat flow through a slab

Where L/kA is known as thermal resistance of the slab.

CONDUCTION OF HEAT THROUGH HOLLOW CYLINDER

• Heat flow through a cylinder is considered along radial direction only. Therefore the
Fourier equation of conduction for cylinder can be written as

• Consider a pipe of inside radius R1 and outside radius R2 and inside and outside
temperatures T1 and T2 respectively, with the thermal conductivity of the pipe material
k.

• Considering an elemental thickness drat a radius as shown in Fig. 2 the heat flow
equation through an element dr under steady state condition can be written as

where L is the length of pipe and A = 2 rL

• Integrating the above equation between the limits of R1 to R2 and T1 to T2 as the

temperature changes from T2 through the thickness of the cylinder (R2 R1)
 Fig.2 Heat flow through cylinder

The term is known as thermal resistance of the pipe.

CONDUCTION OF HEAT THROUGH HOLLOW SPHERE

• The heat flow through a sphere is considered along radial direction only. Therefore the
Fourier equation of conduction for sphere can be written as

• Consider hollow sphere of inside radius R1 and out side radius R2 and inside and
outside temperatures T1 and T2 and respectively.

• The conductivity of sphere material is k considering an elemental thickness drat a

radius r as shown in Fig. 3 the heat flow equation through an element dr under steady
state conduction becomes
 Fig.3 Heat flow through sphere

Integrating the above equation between the limit R1 to R2 and Tt to T2 as the temperature
changes from Tt to T2 through the thickness of the sphere

This is known as thermal resistance of the sphere.

CONVECTION AND HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

• In most of the engineering problems, the heat is transferred from hot fluid to cold fluid
(from hot gases to water to generate steam in boiler, from steam to water in condenser
for condensation) through a solid barrier as shown in Fig.4.

• The heat from the hot fluid is given to the solid surface by convection.
• It is further passed through solid barrier L by conduction and then further it is given to
cold fluid by convection as shown in Fig. 4.

• A temperature gradient is formed to exist only in a thin film of fluid on each side of the
solid barrier with film thickness of dh and dc.

• The heat transfer through these boundaries takes place partly by conduction and partly
by fluid motion and mixing (convection) as the boundary formed remains station

• As the conductivity of most of the fluids is much slower it may be assumed that heat
transfer from the moving fluid to the solid wall surface mostly takes place by
convection. The heat transfer from the moving fluid to the solid surface is given by the
equation

• Where hi is known as inside heat transfer coefficient by convection and its units are
W/m2-K

• The term (1/hiA) is known as convective surface resistance.

• This equation is known as Newton Law of convection. It may be noted that h is not a
property of the material but is mainly dependent on the flow conditions.

• Under the steady-state heat flow condition, the heat transfer from the hot fluid to the
cold fluid is given by

Fig. 4 Convection and conduction heat flow

Where

A = Surface area through which heat is flowing

hi = Inside heal transfer coefficient (heat transfer coefficient from hot fluid to solid surface),

ho = outside heat transfer coefficient (heat transfer coefficient from hot surface to cold fluid),
T1 = temperature of hot fluid,

T2 = temperature of cold fluid,

k = conductivity of solid barrier through which heat flows,

L = thickness of solid barrier,

U = overall heat transfer coefficient which takes into account all the resistances.

The heat transfer from the outer boundary of the surface is given by

NATURAL AND FORCED CONVECTION

• Whenever the flow of fluid over a hot or cold surface takes place due to the
temperature difference only, the heat transferred between the solid surface and fluid is
said to take place by natural or free convection.

• The force which acts on the fluid to cause its motion is known as buoyancy force. The
buoyancy force causing the flow is directly proportional to the temperature difference.

• The heat flow increases with increasing temperature difference as heat flow is directly
proportional to the temperature difference and heat transfer coefficient is also
proportional to the temperature difference.

• The application of natural convection in engineering is limited as the heat flow is low.
When the fluid flows on a hot or cold surface under external pressure, the flow is
known as forced flow and heat transfer under such conditions is known as forced
convection.
 • The force which acts on fluid to cause the motion of the fluid is due to a fan or blower
and is independent of the temperature difference causing the heat flow.

• The resisting force is due to the inertia of the fluid. The heat transfer coefficient under
natural convection is far less compared with the heat transfer coefficient under forced
convection.

• Forced convection is used in many engineering heat transfer equipments. so that the
equipment size is reduced.

• The heat transfer coefficient for natural convection with air lies between 10 to 20
W/m2 K whereas its value for forced convection using air as fluid lies between 50 to
200 W/m2 K

• The heat transfer coefficients for different types of convections and

different/geometrical configurations are given in standard heat transfer text.

COMBINED CONDUCTION AND CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER

• In practical problems various modes of heat transfer occur simultaneously and in order
to solve the heat transfer problems these should be considered together.

• For example in insulated w and pipes convection occurs between inner and outer
surfaces and fluids and conduction occurs within the solid.

HEAT TRANSFER - (COMPOSITE WALL)

a) A hot fluid is separated from a cold fluid by three different solid slabs

Hot fluid at temperature T1 is separated by three layers of solid L1, L2, L3 from a cold
fluid at temperature To as shown in Fig. 5.

The steady state heat flow through the system is given by

 Where k1, k2 and k3 are the conductivities of the solid layers 1, 2 and 3 and hi and ho
are the inside and outside convective heat transfer coefficient.

The above equations can be written as given below:

Fig. 5 Heat transfer through composite wall

Adding both sides of the above equations:

If there are n layers of solids, then the above equation can be written as
(b) Heat transfer through, composite pipes with inside and outside, convection

• A hot fluid, at a temperature Ti, flowing through a pipe is separated by three layers
from atmosphere as shown in Fig. 6. The notations carry the usual meaning.

R1 < R2 < R3 < R4

• The steady state heat flow through the composite cylinders with inside and out side
convections is given by

Fig.6 Heat transfer through composite pipes

• Where Ti is the temperature of hot fluid flowing through the pipe and T o is the
temperature of the fluid surrounding the outermost layer of the composite cylinders and
k1, k2, and k3 are the conductivities of the cylinders 1, 2 and 3.

Above equations can be written as follows:

Adding both sides of the above equation

In general, if there are n layers, then the above equation can be written as

INTRODUCTION TO RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER

• The heat transfer from one body to another without any transmitting medium is known
as radiation heat transfer. This mode of heat transfer is by electromagnetic radiation.

• The radiant energy falling on a body is partly reflected, partly transmitted and partly
absorbed. If the incident energy Qi is falling on a body as shown in Fig. 7, and Qa is
absorbed Qr is reflected and Qt is transmitted, then energy balance yields
 Fig. 7 Radiation heat transfer

Dividing the above equation by Q

+r+ =1

Where , r and are known as absorbivity, reflectivity and transmissivity of the surface,
respectively.

For most of the solid bodies (except transparent bodies, like glass and plastic).

=0 + r =1

A body which absorbs all the incident radiation is called black body irrespective of its colour.
For the black body. The required condition is

= 0, r = 0 and =1.

A body which transmits all the incident radiation is called absolute transparent or
diathermanous body. The required condition for absolute transparent body is

= 0, r = 0 and =1.

CONCEPT OF BLACK BODY

• The concept of black body is very important in radiation heat transfer. The black body
not only absorbs maximum incident energy (all energy), but also emits maximum
 energy compared with other bodies, at the same temperature. Therefore the heat
radiation of real bodies is compared with the radiation from black bodies.

• Perfect black body does not exist in nature but it may be approximated very accurately
by a spherical cavity formed with a very small hole and the inner surface of the sphere
coated with lamp black which absorbs nearly 95% of the incident energy. An incident
ray entering the cavity is reflected many times inside the cavity and is completely
absorbed.

• With each reflection, 95% of the incident energy is absorbed; therefore with this
arrangement practically all of the incident energy is absorbed. Such geometrical
arrangement can be very well approximated as black body.

MONOCHROMATIC AND TOTAL EMISSIVE POWER

• A body at a particular temperature radiates energy at all wave-lengths (practically from

zero to infinity). A body at any temperature radiates different quantities of energy at
different wave-lengths.

• The energy radiated at a particular wave length for the given temperature of the black-
body per unit area of-the body and per unit time is known as monochromatic emissive
power of the body. The unit of monochromatic emissive power is kW/m

Planck’ s Law of Radiation

• The relation between the monochromatic emissive power of a black body and
wavelength of a radiation at a particular temperature is given by the following
expression, by Planck,

Where C1 and C2 are constants and is the wavelength and T is the temperature in degrees-
Kelvin

C1 = 37.4 x 10-17 Jm2/s

C2 = 14380 -K.
Steran-Boltzmann Law

The total energy emitted by a black body at a particular temperature is given by the following
expression

Substituting the value of Eb from in the above equation

The integration of the equation yields

This law of total radiation of black body is Boltzmann Law where = 5.67 × 10-8 is known as
Stefan Boltzmann constant.

Wiens Displacement Law

• The distribution of monochromatic emission power of a black body with respect to

Wavelength and taking temperature as parameter is shown in Fig. 7.

• The figure shows that the monochromatic emissive power of black body at particular
temperature first increases with increase in (wavelength) reaches its maximum at
certain m and then diminishes.

• Another characteristic of this distribution is that the maximum value of monochromatic

emissive power of a black body shifts towards shorter wavelength with increasing
temperature. The Wien s law gives the relation between T and m by the following
expression

T. m = 2.2 mm-K.

This law is known as Wien s displacement law of radiation.

CONCEPT OF GREY BODY AND EMISSIVITY

• If a body absorbs a definite percentage of incidents, radiation irrespective of their wave

lengths, the body is known as grey body. The adsorptivity of the grey body always lies
between 0 and 1.
 • The emissive power of a grey body is always less than that of the black body. The ratio
of emissive power of a grey body to that of black body at a given temperature is
constant at all wavelengths and is known as emissivity of the grey body.

The emissivity of a grey body (c) is defined as

KIRCHHOFF LAW OF RADIATION

• This law states that the ratio of total emissive power to the absorptivity is constant for
all surfaces which are in thermal equilibrium with the surroundings. This can be
written in form of equation for these bodies as follows

Assume body 3 is black body, then

But according to the definition of emissivity of the body.