Phylum Chordata-Reptiles PDF

Phylum Chordata – Vertebrates
Reptilia
8000 species worldwide; 340 sp in US & Canada
reptiles include lizards, snakes, turtles, and are

generally looked on as cold, creepy or scary
creatures
over earth’s history they have been an extremely

diverse and successful group
even today they are a very successful group
they occupy a great variety of terrestrial habitats
in some habitats such as deserts they are the

dominant vertebrate group
some have even returned to an aquatic lifestyle in

oceans and freshwaters
______________________________________
reptiles were the 1st vertebrates no longer tied to

water, even for reproduction
 1st truly terrestrial vertebrates
Animals: Phylum Chordata-Reptiles; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.11 1

First Reptiles
310 MY ago, 50 MY after the appearance of the first

amphibians, some amphibians developed the
ability to lay eggs on land
 the first reptiles
while amphibian adults can live on land
they must have water to reproduce
complete independence from water didn’t occur

until the evolution of a self contained egg
capable of storing water (=cleidoic egg or
amniotic egg)
the appearance of this new type of egg

allowed the evolution of reptiles, birds &
mammals
the earliest example of a true reptile was a

lizard-like, partly aquatic animal
~1.5’ long
probably ate mostly insects
 shows characteristics of both groups
reptilian skeleton
still had lateral line system
probably didn’t yet lay shelled eggs
by 225 (end of Permian) most amphibians of the time

had become extinct
the amphibians were “quickly” replaced by a great

diversification of reptiles
shortly after reptiles arose, they began diversifying

onto land at time of:
variable climate; tending to get drier
diversification of plants including flowering plants created

numerous habitats
increase in the number of insects and amphibians provided

an ample food supply
_______________________________________________
largest living reptile:

eg. Komodo dragon (Varanus komodensis)
10 feet long; 300 lbs
eg. Australian saltwater crocodile
up to 28 feet long
eg. leatherback sea turtle
8 feet long; 1500 lbs
largest reptile ever:

eg. largest of all reptiles: Diplodocus hallorum, giant sauropod

120+ feet long (37 m); 30-80 tons
 largest animal ever to have walked on land
smallest living reptile

Carribean lizard <3/4ths of an inch nose - tip of tail
smallest snake – 4” thread snake from Barbados
reptiles were much more abundant and diverse

~160-100MY ago
= age of reptiles (Mesozoic)

lasted >165 M Y
Skin
a second major innovation of reptiles is a thick, tough,

dry, waterproof skin
their skin consists of the same 2 basic layers of

vertebrate skin: epidermis & dermis
 but epidermis much thicker than amphibians
 and contains lipids and waxy keratin
 very effective water proofing
 the skin of reptiles also contains scales but

unlike fish scales:
reptile scales are in the epidermis,
not the dermis
**epidermal (not dermal) scales**

reptile scales ≠ fish scales
(epidermal) (dermal)
[scutes of turtles are modified scales]
also reptile scales are made of keratin, a

waxy protein, not enamel and dentin
as in some fish
(structures made completely of keratin are
often referred to as “horny”)
reptiles scales are homologous to feathers

and fur of birds and mammals
some extinct forms (dinosaurs & relatives) had

primitive feathers or hair in addition to
scales
reptile skin provide excellent protection from drying,

abrasion, predators
outer layer of epidermis is shed periodically
some reptiles retained the ability to grow bony

dermal plates (equivalent to fish scales) under
their scales producing large rigid scales
eg. turtles , alligators
thick dermis contains chromatophores
in some the chromatophores can rapidly

change color for camoflage
eg. green anoles
eg. inland taipans, fierce snakes up to 10 ft long,

can get darker in winter and lighter in
summer
eg. australian copperhead can also change color
in some reptiles the thick keratinized (horny) skin

has been modified into claws, scutes (large
scales of turtles), horns and rattles
Skeleton & Support
new features appear in reptile skeleton:
fewer skull bones
teeth still simple and peg like but in more efficient

and stronger jaws
 more biting force
nasal cavity separated from mouth by shelf of

bone = palate
 easier to breath while eating
limbs stronger, more flexible & closer to body
 better designed for walking
toes with claws
Movement
more powerful muscles than amphibians
limbs are stronger and more flexible for walking
chameleons have opposable toes for arboreal life
millions of adhesive fibers on the feet of geckos are so

effective for climbing that they allow the animals
to hang from a ceiling by a single toe
one group of extinct reptiles were the second group of

animals (and the first vertebrates) to be able to
fly
some reptiles can glide:

eg. Draco = flying dragon
uses extended ribs
can glide up to 50’

eg. gliding gecko Ptychizoon sp.
eg. some gliding snakes
some can fly up to 60 ft horizontally as they drop from

trees
they can flatten their bodies and undulate to “catch a

breeze”
most land reptiles can burrow into mud

eg. turtles and small lizards
most reptiles swim with ease
some groups of reptiles have lost their limbs and and

use their scales to grip the ground while rib
muscles move them foreward
Feeding and Digestion
most reptiles are carnivores
jaws are more efficient for crushing and gripping prey

(fish use “suction” for feeding; their jaws are not
very muscular; amphibians can’t “chew”)
tongue is muscular and mobile
used to help catch prey
tongue never attached to front of mouth

in some tongue serves as touch receptor
most reptiles have teeth

crocodilian teeth are constantly replaced
in some reptiles (snakes & a few lizards) salivary

glands are modified into poison glands to take
down prey
eg. king cobras are one of the deadliest species of
venomous snakes
one snake (the tiger keelback snake in Asia) is the

only known vertebrate that sequesters toxins from
its prey (frogs and toads)
it stores these toxins in glands behind its head
it uses these stored toxins to ward off prey
while having its own anticoagulant toxin to capture its own prey
some large snakes are ambush predators and kill their

prey by suffocation
doesn’t directly squeeze it to death

 once wrapped around their prey, each time the prey the snake
tightens its grip, until prey can no longer inhale
since meals tend to be scarce they gorge

eg. some adult pythons can swallow an adult pig whole

within days of a meal their organs enlarge by at
least 1/3rd, some to double their size – greatly
increasing their metabolism
the change in metabolic activity is greater than that of
a racehorse going from rest full speed in a quarter mile
race
after the meal is digested the organs shrink back

to their fasting size.
again, teeth are not used for chewing
stomach often has pebbles to help grind food

(=gastroliths) common find at dinosaur sites
liver and pancreas produce wide variety of digestive

enzymes
Respiration
Reptiles never have gills
since skin is thick and dry most reptiles depend

completely on lungs for gas exchange
lungs are more developed, more folding, more

surface area
more efficient
air is sucked into lungs, not gulped as in fish and

amphibians
can expand and contract the rib cage to inhale &
exhale
some have fully developed ribcage and sternum to

facilitate breathing through lungs
still relatively low breathing rate since still cold

blooded
(1/10th that of birds and mammals of same size)
but most can’t breath while running since any of

same muscles are used for both purposes
a few (crocodilians) with muscular diaphragm
also a few reptiles can exchange gasses through skin

eg. sea snakes, soft shelled turtles
also, aquatic turtles can extract oxygen from water

they “breath” through their mouth and cloaca
(can pump water in and out, highly vascularized)
no vocal cords like amphibians
 reptiles can only hiss
Circulation
like amphibians, most with three chambered hearts
with 2 atria & 1 ventricle

but partial septum separates the ventricle
 slows mixing of oxygenated &

unoxygenated blood
two separate circuits of bloodflow:
pulmonary and systemic
the respiratory & circulatory systems of reptiles

provides more oxygen to tissues than that of
amphibians
more efficient heart; higher blood pressure
but still less efficient than that of birds and

mammals
crocodilians have 4 chambered heart which

completely separates the pulmonary and systemic
circuits
similar to that of birds and mammals
overall, still low metabolic rate = cold blooded

(~1/10th rate of birds or mammals of same size)
some reptiles in past were warmblooded
Nervous System
more advanced than amphibians

cerebrum increased in size but no ‘cortex’
 allows more complex behaviors
cerebellum less important than in birds and

mammals
eg. motor functions in many reptiles is at least
partly controlled by ganglia along spinal cord
but still reptiles are not as dependent on their brain as

mammals are
eg a turtle ‘lived’ 18 days after brain was removed
Senses
a. vision
is most important sense organ
eyes usually with 2 moveable eyelids
some with a 3rd  nictitating membrane
most reptiles are active during the day
 have cones for good color vision
some have “third eye” pineal eye on top of head
 detects light intensity and may control

biological rhythms
vertical pupils in nocturnal snakes (and some
mammals) are better for night time hunting, it
also gives them a deeper field of view making
it easier for them to sneak up on prey
b. smell & taste
also have well developed sense of smell

eg. crocodilians secrete a strong musk during mating
season
 olfactory epithelium in nasal cavity
Jakobson’s organ assists in sense of smell/taste
pits located on roof of mouth in lizards and

snakes
 forked tongue of snakes flicked then

touched to Jakobson’s organ to follow
chemical trails
c. heat sensors
some snakes have IR receptors
 can see body heat from warm blooded prey
d. hearing

similar but better than in amphibians
contain inner and middle ears
external tympanum and columella (stapes)
in lizards the tympanum is recessed into a canal
some lack tympanum and use bone adjacent

to jaw to detect sound in ground, not air
Excretion & Salt/Water Balance
more efficient (metanephric) kidneys
amphibians excrete N wastes as ammonia

 requires lots of water to dilute it
most reptiles (and birds) secrete uric acid,

not urea or ammonia
 requires much less water
most excess water is reabsorbed by bladder
reptiles, birds, mammals that live near sea cannot get

rid of all salt via kidneys
most have evolved salt glands (independently)

eg. marine iguana
 salt gland empties through nostrils
eg. sea turtles

 salt gland in orbit of eyes
eg. sea snakes

 salt glands are beneath tongue
Protection/Defense
many species are well camoflaged by the color of their

skin
venomous snakes use their poisonous fangs for

protection as well as for subduing prey
rattlesnakes advertise their presence with a

threatening rattle
horned lizards can puff up their bodies causing its

spiny scales to protrude making them hard to
swallow
horned lizards can also aim and squirt a stream of

blood up to 5’ from the corners of their eyes
the blood contains foul-tasting chemicals that

deter wolves, coyotes and domestic dogs
Reproduction
dioecious
but hard to tell male from female
a few have sex chromosomes:

in many the gene that controls gender depends on
temperature during critical period of
development
copulatory organs and internal fertilization first

became the common practice in reptiles in the
vertebrate line
all reptiles have internal fertilization
in order to enclose the embryo inside a thick

waterproof protective covering, the egg
must be fertilized before the “eggshell”
encloses it
so they don’t need water for reproduction
reptiles have 1 or 2 copulatory organs

some snakes and lizards have 1 penis
most snakes and lizards have 2 penises (=hemipenes)
 use only 1 at a time; depending in which testis has more

sperm
tauratauras lack any penis

 press cloacas together
after copulation, sperm may remain in female for

months or years before it is used to fertilize egg

a few reptiles are parthenogenetic
 egg develops without fertilization
almost all reptiles go through early development

within an amniotic egg
don’t need water for development

(only found in reptiles, birds & mammals)
with protective embryonic membranes enclosing

embryo
complete life support system

4 membranes: amnion  watery cushion
allantois  collects wastes
yolk sac  provides stored food
chorion  with allantois for respiration
embryo & membranes are enclosed within a

porous shell
can be leathery or hard shell
most reptile eggs require 4 – 6 weeks for

development before hatching
no reptiles pass through a free living larval stage
a few reptiles (some pit vipers) bear live young

one reptile, an african skink Trachylepis ivensii ,has a functioning
placenta
a trait formerly only known for mammals
the embryos develop, attached by a placenta to the

oviducts of the mother
few living reptiles show parental care
they generally lay a large clutch of eggs and then

abandon the nest
there are some exceptions:

eg. some dinosaurs showed parental care
eg. crocodilians dig nest for 25-50 eggs & cover the eggs
hatchlings often chirp encouraging mom to uncover nest
she then picks them up and carries them to water
both mom and dad respond to distress calls
eg. a few turtle species show minimal parental care;
watching eggs for a few days and urinating on them if they

get dry
or after hatching climbing on or swimming with mom (or

any other female in the area)
many reptiles have well developed abilities to

regenerate missing body parts
eg. green anoles can lose tail
eg. glass snake: when pursued can break of its tail with a
sharp twist
the tail twitches and writes to attract pursuer while

glass snake escapes

Kinds of Reptiles
today only 4 groups of reptiles (3 major, 1 minor)
during mesozoic more than 12 major groups of

reptiles emerged and diversified including
dinosaurs, along with shark-like reptiles
(ichthyosaurs), plesiosaurs and flying reptiles
(pterosaurs)
 lots of niches open (no birds or mammals

yet)
Dinosaurs
~540 different species of dinosaurs have been

described
2006 study concluded that at least 70% of dinosaur genera

remain unknown
some estimate up to 900 species once existed
2007 a new kind of dinosaur that lived in excavated dens

was discovered
ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs and pterosaurs are technically

NOT dinosaurs but other extinct groups of reptiles
the largest pterosaurs with wingspans of 30 feet, could fly

10,000 miles nonstop
dinosaurs generally lived in warmer even tropical parts

of the world but fossils are also found much closer
to poles
Cretaceous dinosaur fossils are being found further
and further north and south.
eg. north slope,
eg. southern argentina and australia
 cold winter nights would have lasted several months
how? (1988)
dinosaurs share a group of unique features that set

them apart from all other vertebrate groups:
• their generally large size may be due to their

extremely efficient (birdlike) lungs with airsacs
• most with upright stance
 legs positioned directly beneath body

similar to mammals and birds
not like amphibians and most living reptiles
• many dinosaurs were bipedal
• considerably stronger hinge joints at knee and

ankle
same as in birds
much less flexibility than in mammals
• dinosaurs walked on their toes

like horses
• many or most dinosaurs were warm blooded

(endothermic); body temp ~ same as
mammals
today, only birds and mammals are warmblooded
• many had feathers &/or fur in addition to

epidermal scales
feathers & fur have the same structure as reptile
scales
 all are essentially the same thing
• many showed considerable maternal care

most reptiles today have no care of young
were apparently competitively superior to mammals at

the time since mammals remained small and
inconspicuous until ALL dinosaurs disappeared
 then mammal diversity exploded
dinosaurs and most of the diversity of reptiles

disappeared ~65 MY ago
 probably meteorite impact

cretaceous extinction may have been caused by a pulse of
asteroids not just one, eg. Manson, Iowa crater 66MY old
also, extensive volcanic activity contributed to their extinction

today only 4 groups of reptiles (3 major, 1 minor)
1. Turtles (~300 species)
ancient group (only surviving anapsids)

appeared in U Triassic (200 MY ago)
very little change in body form over past 200 M

years
the most distinctive feature of turtles is their shell
no other vertebrate has developed such a

distinctive armor
dorsal carapace and ventral plastron
outer layer of keratin, inner layer of bone
formed from fused vertebrae and

covered with dermal bone=carapace &
plastron of fused scales
in some turtles the plastron is hinged to

further protect the animal from danger
the carapace & plastron are coverd by large

scales (=scutes) fused to the bone below
biologists use the number, size and color of
specific scutes to identify turtle species

in some species the growth rings of a scute can
be used to assess an individuals general age
ribcage can’t be used for breathing
turtles must pump air into lungs like

amphibians do
aquatic forms can breath some through skin
turtles are generally slow moving grazers and

scavengers; or eat slow moving insects and
worms, etc
no teeth, instead rough horny plates
good sense of smell & color vision, poor hearing
low metabolism  live long >100 yrs

many turtles require 6-12 years to attain
maturity; some take 20 or more
internal fertilization
all turtles bury eggs in ground
nest temperature determines gender of hatchlings

no sex chromosomes
three kinds of turtles:

tortoises – terrestrial
terrapins – freshwater
turtles – marine
eg. sea turtles

have webbed feet
up to 6’ long
migrate 1000’s of miles
live, feed and grow in sargasso sea
may take 50 years to reach sexual maturity

(low metabolism – some live to 150 yrs old)
they then return to beach where they hatched

to lay eggs
(reverse of amphibians)
as soon as they hatch sea turtle swim across 100’s of miles

of ocean
 can detect earth’s magnetic fields for navigation
eg. box turtle

shell has 2 hinges to close up from predators
omnivorous: fruits and beries
may live up to 100 years
25,000 box turtles/yr are exported to Europe

as pets
90% die in transit
eg. snapping turtle

common in ponds in eastern US
grow to 1 ft long
ferocious and short tempered
entirely carnivorous (fish, frogs, birds)
come ashore only to lay eggs

2. Lizards & Snakes (6000sp)
the largest and most diverse living group of

reptiles
appeared in fossil record in Jurassic
evolutionarily are very similar

 placed in same order
most successful group

95% of all living reptiles
very effective jaws to capture prey

very flexible
eg. snake can swallow prey several times
its own diameter
the order is about evenly divided between lizard

and snake species
2a. Lizards
terrestrial, burrowing, aquatic, arboreal or aerial
many lizards show reduction or loss of limbs
some legless forms

eg. glass lizard

eg. worm lizard
very effective jaws to capture prey
cold blooded but can regulate temperature by

behavior to maintain a fairly constant body
temperature
 early morning basking in sun to absorb heat
 hot  turn face to sun to expose less area
 lift legs on hot substrate
 hottest part of day may retreat to burrows
the desert iguana prefers higher body

temperatures and can tolerate 117º F
 lethal to all birds, mammals, most

lizards
eg. Geckos
small, nocturnal
adhesive pads on feet  can walk upsidedown
common around houses in Austin
eg. Chameleons
catch insects with sticky tongue
eg. Iguanas
include skinks, monitors and komodo dragons
often brightly colored
some marine
have salt glands to get rid of excess salt

2b. Snakes
while lizards are probably the most familiar and

“typical” reptiles, snakes are often considered
“strange” and even “evil” by many
for 1000’s of years, snakes were looked on as mysterious
creatures, often with magical powers and were
important in many religious practices
most are terrestrial, some are aquatic, some

marine
most lizards have moveable eyelids;
snakes eyes are permanently covered with

transparent layer; no moveable eyelids
body very similar to lizards except for legs
most snakes have lost all traces of

appendages
some retain vestiges of pelvic girdle
we often think of the loss of legs as a

disadvantage but it has actually improved
their ability to move
locomotion is radically altered, very adaptable
scales grip the ground as they make eel-like

movements
essentially walk on their ribs:
 up to 300 ribs
each rib has separate muscles that control its

movement
snakes can climb, leap, swim, stand erect and

“run”
some species such as racers and coachwips can
outpace humans even on difficult terrain
 probably most unusual is side winding

of some desert species
sidewinders have only 2 parts of body

touching ground at any one time
 essentially walking without legs
some snakes use color for camoflage

eg. inland taipans, fierce snakes up to 10 ft long, can get darker
in winter and lighter in summer
eg. australian copperhead can also change color
no external ears or tympanic membrane
do have internal ears and can detect low

sound vibrations and soil vibrations

most snakes depend mainly on chemical senses to
detect prey (vomeronasal or Jacobson’s organ)
use tongue as “smell” receptor

picks up chemicals with tongue
transfers tongue to Jakobson’s organ in mouth
some snakes also have pit receptors along the jaw

margins that detect IR radiation (heat)
they can detect any animal warmer than its

surroundings (esp birds and mammals, but
also other reptiles)
these receptors are the most sensitive heat

receptors known in the animal kingdom
can detect differences of 0.001oC
snakes generally have only 1 functional lung that

extends almost the whole length of the body
the other lung is greatly reduced
most rely on chemical senses to hunt
flexible jaws allow snakes to swallow prey several

times their own diameter
snakes subdues prey by suffocation(constriction)

or venom
eg. boas and pythons  wrap and suffocate
eg. venom = saliva with a mixture of

digestive enzymes and protein fragments
 kills and starts the digestive process
some of these venoms work on the nervous

system to cause paralysis
while only 2 lizard species are venomous

(include Gila Monster)
 many snakes are venomous
a. coral snakes (ELAPHIDAE)

most dangerous
Indian cobra kills 10,000/yr
spitting cobra can blind by spitting in eyes
Tx Coral Snake
small mouth, short fangs
b. black mamba
may be world’s deadliest snake
one bite can kill a person within half hour
b. sea snakes (HYDROPHIIDAE)

are similar to cobras
most venomous of all snakes
 100 x’s more toxic than that of any
other kind of snake
c. pit vipers
in US include rattlesnakes,
water moccasins, copperheads
fangs fold back when not in use
use pits to track warm blooded prey
 as effective in dark as daylight
Reproduction
some snakes have elaborate mating rituals
eg. red-sided garter snake
when a female garter snake emerges from

hibernation she releases a pheromone that
attracts hundreds of male snakes
they rush to her to create a large squirming

“mating ball”
mating of these snakes is a tourist attraction in

Manitoba, Canada
most snakes lay eggs
but pit vipers bear live young
3. Crocodiles & Alligators
21 species
mostly unchanged for 200 MY

largest of the living reptiles
 up to 6M (18’)
large robust skull with massive jaws with powerful

closing muscles
the group is unlike any other living reptile group

distant cousins of dinosaurs (diapsid like dinosaurs)
more closely related to birds than other living reptiles
 have diaphragm for breathing

 bird-like breathing mechanism with air sacs
 have 4 chambered heart
 only reptile group that can make vocal sounds
 show parental care
two groups:
crocodiles  long slender snout; more aggressive
alligators  shorter, broad snouts; much less aggressive
crocodilians have scent glands and produce a

strong musk during mating season
glands in mouth and throat with slit like opening to
outside of neck
another pair within cloacal slit
the only living reptiles that can make vocal sounds
 vocal sacs on each side of throat

 bellowing mating calls
one of only a few reptile groups that show

parental care
lays 20-50 eggs per nest
tends to and protects eggs & hatchlings
gender of offspring is temperature dependent

low nest temp  females
higher nest temp  males
4. Tuataras (O. Sphenodonta)
only ~50,000 individuals survive
2 living species (endangered)
found in New Zealand; heavily protected
resemble iguanas; ~ 16” long
live in burrows
features are similar to fossils 200MY old

retain the most primitive reptilian traits
well developed parietal eye with cornea, lens & retina

but buried beneath layer of skin
 can only detect light intensity
complete palate (nasal cavities separate from mouth

cavith
teeth fused to jaw (not in sockets)
unlike most reptiles, tuataras remain quite active

even at near freezing temperatures
live long lives; routinely to 100 yrs; some suggest

they may live up to 200 yrs
don’t reach sexual maturity until 15 or 20 yrs old
apparently can produce offspring after 100 yrs

old
females require 2 or 3 years to grow a clutch of

eggs internally; and then for another7 or 8
months more after they are fertilized
after the female finally lays the eggs they

remain in the ground for another year
before hatching

Humans Impacts
1. Poisonous Snakebites
5 Million people are bitten by poisonous snakes

each year
causes at least 100,000 deaths and up to 400,000

amputations/yr
esp India, Pakistan & Mideast
very few have access to adequate medical care

and antivenoms are in very short supply
-2009, WHO declared snakebite a neglected disease
but in US the average American is more likely to

be killed by another person than to be bitten
by a venomous snake
8000 bitten/yr in US (~17,000 homicides)
99.8% chance of survival (~80 die/yr)
Travis county has 5 venomous snakes:
Texas Coral Snake

- small mouth short fangs; coral snakes are nocturnal;
only bite under unusual circumstances; have
up to 12 hours to get antivenom
(red touch yellow  kill a fellow
red touch black  friend of Jack)
Western Cottonmouth
- can bite underwater
Western Diamondback Rattlesnake
- responsible for more human deaths than any other
N. Am. snake
Blacktail Rattlesnake
- rare
Brown Banded Copperhead
most are mistrustful of snakes in general because

a few are dangerous
snakes are much more of a benefit than a threat

eg. keep rodent populations in check
humans are much more of a threat to reptiles than

they are to us
More than 20% of the world’s reptiles are now at

risk of extinction
2. Medical Research
the regenerative abilities of reptiles is under study

for possible clues to organ replacement in
humans
3. Pharmaceuticals
eg. toxins from a Brazilian viper have provided the key
ingredient in a class of drugs called “ACE inhibitors” used to
lower blood pressure
eg. protein in black mamba venom is as effective as morphine in

relieving pain without its side effects (now under
development)

eg. protein found in Gila monster venom is used as treatment for
type II diabetes
4. Farmed Reptiles – semi-domesticated
2.6 Million crocodiles are produced each year

worldwide for food and hide
5. Reptiles as Food
eg. sea turtles

such as Kemps Ridley sea turtle
eg. Kemps Ridley sea turtle

1947: 40,000
1985: ~200
1994: 580
they like the same beaches we do
hunted for eggs and meat
in Mexico armed troops must guard

beaches during nesting season
also affected by pollution & fishing

US now requires exclusion devices on
shrimp nets
eg. Alligator meat comprises about 1/3rd of

commercial harvests in US
eg. snakes
6. World Trade in Live Reptiles/ Pet Trade

Because reptiles are traded for such a wide variety
of reasons, there are many hundreds of
species in trade.
millions of live reptiles are sold each year for the

pet trade.
eg. In 2001 the United States imported just under

2 million live reptiles.
eg. The United States annually exports more than 8 million

red-eared slider turtles (Trachemys scripta
elegans), the world's most commonly traded live
reptile.
eg. over 500,000 were green iguanas (Iguana

iguana) from Central and South America.
eg. Other species commonly found in the pet trade include:
boa constrictor (Boa constrictor)

ball python (Python regius)
panther chameleon (Chameleo pardalis)
red-footed tortoises (Geochelone carbonaria)
reptiles are among the most inhumanely treated

animals in the pet trade.
90% of wild-caught reptiles die in their first year of
captivity because of physical trauma prior to
purchase or because their owners cannot meet
their complex dietary and habitat needs.
Because they are cheap and easily replaceable, dealers,

captive breeders, and retailers factor huge mortality
into their operating costs.

7. World Trade in Reptile Products
eg. exotic skins trade. reptile hides are used in the

“luxury fashion” trade. PETA: virtually every store
that sells exotic skins has some hand in their illicit
trade
eg. alligators are bludgeoned to death with hammers

and steel rods,
snakes and lizards are decapitated and skinned
pythons are studdend (not killed) hoses are

inserted into their mouths and they are pumped
full of water to swell up to loosen their skin, then
each snakes head is impaled on a hook and the
animal is skinned alive
eg. curios and jewelry. In many parts of the world,

"tortoise shell" curios and jewelry, which are actually
made from the shells of hawksbill sea turtles, remain
popular, as do leather items made from snakes,
lizards, and crocodilians.
eg. Tortoises and turtles fetch high prices in Asian markets

- especially in China - where their meat is eaten and
their shells are used to make traditional medicines.
eg. American Alligator; brought back from near extinction

$30M hide business now
8. Herbal Medicine
tons of turtles are harvested because chinese believe that eating
turtles will lenthen lifespan
turtle blood is available at Walmarts in China
turtle heads are consumed for labor pains

powdered snake gall bladder is used as a cure for bronchitis
coin shakes are coiled up like a stack of coins with head on top
they are boiled into a thick black liquid that is sipped like
tea for general health
lizards are taken to treat high blood pressure
9. Industrial Products
eg. Gecko Tape
eg. special ‘hairs’ on the feet of geckos give them the power to
climb on walls and ceilings carrying up to 400 x’s their own
weight
tape that mimics the feet of geckos is now commercially

available
10. Invasive Species
eg. brown tree snakes
bioinvader of islands (eg Hawaii)
has wiped out numerous species of birds

and mammals

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Phylum Chordata – Vertebrates

reptiles include lizards, snakes, turtles, and are

over earth’s history they have been an extremely

even today they are a very successful group

they occupy a great variety of terrestrial habitats

in some habitats such as deserts they are the

some have even returned to an aquatic lifestyle in

reptiles were the 1st vertebrates no longer tied to

 1st truly terrestrial vertebrates

Animals: Phylum Chordata-Reptiles; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.11 1

310 MY ago, 50 MY after the appearance of the first

 the first reptiles

while amphibian adults can live on land

they must have water to reproduce

complete independence from water didn’t occur

the appearance of this new type of egg

the earliest example of a true reptile was a

probably ate mostly insects

 shows characteristics of both groups

by 225 (end of Permian) most amphibians of the time

the amphibians were “quickly” replaced by a great

shortly after reptiles arose, they began diversifying

diversification of plants including flowering plants created

increase in the number of insects and amphibians provided

largest living reptile:

10 feet long; 300 lbs

eg. Australian saltwater crocodile

eg. leatherback sea turtle

8 feet long; 1500 lbs

largest reptile ever:

Animals: Phylum Chordata-Reptiles; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.11 3

 largest animal ever to have walked on land

smallest living reptile

smallest snake – 4” thread snake from Barbados

reptiles were much more abundant and diverse

= age of reptiles (Mesozoic)

a second major innovation of reptiles is a thick, tough,

their skin consists of the same 2 basic layers of

 but epidermis much thicker than amphibians

 and contains lipids and waxy keratin

 very effective water proofing

 the skin of reptiles also contains scales but

**epidermal (not dermal) scales**

[scutes of turtles are modified scales]

also reptile scales are made of keratin, a

reptiles scales are homologous to feathers

some extinct forms (dinosaurs & relatives) had

reptile skin provide excellent protection from drying,

outer layer of epidermis is shed periodically

some reptiles retained the ability to grow bony

Animals: Phylum Chordata-Reptiles; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.11 5

thick dermis contains chromatophores

in some the chromatophores can rapidly

eg. inland taipans, fierce snakes up to 10 ft long,

eg. australian copperhead can also change color

in some reptiles the thick keratinized (horny) skin

Skeleton & Support

new features appear in reptile skeleton:

fewer skull bones

epidermal (not dermal) scales