An invertebrate is an animal without a backbone or vertebral column.

The vertebral
column are made up of small bones called vertebrae. The scientific name assigned to
animals without backbones is Invertebrata, meaning without vertebrae. There are more
than one million known species of invertebrate and about forty thousand species of
vertebrate animals. Due to the large variety of invertebrates, scientists have divided
them into seven major groups called phyla. The phylum Echinodermata consist of a
group of animals with external spines, such as the sand dollar, starfish, sea urchin,
Portuguese-man-of-war, and the sea cucumber. The phylum Porifera contain animals
with pores all over their bodies known as sponges. The phylum Coelenterata, also
called Cnidaria includes animals such as the hydra, jellyfish, sea anemone, and the
coral. These animals are characterized by having special stinging organs called
nematocysts. The phylum Mollusca is made up of animals called mollusks. Some
examples of mollusks include snails, slugs, scallop, octopus and clams. These animals
are characterized as having soft body and usually have limy shells.
There are three different phyla of worms, the Platyhelminthes, Annelida, and Nematoda.
The phylum Platyhelminthes include worms with flattened bodies, such as the planarian,
tapeworm and liver fluke. Phylum Nematoda include all the roundworms such as the
ascaris, pinworm, hookworm, stomach worm and the trichina or pork worm. Phylum
Annelida includes worms with bodies made of segments such as the sandworm, leech
and the earthworm. Phylum Arthropoda is the largest of all the phyla of animals
according to the number of species in this particular group. Arthropods are
characterized as animals with jointed legs and a hard external skeleton made of chitin.
Animals in this group include spiders, insects and crustaceans.
Unlike the invertebrates, vertebrate animals have a backbone. Most vertebrates have a
spinal column made up of tiny bones called vertebrae. However, some vertebrates do
not have a spinal column made up of tiny rigid bones. Animals such as the shark have a
vertebrae made up of cartilage. All vertebrates are bilaterally symmetrical meaning that
the left and right sides of the body are alike. Their bodies are usually divided into a head
and trunk.
There are about forty thousand species of vertebrates placed into one phylum,
Chordata, which is divided into eight different classes: (1) class Aves (birds), (2) class
Fish, (3) class Reptilia (reptiles), (4) class Mammalia (mammals), (5) class Amphibia
(amphibians).
Throughout the remainder of the prose section of the curriculum unit, “The Animal
Kingdom”, I will elaborate on each of the phyla presented in the introduction. As I
previously mentioned, animals are characterized by their structure so I will tend to
concentrate most of the information towards that particular area. Within each phylum
some animals display unique characteristics causing them to be further broken down
into classes. Therefore, I will also present the reader with vital information concerning
certain classes within a phylum. Once each phylum is covered by the instructor, a group
of scientific investigations and other activities will be provided in Appendix 2 at the end
of the unit to reinforce the information presented in this unit.
Phylum Mollusca
The animals in this particular phylum are known as mollusks. Mollusks make up the
largest group of water animals even though some classes of mollusk can be found in
hot, dry environments and forest habitats. However, mollusks must keep their bodies
moist in order to stay alive. Most of the mollusks that live on land can be found in damp
places such as in the soil or underneath logs, rocks or leaves.
Mollusks are characterized as having a soft, fleshy body, which, in many species, is
covered with a hard shell. There are seven classes of mollusks which have been
identified by scientist, but I will discuss the following three classes in this unit: (1)
univalves, or class Gastropoda, (2) bivalves, or class Bivalvia, (3) head-footed, or class
Cephalopoda. These are the most popular mollusks within this phylum. The common
name for each group so that the scientific name will not intimidate the audience for
which this paper is intended.
Class Gastropoda
Univalves are the largest class of mollusks. The term, univalve, comes from the Latin
word meaning one shell. Animals in this group includes snails, slugs, limpets and
whelks. Univalves such as the sea and garden slug called nudibraches have no shell
after the larval stage. The scientific name Gastropoda comes from the Greek word
meaning belly and foot.
Most people tend to think that univalves crawl around on their bellies, but they actually
move around on a large, muscular foot. In addition to locomotion, the foot is covered
with a lid-like part called an operculum which protects the univalve by enclosing the
animal in its shell when in danger. The head region of univalves generally contains the
mouth and sense organs such as tentacles. Certain univalves have two sets of
tentacles on their head. One set is used to help the animal feel their way about, and the
other set holds the eye of the animal. Univalves also have a ribbon of teeth called a
radula. The radula works lake a rough file and tears apart the animal’s food
The rest of the body contains various organs involved in reproduction, circulation,
digestion, and other important processes. Covering most of the univalves’ body is a soft
mantle. The mantle produces the material that makes up the hard shell. As the animal
grows, the mantle becomes larger in order to house the animal.
Class Bivalvia
Bivalves make up the second largest class of mollusks. Clams, mussels, scallops,
oysters and shipworms are a few examples of the animals in this class. Bivalves have
two shells held together by a strong muscle. The shell usually remain open unless the
animal senses danger, then the muscle closes the shell tightly for protection. They have
a well-developed head with eyes, and one or two pairs of tentacles. Most are marine,
but some live in fresh water or on land.
Bivalves are also characterized by having a strong muscular foot. Most of the animals
use this foot for locomotion. However, bivalves such as clams use their foot to dig holes
by pushing it downward into the mud or sand. The foot swells to enlarge the hole, and
then it contracts and pulls the shell into the burrow. These animals breathe and feed
through a muscular tube called a siphon. They feed on plant cells material, which is
filtered from the water by the gills.
Class Cephalopods
Cephalopods are characterized as having large heads with long tentacles and
conspicuous eyes. For this reason, Cephalopods are known as head-footed mollusks.
Octopuses, squids and nautiluses are some of the animals which make up this
particular group of animals.
Head-footed mollusks are the most highly developed animal within the phylum
Mollusca. Most head-footed mollusks do not have an external shell, but do have some
part of a shell within their body. These animals are fast swimming, active predators with
highly developed eyes and nervous system.
These animals use a water propulsion system for movement. They force water out of a
tube in one direction, which pushes them along in the opposite direction. In addition to
their speed, these animals have highly developed defense mechanisms. Squids and
octopuses have an ink sac which secretes a purple dye blinding their predator. Leaving
them confused, the head-footed mollusks escape. Some of the mollusks in this class
have the ability to change the color of their skin, thus camouflaging the animal from their
enemy.
Phylum Porifera
This phylum contain pore-bearing animals known as sponges. There are approximately
three hundred thousand species of sponges. They live in aquatic, mainly marine
habitats. They grow attached to rocks and other debris on the ocean floor. For a long
time scientist thought that these animals were plants because they lack the ability to
move about like other animals. Poriferans are the most simplest of the invertebrate
animals in structure.
Sponges are divided into three different classes according to their skeletons: (1) chalky,
(2) glassy, or (3) spongin—a protein material. The skeleton protects and supports the
sponge’s body. The body of a sponge resembles a sac full of holes called pores. Water
carrying food and oxygen enters through the pores. These substances are taken in
through the central cavity called the spongocoel, where food and oxygen is filtered out
and waste is passed through the top opening. The spongocoel also houses several
flagellated (whiplike organs) which forms currents to keep water flowing through its
pores.
Sponges also possess the ability to regenerate, or regrow old body parts. When the
cells of a sponge are torn apart or separated, they reaggregate to form a complete
sponge again. If clusters of different species of sponges where place in isolated
containers of sea water, they would reorganize and sort themselves out and produce a
new sponge of each class.
Phylum Cnidaria
There are about ten thousands species of cnidarians. Fresh water hydras, jellyfish, sea
anemones, and corals are just a few examples of some of the animals which belong to
this particular phylum. This phylum is also known as coelenterates.
There are three different classes of cnidarians: (1) class Hydroza, which includes the
hydras; (2) class Scyphozoa, which includes the jellyfish; and (3) class Anthozoa, which
includes sea anemones and corals. All the animals within this group are characterized
as having tentacles with stinging cells. They have only one opening into their digestive
cavity. This opening has to serve as both the mouth and anus. Their body walls are
made up of at least two layers. The outer layer forms the body covering called an
ectoderm, and an inner called an endoderm which lines the digestive cavity. Some
cnidarians possess a third layer consisting of a stiff, jellylike material which helps
support the animal.
Cnidarians are usually shaped like a polyp, or medusa. The hydra has the polyp form
which sort of resembles an elongated jellyfish. Most cnidarians are shaped like polyps
during their larval stage, and develop into the medusa form later in its life. The medusa,
or jellyfish shaped cnidarians have a bell or umbrella-shaped body. Their mouths are
found underneath their bell-shaped heads, which are usually surrounded by tentacles
with stinging cells.
Phylum Arthropoda
Arthropods are the most successful group of animals. More than eight hundred
thousand species of living arthropods have been identified, and more probably exist.
About eight percent of all animals belong to this group—other classes of arthropods
include (1 ) class Arachnida—spiders, ticks and mites; (2) class Crustacea—lobsters,
crabs and barnacles; (3) class Chilopoda—centipedes; and, (4) class Diplopoda—
millipedes.
Arthropods possess a hard external shell called an exoskeleton. It is made up of a stiff
material called chitin. Arthropods are characterized by their paired, jointed appendages,
which are often specialized to perform a certain function. Their bodies are segmented,
and usually possess a well defined nervous and circulatory system.
Five of the six major classes or arthropods are characterized as follows:
(1) Class Arachnida includes the spiders, mites, scorpions, and ticks. The
arachnid body is divided into two parts, a cephalothorax (fused head and thorax)
and abdomen. They also have four pairs of walking legs. Many types of arachnids
have glands that secretes silk used for making webs.
(2) Class Crustacea includes crabs, lobsters, and barnacles. Their bodies, like the
arachnids, are divided into two parts—a cephalothorax and abdomen.
Crustaceans have mandibles (mouth parts used for chewing) and two pairs of
antennae (sensory appendages). Many have five pairs of walking legs.
(3) Class Insecta is made up of insects. An insect’s body is divided into three
parts—the head, thorax and abdomen. There are three pairs of walking legs
attached to the thorax, and sometimes one or two pairs of wings. These animals
also possess one pair of antennae, and a mandible.
(4) Class Chilopoda includes the centipedes. The body of a centipede consists of
a head and a series of many segments. Depending upon the species, a centipede
can have up to one hundred eight-one segments. With the exception of the first
and last two segments, each segment possess a pair of walking legs. The first
segment contain a pair of poisonous claws used to capture insects for prey.
Centipedes have one pair of antennae and mandibles for chewing. (5) Class
Diplopoda consists of the millipedes. The millipede body contain a head, short
thorax, and an abdomen consisting of anywhere from nine to one hundred
segments. Each segment may have two pairs of legs. Like the centipede,
millipedes have mandibles and one pair of antennae.
Worms
Worms are characterized as animals which have long, slender soft bodies with no
backbones or legs. They are classified according to the shape of their bodies. There are
four different phyla of worms: (1) Phylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms); (2) Phylum
Nematoda (roundworms); (3) Phylum Annelida (segmented worms); and (4) Phylum
Nemerffna (ribbon worms).
Phylum Platyhelminths
Flatworms are the least complex of the four groups of worms. They have sensory
organs concentrated at one end of its body—the head. Three classes of flatworms have
been identified: (1 ) class Turbellaria—the free living flatworms such as planarians; (2)
class Trematoda—the parasitic worms such as flukes; (3) class Cestoda—tapeworms.
Flukes and tapeworms are notorious parasites that live in humans and domestic
animals.
Free-living flatworms are found in ponds, lakes, streams and oceans. They feed on both
dead and living plant and animal matter. The most popular free-living flatworm, the
planarian has the ability to regenerate. Their digestive system is composed of a single
opening, a mouth connected to the pharynx, and branched intestines. Once nutrients
are absorbed into the cells, the undigested food is eliminated through the mouth.
Flukes and tapeworms are parasitic flatworms which infect human beings and other
domesticated animals. Since tapeworms absorb food directly from the wall of its host’s
(the animal on which it lives) intestine, they lack a digestive system. They also lack
sense organs and a brain. However, they have a highly developed reproductive system.
Their bodies consist of a long chain of segments called a proglottids, each segment is
equipped with both male and female organs containing as many as one hundred
thousand eggs. Most of these parasites have complex life cycles, spending their larval
stage in the body of its host. They then move to another host to spend the remainder of
its entire adult life. A person infected with tapeworms may display the following
symptoms: pain and discomfort, decreased appetite, weight loss, and other symptoms.
Phylum Nematoda
Roundworms are the largest phylum of worms with more than ten thousand species
being identified. They are widely distributed in soil and both salt and fresh water. Many
roundworms are free-living, but others are parasites such as the pinworm, ascaris,
stomach worm, hookworms and the trichina (pork roundworm) that live in plants and
animals. These worms are characterized as having long, cylindrical bodies that
resembles of a piece of thread.
The life cycle of the parasitic worms in this phylum varies. For instance, The ascaris
spends its adult life in the intestines of humans. Like the tapeworm, it has a highly
developed reproductive system. However, their sexes are separate, and copulation
takes place within the host. The female can lay up to two hundred thousand eggs which
leave the body through human feces. In areas where sanitation is poor the eggs find
their way into the soil. The soil is then used as fertilizer. People accidentally eat the
eggs and become infected. The larvae hatch in the intestines and then journey through
the body, ending up in the intestines. However, before it reaches the intestines, the
larvae can cause a great deal of damage to the lungs and other tissues.
Pinworms most commonly infect children. These worms are less than 1.3 centimeters
long, and live in the large intestine. The female pinworm migrates down to the anal
region at night to deposit their eggs. Their eggs causes an irritation which the victim to
itch the infected area, thus spreading the tiny eggs all over their environment. Eating
with dirty hands speeds up the infection process. Mild infections may go unnoticed, but
more serious infections may result in injury to the intestinal wall.
Phylum Annelida
This phylum is the second largest group of worms. Segmented worms have a
cylindrical, elongated body that is partitioned into rings, or segments. They contain a
pair of hard bristles on each segment called setae which are used for locomotion. In
addition to their conspicuous segmentation, annelids are more complex than flatworms
and round worms in several ways. They possess a spacious coelom, a closed
circulatory system, an efficient excretory system and a closed circulatory system. The
most popular segmented worm is the earthworm. They are usually used for dissection
because they possess more advanced structures mentioned previously.
Segmented worms are divided into three classes. (1) Class Hirudinea is composed of
the leeches. Most leeches are parasites which suck blood from other animals. At each
end of the leech’s body is a sucker used for locomotion and attachment. (2) Class
Ploychaeta includes marine worms such as sandworms and tubeworms. These worms
have a distinct head with eyes and antennae. Each of its body segments has a pair of
lateral appendages called parapodia which are used for locomotion. (3) Class
Oligochaeta includes the earthworm as well as some freshwater worms. These worms
lack a well-developed head and have no parapodia.
Phylum Chordata
The vertebrate animals which exist in this particular phylum are the most familiar to
most students, and is credited with being the most diverse group of animals. Unlike the
invertebrates previously discussed. Phylum Chordata contain five subgroups, or classes
consisting of amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals and fish. I will include a brief
synopsis of these classes proceeding this introduction.
Class Amphibia
Amphibians are characterized as animals with smooth, moist skin which aids in
respiration during the adult stage of their life. But they are best known for the unique
characteristic living part of their life in water and part on land. Most amphibians can
survive in terrestrial environments, but they must return to the water to reproduce. The
eggs of amphibians are surrounded by a jelly-like substance when they are deposited
into the water. This jellylike material would dry out if they were laid on land, thus killing
their offspring.
Most amphibians hatch from eggs which are laid in water or moist ground. They start
out their life in water as larvae. They move from the larval stage to adulthood in a
process called metamorphosis. Some adult amphibians continue living in the water, but
most live their adult life on land. However, they must return continue to live around
water for two reasons: (1) They must return to the water to find their mates and produce
their young; and (2) Amphibians breathe through their skin; therefore, their skin must
remain damp in order for them to take in oxygen.
There are three subgroups, or orders of amphibians. (1) Order Anura (frogs and toads)
—Frogs and toads have four legs and no tail. Their hind legs are strong and used for
jumping. (2) Order Caudata (Salamanders)—Salamanders have no tail. They either
have four or two short weak legs. (3) Order Apoda (Caecilians)—Caecilians have no
legs and resemble large earthworms. These animals usually live in underground
burrows, but some are aquatic.
Class Reptilia
Reptiles are more suited for terrestrial life than are amphibians. Some of the major
characteristics of reptiles include: (1) They have dry-scaly skin, (2) They possess limbs
suited for rapid locomotion. (3) They have copulatory organs that permit internal
fertilization. (4) They lay eggs on land that has a leathery outer covering which prevent
them from drying out on land.
There are four major classes of reptiles:
(1) Order Crocodilia (Crocodiles and Alligators)—These animals spend most of its
time underneath the water with its eyes and nostrils above the surface. They can
be differentiated by their snout An alligator has a broad snout, whereas a
crocodile have a narrower snout.
(2) Order Squamata (Lizards and Snakes)—Snakes are noted for their unusual
method of capturing their prey. Some snakes are poisonous, and possess special
glands that produce venom which they inject into their prey through special teeth
called fangs. They also use their tongues to find their prey and for smelling.
Lizards are different from snakes because they have legs, possess ears to detect
sounds and most of them eat insects.
(3) Order Rhynchocephalia (Tuatara)—a single species of reptile only found in
New Zealand.
(4) Order Chelonia (Turtles, Tortoises)—Even though these two reptiles look alike,
their bodies are adapted to live together in two totally different environments.
Since the turtle spends most of its time in the water, they possess paddle-shaped
legs which they use for swimming. Whereas tortoises legs are stumpy and solid
because they spend most of their time on land.
Class Fish
Fish are cold-blooded aquatic vertebrates with fins and gills. Even though fish come in a
variety of shapes and sizes, most are torpedo-shaped (fusiform) so that they can travel
efficiently through the water. Basically birds are classified into three basic orders: (1)
Order Agnatha (Jawless Fish) such as lampreys and hagfishes. (2) Order
Chondrichthyes (the Cartilaginous—skeleton fish) such as sharks and stingrays. (3)
Order Osteichthyes (Bony Skeletal Fish)—Fish in this particular order possess a swim
bladder that help them float at different levels in the water.
Fish breathes, or take in oxygen through their gills while swimming underneath the
water. External fertilization takes place outside the body of the female in most species
of fish. Females release jelly-coated eggs in the water, and the males come along and
release sperm to fertilize them. Fish also have well-developed circulatory, digestive, and
nervous systems
Class Aves
Birds are characterized as warmblooded vertebrate animals that have wings and
feathers. Warmbloodedness refers to the animals ability to maintain a constant body
temperature regardless of the temperature of its environment. There are twenty seven
orders of birds. However they can be divided into four main groups: perching birds,
flightless birds, birds of prey, and water birds. Within these four groups exist different
orders.
Some examples of perching birds are robins, sparrows, cardinals, etc. . . These birds
possess feet that allow them to easily grasp branches. Their beak is adapted for
catching worms and insects, cracking seeds, and reaching deep inside flowers to collect
nectar. Water birds such as flamingos have long legs and toes for wading. Ducks, and
geese are the most familiar water birds, and they have paddlelike feet for swimming.
Ostriches, rheas, and penguins are a few examples of flightless birds. With the
exception of the penguin, flightless birds have strong leg muscles that enables them to
rapidly escape from their enemy. These birds have relatively small wing when
considering their body sizes. However, birds of prey are excellent fliers with keen
eyesight While soaring high into the air, they can spot prey in the water or on the ground
far below them. These birds have sharp toes called talons which enables them to grasp
and hold their prey. They also possess sharp curved beaks which allow them to tear
their prey into small pieces so that they can swallow their food. Birds of prey eat small
animals like reptiles, mammals, fish and other birds. Some examples of birds of prey
include eagles, owls and seagulls.
Class Mammalia
Mammals are characterized by specific features, even though other animals may
possess some of the same features. Some of the characteristics include: (1) Mammals
are vertebrate animals. (2) They are warmblooded animals. (3) They bear young which
are nourished by milk. (4) Mammals have large brains which makes them quick
learners. (5) They are partially covered with hair. (6) Their skin contain sweat glands. (7)
Their hearts are made up of four chambers. (8) They possess a middle ear bone. (9)
They hear extremely well because of their external ear (pinnae).
However, what makes mammals unique from other animals is that the female species
possess mammary glands from which their name is derived. Mammary glands produce
nutritious milk to feed their young. The sweat glands in their skin acts as a cooling
mechanism during extremely high temperatures. The hair on mammals act as an
insulator, or pelage which traps air and reduce heat loss from the body.
There are approximately nineteen living orders of mammals. The majority of mammals
are viviparous (bear living young instead of laying eggs). The females’ babies are
nourished before birth through a placenta which attaches the embryo to the uterus of
the mother. Mammals exist in every major habitat on earth, from the deepest oceans to
the driest deserts, from the tropics to the polar region.