Herpetology

Introduction and Definitions

 Herpetology is the branch of Zoology concerned with the study of
amphibians and reptiles of two distinct clades of vertebrates.
 It deals with their evolutionary history, including taxonomy (classification),
anatomy, physiology, behavior, life history, distribution and ecology.
 The science is also concerned with venoms and their effects, economic uses
and increasingly, the conservation of the species.
 Amphibians mean living two lives (on land as well as on water).
 Amphibians usually have to stay near water sources to prevent drying out,
and have smooth skin.
 Examples: Frogs, toads, newts, salamanders
Reptiles
 Are the group of animals having scales (or modified scales), breathe air, and
usually lay eggs.
 Most reptiles live on land and reproduce by laying eggs.
Examples: Crocodiles, snakes, lizards, and turtles.
 Herpetology continued to study these two groups as a single scientific pursuit,
because many aspects of their lives and biology of amphibians and reptiles are
complementary and allow zoologists to study them together using the same
or similar techniques.
 Further, the biological similarities of amphibians and reptiles and the ease of
field and laboratory manipulation of many species have made them primary
experimental or model animals for the study of ecology.
 E.g. Tadpoles developmental biology.
General characteristics of herpetiles
Characteristics of amphibians
 Amphibians are vertebrate animals with smooth skins.
 Except in a few species, their fingers and toes lack claws.
 Except for limbless caecilians, they have paired limbs as adults.
 Typically, eggs are laid in water where larvae, called tadpoles, develop until
metamorphosis.
 Prior to metamorphosis, leg develop, ready to take over locomotion as the tail
is absorbed during transformation.
 The word “amphibian” meaning “double life”, refers to the mode of life
amphibians have; usually they spend part of their lives in water and part on
land.
Behavioral adaptation:
 Most activity occurs at night when air temperature is lower and more
moisture is available.
 In dry or very cold seasons, many species aestivate or hibernate in the
soil or in rotting wood where they are insulated from outside changes.
 Many people think frogs and toads are dangerous and will bite.
 On the contrary, of all groups of vertebrates they are the most gentle
and the safest to handle.
 Most amphibians are completely harmless; however, some toads and a
few frogs produce secretions irritating to the skin of some people
Amphibians are protected from predation by several mechanisms.
 They may demonstrate protective coloration by blending with the
black-ground
 They sit “quietly during the day when the majority of predators are
active. Most frogs have the ability to jump long distances, thereby
escaping capture.
 Those which move slowly, such as toads, secrete from skin glands a
milky material unpleasant or poisonous to other animals.
 If one protective adaptation is present, others are usually absent from that
species” (Stewart 1967).
Characteristics of Reptiles
 Some reptiles have four legs, others two, others none, some have shells,
others don’t some have ears, others don’t.
 Are able to live in dry habitats where amphibians cannot survive.
 The first vertebrates to produce shelled eggs that protected their eggs from
drying as they develop.
 Don’t have (fur, feathers, fins, larval stages).
 Have a three-chambered heart but Crocodiles have a four-chambered heart.
 Reptiles have a dry waterproof skin, enabling them to stay active in dry
times and areas, which most amphibians cannot do.
 They are ectothermic, meaning they obtain their heat externally.

 Their inability to internally regulate their own body temperature (being cold-

blooded) means that their activities and distributions are limited by the cold,
and those in cold climates often hibernate in winter.
 All have lungs to breath on land and dry skin, that does not need to be kept

wet.
 Produce an amniotic egg which usually has a leather, hard shell that
protects the embryo from drying out.
 The amniotic egg can be laid where it is usually safer from predators than

it would be in lakes rivers and Oceans.

 Most reptiles are fast-moving, efficient animals and, although their body

heat is derived from outside sources, they like to be warm-the correct term
for such animals is ectotherms, meaning they obtain their heat externally.
 Their inability to internally regulate their own body temperature (being cold-

blooded) means that their activities and distributions are limited by the cold,
and those in cold climates often hibernate in winter.
 In hot areas, reptiles get their heat from the air, rocks and soil, that is why

there are no nocturnal reptiles in cold countries or at high altitude;

 Reptiles cannot survive in areas that are constantly cold, and thus are

not found in the high altitudes, where many mammals and birds thrive.
 In areas with a prolonged cold season, reptiles must hibernate.

 Examples: Turtles, snakes ,lizards ,alligators ,crocodiles and other large

reptiles.
Reptiles
What makes amphibians and reptiles to be grouped together while they are
different?

Amphibians and reptiles have a number of traits in common. They are:

 Ectothermic or cold blooded animals i.e. they use outside energy sources to
regulate body temperature for metabolism and regulatory functions.
 Cryptic or secretive meaning these animals can be very difficult to find and
very difficult to detect even though they can be highly abundant.
 Tetrapods: They are vertebrates with 4 legs or similar appendages.
 Evolutionary history: Amphibians are the only extant family from first land
dwelling organisms. While Reptiles are the first vertebrates to become
independent from aquatic environments.
 Important to ecosystems as important prey item. Control densities of many
different types of animals, including rodents, bugs.
 Potential bioindicators. Bio - indicator: An animal that can indicate the health
and prosperity of an environment by population health and abundance.
Advantages to laying eggs on the land:
 Better chance of staying where the female laid them.
 There may have been less predators on land to feed on the eggs.
 Eggs laid on land could not be carried away by moving water
Advantages that reptiles had over amphibians:
 Internal fertilization which led to the shelled
 Reptiles had more independence from water.
 Reptiles had thick impermeable skin.
 Reptiles had stronger limbs.
Self-cheek I(one)

1. Define the term Herpetology?

2. Differentiate and write General characteristics of herpetiles?
3. Clearly discuses Behavioral adaptation and predator protection
mechanisms in amphibians?
4. What makes amphibians and reptiles to be grouped together while they
are different?
5. Briefly explain advantages that reptiles had over amphibians and
advantage of Laing egg on the land ?
 2. Classification of Amphibians and Reptiles

Herpetiles (Amphibians and Reptiles) belong to:

 Kingdom : Animalia
 Phylum: Chordata,
 Sub phylum : Vertebrata
 Class: Amphibia and
 class Repitilia
Amphibian Classification
 The Living class Amphibia, is comprised of three orders.
i. The Urodela or Caudata consisting tailed amphibians or Salamanders.
 Their body form is very similar to the Lizard.
 They do not occur in Africa; south of the Sahara.
 North America has the greatest number of species.
 They consist of the Newts and Salamanders
Salamanders Newts
II : Order Anura
 These are the group of tail less amphibians.
 Adults are without tail and have large hind legs for jumping
and are equipped with lungs for respiration.
Example: Frogs and toads

Frogs toads
 III: Order Gymnophiona

 Consists of the limb less amphibians.

 They are adapted for burrowing life.

 Examples: blind worm and caecilians.

 Repitilian Classification

I: Order Crocodilia: Consisting of the crocodiles and Alligators.

 Crocodiles have a short, slender snout and a triangular head.
 Mainly fish eaters, but can attack man.
 Their skin is used for making shoes and bags.
 Alligators have a rounded broad snout.
 Usually less aggressive than crocodiles.
 Are able to make definite sounds

Alligators
Crocodile
II: Order Testudines: Consisting of the shield reptiles, i.e. tortoises, turtles
and terrapins .
 The upper shell or caraprace is covered with epidermal plates or shields
arranged in a symmetrical pattern.
 Tortoise are the land forms and turtle are the aquatic forms.
 The tortoise are slow moving, have strong feet and claws for walking and
digging. Most are herbivores.

Tortoise
Turtle
II: Order Squamata ("scaled reptiles"), which consist of the (snakes, lizard

Snakes: Limb less reptiles. Actually have small limbs concealed in the scales.
 Carnivorous and generally feed on small animals like rodents and frogs.
Cannot hear. They have internal ear within the skull that helps to pick up
slight vibrations from a great distance.
They smell through the tongue. Their forked tongue picks up smell bearing
molecules.
The tongue deposits them into the special sense organ in the roof of the mouth
that identifies the smell.
Poisonous snakes: Cobra, krait, Russel’s viper.

Vipers Pythons
 Lizard

Order Rhynchocephalia: which consists of the primitive group whose sole

living representative is the lizard-like, Tuatra (Sphenodon punctatus) of New
Zealand

Tuatras
 Amphibia and Reptile Population of the World.

 There are about 5460 species of amphibians documented world wide.

 The Anura (frogs and toads) lead the list with 5000 different species.

 The Caudata (salamanders and newts) account for the second largest

number of amphibian species with 300 species.

 Caecilians (Gymnophonia) round out the list with 160 species.

 Additionally, many amphibians are endemic or limited to one state.

 In the aggregate, the statistics can only suggest that improved forest and
water management in states around the world will generally aid to increase
amphibian populations.
 There are about 8,225 species of reptiles that inhabit every continent in the
world, except Antarctica.
Amphibian and Reptile Population of Ethiopia
 Ethiopia is a land of huge environmental contrasts that has long been
recognized as an outstandingly important center of biological diversity and
endemism.
 In Ethiopia, it is known that there are 2 orders, 8 families, 24 genera and 63
species of amphibians. While 25 (about 40%) of them are considered to be
endemic and most of them are montane and/or forest forms.
 Seven of the eight families include endemic representatives, amongst which
are six endemic genera: Namely,
 Sylvacaecilia,
 Altiphyrnoides,
 Spinophrynoides,
 Ericabatrachus,
 Balebreviceps and Paracassina. (Largen,1998 & 2001).
 “During the past 70 years, increase in the human population of Ethiopia has
led to massive destruction of natural habitats, brought about by an ever-
growing demand for land and its produce.
 Forests and woodlands are perhaps most seriously in decline, being felled at
an alarming rate to provide timber, fuel-wood and cleared ground for
farming.
 In both the arid lowlands and on the high plateau, more and more marginal land
is being forced in to temporary cultivation by subsistence farmers, even at
altitudes in excess of 3,000 masl.
 Inevitably, it is the welfare of those particularly precious elements of the flora
and fauna, the known and still to be discovered montane and forest endemics
that gives the most immediate cause for concern” (Largen, 2001).
 Ethiopia harbours about 201 species of herpetofauna.
 This includes 87 snakes, 101 lizards, 13 tortoises and turtle species that lie in 4
Orders and 15 Families.
 Nine of the species are endemic to Ethiopia.
Endangered Amphibians and Reptiles World wide
 Amphibians have existed on earth for about 270 million years, yet within the
last several decades more than 120 species are thought to have disappeared
forever because of human activities.
 Global amphibian declines have led to public concern, particularly because
amphibians are thought to be indicator species of overall environmental health.
 Amphibian populations have declined dramatically around the world since the
1950s even in virgin parts (e.g., National Parks).
 This pervasive decline is the results of local, regional, and global human
induced causes.
 In 2006, a total of 442, 738, and 631 amphibian species were classified as
critically endangered (imminent risk of extinction), endangered (very high risk
of extinction in the wild), and vulnerable (facing a high risk of extinction in
the wild) respectively.
 Overall, One- third of amphibians in the world are threatened with extinction.
Various reasons are given for population declines, with habitat loss cited as the
primary causal factor.
Local impacts
 Include habitat modification, amphibian collection, and Alien or non-native
species introduction.
Alien species
 Often cause declines and even extinctions of native amphibian populations.
Multiple mechanisms may act alone or together, including predation by alien
species on natives, competition between one or more life stages,
introduction of pathogens by non-natives and hybridization.
Habitat modification
 can be divided into three types: habitat destruction, habitat fragmentation, and
habitat degradation.
Regional impacts
 These impacts include habitat modification, amphibian collection, and non-
native species introduction. Habitat modification can be divided into three
types: habitat destruction, habitat fragmentation, and habitat degradation.
Global impacts
 These impacts include environmental estrogens (endocrine disrupting
chemicals) such as pesticides, products associated with plastics (bisphenol A,
phthalates, industrial chemicals (polychlorinated biphenyls, heavy metals (lead,
mercury, and cadmium. These Environmental contaminants can cause
population declines of herpetofouna due to:
 Lethal and reproductive effects on embryos, juveniles or adults;
 Developmental abnormalities of embryos; and
 Abnormalities of the endocrine system. Endocrine disrupters are
capable of stimulating sex reversal.
Climate change
 in the form of human-caused global warming is perhaps the most serious
threat to species survival in the last 10,000 years.
 Energy use, industrial production, and deforestation all contribute to air
pollution that is harming plants, animals, and human health, and altering the
global atmosphere.
Sulphur and nitrogen oxides,
 ozone, and other pollutants are causing acid precipitation and lowering crop
yields: air pollutants have damaged more than 30 million hectares of forest in
industrial countries.
Chlorofluorocarbons
 and other pollutants have depleted the Earth`s protective ozone layer by an
average 2% worldwide and by nearly 40% during certain months over
Antarctica.
 Atmospheric Co2 is also increasing at a 10-25% in last 40 years.
 Extinct Amphibians and Reptiles

 All known reptile extinctions can be attributed to human activity, either directly,
through overhunting, or indirectly, by introducing predatory species, or
altering the habitat the reptiles rely on for survival.

 Mariners often relied on reptiles (particularly tortoises) on strategic islands as

a source of food, and in the nineteenth century in particular severely depleted
some populations of reptiles, and completely wiped out others.

 Once we lose them, we will never get them back.

 Not much is known about the status of reptiles as a whole. Of more than 8,000
species, only 1,386 have been evaluated by the IUCN Red List of Threatened
Species, and 180 of those are still deemed data deficient.

 Of the remainder, 35% of reptile species worldwide that have been evaluated
by the IUCN are threatened:
 203 species are listed as Vulnerable
 134 species are listed as Endangered
 86 species are listed as Critically Endangered
 Many reptile species have remained almost unchanged for
hundreds of millions of years, yet are now in danger of
extinction due to the activity of humans.
 This can be directly through hunting, or indirectly, through the
destruction of their natural habitat.
 The most common threat to reptiles has been the introduction
of invasive species by humans, such as predator species, or
plants that have drastically changed the reptiles’ habitat.
 Up to 200 amphibian species have completely disappeared in the last 30
years, and this is not normal: background extinction rates based on the
fossil record suggest that amphibians should naturally go extinct at a rate of
only about one species every 250 years.
 The primary causes of these extinctions are pollution, loss of habitat, climate
change, invasive species, road mortality, over-harvesting for the pet and food
trades, and the infectious disease which is spread by human activity.
 As the human population spirals out of control, these threats will continue to
grow, unless immediate action is taken.
 The most famous members of the reptile family, the dinosaurs, became
extinct as a result of the impact of may be a huge meteor, which changed the
Earth’s environments.
 And as a result, many species could not survive. In the last few centuries
however almost all known reptile extinctions can be attributed to human
activity either directly, through overhunting, or indirectly, by introducing
predatory species, or altering the habitat the reptiles rely on for survival.

 There are about 21species of reptiles being extinct or completely

disappeared from the world, recorded from Martinique, Jamaica, China,
Cape Verde, Mauritius, Virgin Islands in USA, New Zealand, USA and
Seychelles. The date of their last sighting ranges between the 17 th and the 20th
century.

 The main reasons for these extinctions are deterioration of habitat,

introduced predatory species, hunting pressure and prolonged drought.

 Human activity has been responsible in all known cases.

3. Ecology of Amphibians and Reptiles

. Ecosystem and Habitat Preferences

 Terrestrial habitats surrounding wetlands are critical for the management of

water and wildlife resources.
 However, terrestrial habitats surrounding wetlands are important to more than
just the protection of water resources.
 They are also essential to the conservation and management of semi aquatic
species.
 A number of studies have documented the use of terrestrial habitats adjacent to
wetlands by a broad range of taxa, including mammals, birds, reptiles, and
amphibians
 These studies have shown the close dependence of semi aquatic species, such
as amphibians and reptiles, on terrestrial habitats for critical life- history
functions.
 For example, amphibians, such as frogs and salamanders, breed and lay
eggs in wetlands during short breeding seasons lasting only a few days or
weeks and during the remainder of the year emigrate to terrestrial habitats
to forage and over winter.
 Reptiles, such as turtles and snakes, often live and forage in aquatic habitats
most of the year but emigrate to upland habitats to nest or over winter.
 Further, the aquatic and terrestrial habitats needed to carry out life-history
functions are essential and are defined here as “core habitats.”
 For conservation and management, it is important to define and distinguish
core habitats used by local breeding populations surrounding wetlands.
 For example, adult frogs, salamanders, and turtles are generally philopatric
to individual wetlands and migrate annually between aquatic and terrestrial
habitats to forage, reproduce, and over winter.
 The amount of terrestrial habitats used during migrations to and from wetlands
and for foraging defines the terrestrial core habitat of a population.
 This aggregation of breeding adults constitutes a local population centered on
a single wetland or wetland complex.
 Local populations are connected by dispersal and are part of a larger meta
population, which extends across the landscape.
 Annual migrations centered on a single wetland or wetland complex are
biologically different than dispersal to new breeding sites
 It is thought that dispersal among populations is achieved primarily by

juveniles for amphibians, or by males for turtles.

 Dispersal by juvenile amphibians tends to be unidirectional and longer in

distance than the annual migratory movements of breeding adults.

 Thus, terrestrial habitats adjacent to wetlands can serve as stopping points and

corridors for dispersal to other nearby wetlands.

Wetlands in this case are defined as both lentic (pond) and lotic (stream)

habitats that are either permanent or temporary.

Riparian is defined as in the broadest sense of encompassing the shore, bank, or

edge of any wetland.

 Amphibian Core Habitat
 Amphibians constitute an important and diverse fauna associated with both
isolated or river floodplains.
 Studies indicate that amphibians use a wide range of terrestrial habitats
adjacent to wetlands and streams.
 Most of these habitats are related to foraging, refuge, or over wintering sites
and typically consist of leaf litter, coarse woody debris, boulders, small
mammal burrows, cracks in rocks, spring-seeps, and rocky pools.
 For example, the plethodontid stream salamanders Desmognathus fuscus,
Eurycea bislineata, Eurycea longicauda although migratory at some stage of
their life cycle, remain close to the edges of ponds and streams and seldom
move more than 20–30 m from aquatic habitats.
Reptile Core Habitat
 Relatively few studies have been conducted on terrestrial migrations of
hydrophilic snakes. Snakes migrated into adjacent uplands for the purpose
of aestivating, basking, hibernating, or nesting.
 Although most studies of terrestrial migrations by turtles have focused on
nesting, turtles also migrated for the purposes of aestivating, feeding, and
hibernating.
 Similar to that of amphibians, variation in reptile migration distances appears
related to taxon-specific differences in life-history patterns. Some colubrid
snakes (e.g., Nerodia sp, routinely migrate 100 m.
 The length of time spent in the terrestrial habitat ranges from 1 hour (e.g.,
nesting to 88% of recorded activity ( e.g., Nerodia sipedon .
 Some migrations into terrestrial habitats occurred following significant rainfall
or stream flooding when uplands were temporarily inundated with water.
e.g., Graptemys pseudogeographica foraging in flooded forest.
Protection and Management of Terrestrial Habitat
 Some semi aquatic reptiles make only brief visits to terrestrial habitats when
nesting, and hibernating are rarely observed.
 Additionally, many pond-breeding amphibians are fosso-rial and are also rarely
observed in terrestrial habitats.
 Surveys and studies of these animals are consequently concentrated within
stream and wetland sites, where they are found seasonally, rather than in
terrestrial habitats.
 Where detection is extremely difficult but where much of their life history
occurs.
 A sustainable balance between continuing economic development and
protecting natural resources depends on knowing and responding to species’
biological requirements and knowing how tradeoffs affect the maintenance of
biodiversity.
Nest Building
 Nest is a structure used for the reception and incubation of the eggs of
birds, reptiles, insects, and some fish or for the parturition of mammals,
and also for the care of the young during their period of helplessness. The
type of nest depends on the environment and the condition of the young
when hatched.
Molting
 Is the periodic shedding of the outer epidermis of vertebrate animals.
 Breeding and Social Relations
 Social behavior is shown by some reptiles. Certain lizards (especially brightly
colored ones like agamas) form structured colonies, with dominant males and
territorial behavior. Many species show ritual courtship behavior, and male
reptiles will fight over females.
 Reptiles display a diversity of behavior that is reflective of their evolutionary
heritage from fish and amphibians and their ancestral contribution to the
diversity found in birds and mammals.
 Much of the behavior observed in reptiles seems specific to the ecological
setting within which they live. As a result, a diversity of behavior is found in
each of the groups of modern reptiles.
 Recent studies on the social behavior of lizards have proved them capable of a
variety of behavioral postures, sequences, and sociality that exceeds than found
in some mammals and birds
 4. Inventory Techniques of Amphibians and Reptiles
 A wide variety of techniques can be used to capture reptiles and
amphibians.
Equipment's used for collecting Herpetiles
1. Snake sticks: The simplest is an L-shaped metal angle attached to a light but
strong metal or wooden handle, about 1 – 1.5 meters long. This type of stick can
be used not only for pinning down snakes, but also as a hook for lifting captive
specimens, a T-shaped end is also useful.

Snake sticks Crow bar Shovel Noose

Pinch bars and crowbars
 Are most useful in rocky environments and may be the only means of
opening up some of the deeper crevices/crakes inhabited by some lizards.
Their weights fortunately discourages extensive use, for they are particularly
destructive of some environments and should be used only where no other
method is practical.
A shovel
 May be needed to dig some reptiles from their burrows, while a rake may be
useful for sifting the soil beneath stones, log, etc.
Nooses
 May be used to capture a wide range of species. The simplest noose is one
mode of cotton, nylon (fine fishing line is excellent) or very fine copper wire.
 Noosing is most successful with lizards which have a constricted neck and
which are relatively heavy for their size.
 A noose made of broad strip of flexible leather is useful tool for handling
large snakes and lizards in captivity.
Torches and headlamps
 are vital to successful collecting.
 Headlamp is by far the most desirable, as it leaves both hands free for
collecting and allows many specimens to be located by their eye shines.
Gas and pressure lamps
 light a wide area and are particularly useful in flat, open areas.
Nets
 are used for a variety of tasks standard scoop nets on a long handle are useful
for reaching frogs which call from aquatic vegetation, or for collecting
tadpoles. Knotless nylon protects fragile amphibians.
Scoop net funnel traps Pit fall traps
Traps
 Are seldom used to collect reptiles and frogs, except where long term field
studies are being carried out in particular areas.
i. Pit fall traps generally consist of jars, tins or drums which are buried in the ground
with their tips flush with the grounds surface.
ii. The openings are covered by slightly raised lid or stone, or other object to keep
out predators and prevent trapped animals from being over heated (during the day)
or drowned (when it rains).
iii. Funnel traps made of solid metal or wire mesh, with one or both ends forming
an inwards – directed cone, are very useful in capturing many kinds of lizards or
snakes. Pit-and funnel traps are often used in conjunction with drift-fences. These
are variable lengths of sheet metal or plastic, wire mesh or bituminized paper, with
one edge buried in the ground and supported by stakes.
Pistols and rifles: are both valuable under certain conditions when live
specimens are not required. And are usually needed for any large arboreal
lizards or snakes which other can not breached .
Waders: are invaluable for collecting aquatic frogs, tadpoles for tadpoles and
even some swamp dwelling snakes and lizards. Thigh length boots may be
necessary in some situations .
A tape recorder is widely used in recording male calls and is used in the
classification of frogs.
Snake Traps: is a professional grade snake capture and removal device. It was
designed by a professional snake removal expert in the state of Florida. This
trap is used to catch snakes from yards, gardens, lakes etc. It is easy to use and
safe. Most snake traps are glue-based traps, designed to hold the snake once it
slithers over the trap.
 Surveying Techniques
The following are standardized methods of surveying amphibian and reptiles.
i. Use of Pitfall Traps and Drift Fences
Pitfall traps are used for sampling animal populations by:
a) Capturing species which are difficult to obtain by other methods,
b) Estimating relative abundances and species richness or for catching
particular types of animals
c) Determining movement patterns of individual animals
 To be effective pitfall traps should be placed along known runs where they
are most likely to be encountered by the animals to be trapped. In
addition to being positioned along known ‘runs’, pit fall traps are often used
in conjunction with drift fences for enhanced effectiveness.
i. Transect Counts:
 The transect technique is a common sampling method for amphibians in
terrestrial or aquatic habitats (Jaeger 1994).
 When used to survey stream amphibians, transects are typically linear areas
set up either parallel or perpendicular to the stream, including stream
channel, bank or both.
 Various sizes and configurations of transects have been used, and sometimes
multiple survey methods are employed along the same transects.
 Transects can provide species presence/absence data, counts of species and
life stages, relative abundance, and density (number of individuals/area
surveyed).
 Also, if transects are time-constrained (e.g., set at 30 minutes), or the start
and end times of the survey are recorded, the number of amphibians per
observer-hour effort can be recorded.
 Capture-recapture or removal estimation techniques can also be used in
conjunction with transect surveys.
A visual encounter survey (VES) technique is typically employed within the
transect, in which the observer looks for amphibians on the surface and usually
also under rocks, logs, and other debris.
 Cover objects turned over to look for amphibians can be tallied with clicker
counters. All cover objects are returned to their original positions to avoid
disturbing the habitat.
 Fine mesh dip nets are the primary tool used to capture the amphibians, but
larvae and adults can also be captured with zip-lock bags or by hand.
Time Constrained Search and an area–Constrained searches are standardized
types of “Visual encounter Surveys”.
 Area Constrained Searches include many transect or quadrate sampling
techniques. In particular, transects are useful for sampling across different
micro habitats.
 Time spent in searching may or may not be recorded. Area constrained
searches also are useful when a separate habitat can be completely surveyed.
 Suitable habitat is sufficiently patchy as to require frequent starting and
stopping of the clock during timed searches, or if density or relative
abundance estimates are needed.
Time constrained Searches: are particularly useful for inventories, especially
when adjacent habitat patches are sizeable and somewhat homogenous in
character.
 Once amphibians and reptiles are collected, some preservatives and
containers are needed not everything you catch will remain alive until you
return to base, and valuable specimens are often found dead.
Containers
The most practical temporary containers to use for carrying specimens from field
to home or laboratory are calico specimens and plastic bags.

 Sacs made of high quality unbleached calico are ideal for the majority of reptiles.
 For very large specimens such as goanna, pythons, heavy canvas sacks are preferred.
 Cloth bags are suitable for small lizards and snakes.
 Plastic bags are most suitable for frogs (essential for tad poles or eggs)
 un like cloth they do not need constant wetting.
 Any clean plastic, glass or metal container is suitable for transporting reptiles
and frogs, provided that ventilating is adequate.
 All containers should include some light packing material dry glass or leaf
litter for reptiles, moss or moist leaf – litter for frogs , to separate specimens
when two or more are placed in the same container.
Preservation
 A10% formalin solution is the best preservative, but formalin is carcinogenic
and noxious.
 A 70% alcohol solution is more pleasant, although flammable, alcohol also
dehydrates the specimens.
 Some labels are necessary, write the locality date of collection, Name of
the collector using a soft pencil on the label and tie it to the leg of the
animal.
 Larger animals should be cut open along the abdomen, and /or
preservative injected into the soft body parts.
 The specimens and the collecting data need to be deposited at a suitable
institution, such as a National Museum or University.
 Preserved specimens identified to the species level using amphibians and
reptiles identification keys.
 For taxonomic problematic species identification is employed, by DNA
analysis, using tissue samples.
Age and sex Determination
Age determination
 Age determination of amphibians and reptiles is important፡ in order to obtain
information about
 Mortality,
 Longevity, and other
 Ecological factors.
 In most cases, it provides accurate estimations of individual ages and therefore
overcomes a major difficulty in demographic and life history studies.
 The most appropriate and reliable method of determining age is Skeleton
chronology.
 This involves, age determination by analysis of growth marks on bones.
 Since the growth layers are clearly visible in phalanges.
Sex Determination
 Sex-determining mechanisms in reptiles are broadly divided into two main
categories:
 genotypic sex determination (GSD) and
 temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD).
 Many species, such as several species of turtle and lizards, like the green
iguana, have X and Y sex chromosomes (again, like mammals), with females
being "homogametic," that is, having two identical X chromosomes.
 Males, on the other hand, are "heterogametic," with one X chromosome
and one Y chromosome.
 Other reptiles governed by GSD have a system, similar to one found in birds,
with Z and W sex chromosomes.
 In this case, which governs all snake species. Males are the homogametic sex
(ZZ) and females are the heterogametic sex (ZW).
 In temperature-dependent sex determination, however, it is the environmental
temperature during a critical period of embryonic development that
determines whether an egg develops as male or female.
 This thermo- sensitive period occurs after the egg has been laid, so sex
determination in these reptiles is at the mercy of the ambient conditions
affecting egg clutches in nests.
 For example, in many turtle species, eggs from cooler nests hatch as all
males, and eggs from warmer nests hatch as all females.
 In crocodilian species, the most studied of which is the American alligator,
both low and high temperatures result in females and intermediate
temperatures select for males.
 A widely held view is that temperature-dependent and genotypic sex
determination are mutually exclusive, incompatible mechanisms in other
words, a reptile's sex is never under the influence of both sex chromosomes
and environmental temperature.
 Measuring Diversity
 Diversity is measured for three main reasons: (1) to measure stability or to
determine if an environment is degrading, (2) to compare two or more
environments, and (3) to eliminate the need for extensive lists.
 Diversity indices provide important information about the composition of a
community. These indices not only measure species richness, but also take
into account the relative abundance of species, or evenness.
 When measuring species diversity, species richness and evenness must
always both be considered.
 These are important and common tools used by biologists in order to
understand community structure.
Species richness(s):
 is a relative term that refers to the total number of species in a particular
area, and is directly associated with measuring the diversity of species in a
given area. It does not take into count the proportion of and distribution of
each subspecies within a gene.
Evenness (E) /Equitability:
 is another measure of species diversity, which is the relative abundance with
which each species is represented in an area.
 It defines the number of individuals from each species in the same area. An
ecosystem where all the species are represented by the same number of
individuals has high species evenness.
An ecosystem where some species are represented by many individuals, and
other species are represented by very few individuals has a low species
evenness.
Simpson’s Index:
 Is a measure that accounts for both richness and proportion (Percent) of each
species.
 It has been a useful tool to terrestrial and aquatic ecologists for many years
and will help understand the profile of biodiversity:-

Where ED= Equitability (evenness)

D =Simpsons diversity index
S = Total number of species in the community ( richness)
Pi = Proportion of species (S), made up of the I th species.
 The proportion of species i relative to the total number of species (pi) is
calculated and squared. The squared proportions for all the species are
summed and the reciprocal is taken.
Shannon-wiener Diversity Index (H):
 It accounts for both abundance and evenness of the species present. It is
calculated using the following equation.
s
H = ∑ - (Pi * ln Pi)
i=1
Where:
H = the Shannon diversity index
Pi = fraction of the entire population made up of species i
S = numbers of species encountered
∑ = sum from species i to species S
Note: The power to which the base e (e = 2.718281828.......) must be raised to
obtain a number is called the natural logarithm (ln) of the number
 Example:

Species # found Pi ln(Pi) Pi ln(Pi)

1 84 0.3281 -1.1144 -.03656
2 4 0.0156 -4.1589 -0.0650
3 91 0.3555 -1.0343 -0.3677
4 34 0.1328 -2.0188 -0.2681
5 43 0.1680 -1.7840 -0.2997
Total 256 1.0000 -1.3661

In the example above H = 1.3661

 High value of H would be representative of more diverse communities.
 A community with only one species would have an H value of 0 because Pi
would be equal to 1 and be multiplied by ln Pi which would equal to zero.
 If the species are evenly distributed then the H value would be high.
 So the H value allows us to know not only the number of species but how the
abundance of the species is distributed among all the species in the
community.
ጥያቄ ወይም አስተያየት ከላቹህ፡፡