REPRODUCTION

Is the production of new individual or offsprings

Types of reproduction
1.Sexual
2.Asexual
 Asexual Reproduction
• It is the reproduction of new organisms where one parent is
involved.

• This is reproduction without fertilization i.e. no fusion of gametes.

• The offspring from asexual reproduction are genetically identical to

each other & to the parent organism and are referred to as
CLONES.
 Examples of Asexual Reproduction in Plants and
Animals

a) Vegetative propagation
1.Budding – it is form of asexual reproduction in which a new organism
is produced as an outgrowth.
The outgrowth is later released as a self-supporting, identical copy of
the parent.
Most roses are propagated by budding on suitable wood stock.
Another example is hydra, a simple animal.
• 2. Cutting – the cutting of about 20cm is trimmed at the
base just below a joint & inserted firmly in good moist
soil or water.

• Most plant e.g. roses are propagated through cuttings.

1.Grafting – a bud / shoot from the plant is
inserted under the bark on the stem of another
closely related variety.
The bud then grows using water & nutrients
supplied by the other plant , mostly suitable for
propagation of apple trees, pear trees, rubber
trees etc
 e.G orange/lemon
•It is done by attaching a piece of a plant
called a scion to a stem called a stalk.
•In order for the graft to be successful the
vascular bundles of the scion must join that
of the stalk to allow easy transport of water
and mineral salts
• The cut surface is covered with greese to;

•i)Prevent entry of pathogens

•ii)Reduce excessive water loss
• Layering – A young branch that is still attached to a plant
is bent downwards to the ground and held firmly to the
ground using pegs (hooks) until it forms roots.
• sometimes rooting powder can be applied to accelerate
root development.

• Once the branch has fully grown into a plant, it is cut off
from the parent plant so that it becomes independent
•Advantages of Asexual Reproduction
It is the simplest & shortest way of
reproduction
The chances of offspring survival are greatly
enhanced
There is no danger of gametes getting
destroyed before fusion
Cont..

Ideal for presentation of good

characteristics within the population
Possible to produce a large number of
offspring within a short time
•Disadvantages of Asexual
reproduction
Defects from parents are easily
passed to offspring
Inhibits evolutionary change
•Assignment 1
•triple
• Functions of parts
Stigma – receives pollen grains/ a platform where
pollen grains lands.
Style – allows the pollen tube to pass through to the
ovary
Ovary – produces female sex cells called ovules
Anther – produces the male sex cells called pollen grain
Filament – holds the anther. Also carry water and
dissolved food substances to the anther.
 Petals – encloses parts of the flower /protect
them.
-they are usually brightly coloured and
scented to attract insects for pollination

Sepals – protects the ovary and/or the general flower during the
bud stage. They are green hence photosynthesis providing food
to developing flower.
Flower stalk – holds the flower in position (attaches the flower to
the plant)
• Receptacle – where all the other parts of a flower are attached
• Pollination
• It is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to stigma

• Types of Pollination
Self Pollination – the transfer of pollen grains from the anther
to the stigma in the same flower, or the transfer of pollen
grains from the anther to stigma of another flower on the
same plant.
Cross Pollination – The transfer of pollen grains from the
anther to the stigma of another flower of the same species.
•Agents of Pollination
Insects
Wind
Characteristics of Flowers

Wind Pollinated Flower Insects Pollinated Flower

 Have dull petals  Bright coloured petals

 Small or no petals  Have large petals
 Have feathery stigma  Plain stigma
 Light pollen grains produced  Sticky pollen grains
 Lots of pollen grains produced  Few pollen grains
 Have no scent  Scented petals

 No nectar  Have nectar

• Fertilization
• In order for fertilization to occur, pollination must first
take place.
• Fertilization is the fusion of the male nucleus (from
pollen grains) with female nucleus (from the ovules) to
produce a embryo / zygote.
• Events leading to fertilization
• once a pollen grain has reached the stigma,it absorbs
nutrients secreted by the stigma and a pollen tube emerges
from one of the pores on the walls of the pollen grains and
grows rapidly down the style to the ovary.
• The pollen tube has two nuclei : generative and tube nucleus
1.Tube nucleus- directs pollen tube to the ovule and secretes
digestive enzymes that bursts the tip of the pollen tube.
2.Generative nucleus- divides to form two nucleus
- male nucleus for fertilising the female nucleus from
the ovule.
 one for forming endosperm- food store.
-On reaching the ovary, the pollen tube enters the
ovule through the micropyle.
-The tip of the pollen tube breaks open the ovule and
the male nucleus enters the ovule and fuses with the
female nucleus while the tube nucleus disintegrates.
•The fertilized ovule develops into an embryo.
• The embryo has plumule -which develops
into shoot and a radicle -which develops into
roots.
•The embryo is attached to the cotyledons –
one in monocots & two in dicots. The embryo
is found enclosed in seeds.
 Results after fertilization

-fruit and seed formation

 the petals dry up and fall off

leaving the ovary to develop into the fruit
 ovules into the seeds.
•Functions of Parts
1.Testa {seed coat} – this is the tough outer
cover in seeds. It protects the embryo from
physical damage.
2.Cotyledon - this is where food is stored for
the embryo. Non Endospermic seeds (dicots)
have two cotyledons. Endospermic seeds
have one cotyledon
3. Micropyle – it is an opening left by the pollen
tube on the testa. It allows water & O2 needed for
germination to enter the seed.

-Embryo is made of the;

Plumule – which develops into the shoot
during germination
Radicle – which grows in the root system.
•

•Environmental Conditions For Germination

•The following conditions must be present
in order for seeds to germinate
Water
Oxygen
•Suitable Temperature
• Water or moisture
• Adequate water is needed for germination to start &
continue.
Excess water prevents germination by excluding
oxygen.
The forces exerted by the accumulation of water into
the seed may eventually rapture the testa.
Water is also required to activate enzymes. Amylase
will start to digest starch to maltose.
•Oxygen
•It is required for aerobic respiration.
• The energy released is used to run
chemical reactions within the cells of the
embryo during its period of growth.
•Suitable Temperature
•This will make enzymes to be activated thus
chemical reactions will occur at the highest
rate to make new cells.
• Each species of seeds have an optimum
temperature for germination; (5 C– 40 C) is
0 0

the temperature range suitable for seed

germination.
•The Role of Enzymes in Seed germination
•In the early stages of germination, the
food reserves in the cotyledons mostly
starch & proteins are acted upon by
enzymes and converted to soluble
products which are used by the actively
growing regions.
•Glucose is formed from the stored
starch & being used in various ways;
e.g. In the synthesis of cellulose &
incorporated into cell walls and in the
process of respiration to generate
energy needed in the growing
regions.
 •Seed Dispersal
•This is the transfer {scattering away} of
seeds from the parent plant to new sites.
After seed development either the entire
fruit or the seed(s) contained within are
dispersed from the parent plant.
• Advantages of Seed dispersal
I. It reduces chances of competition for nutrients & space
II.There is also more chance of finding a fresh area to colonize,
thus increasing the overall species population in time. (it
promotes plants diversity in different localities)

• Disadvantages
I. There is a possibility of not finding a suitable place for
germination
•Mechanisms of Seed Dispersal.

•There are three main external agents

(mechanisms) of dispersal, namely;
Animal
Wind
Water
•In addition, seeds can be
dispersed through self
dispersal mechanism,
which involves an
explosive release of
seeds from the fruit.
•1. Animal Dispersed
Seeds
•Example..burdock
 They have hooks or spines with
which they attach themselves to the
skin, fur or wool of passing animals
and thus carried over some distance
before dropping off or being
scratched off. E.g. goose grass,
buttercup etc.
•Contained in succulent fruits which have
edible fleshly parts. E.g. tomatoes, strawberry,
mulberry, wild berries, grapes etc.
• The fruit is eaten & digested but the seeds
are resistant to digestive enzymes & pass
unharmed through the gut of the animal to be
deposited with faeces often on fertile soils.
•2. Wind Dispersed Seeds
•Example..dandelion
 Parachute fruits & seed – seeds of willow
herb & the fruit of dandelion have projecting
feathery hairs (parachute-like strutures)
which increase their surface area.
As a result, the seeds floats over long
distances before sinking to the ground.
It is therefore likely to be carried a long way
from the parent plant by slight air current.
 Winged fruits –
Fruits of sycamore & ash trees have wing-
like outgrowths from the ovary walls or leaf-
like structures on the flower stalk.

These wings cause the fruit to spin as it

falls from the tree & slow down its fall.
This delay increases the chances of the fruit being
carried away in air currents.
Pepper pot effect – e.g. poppy has along flower on
which hangs a dry hollow capsule (formed from the
ovary) with one / more openings.
The wind shakes the flower stalk and seeds are
scattered on all sides through the openings in the
capsule.
 •3. Water Dispersed Seeds
•Some plants e.g. Coconut have a fibrous
ovary wall which enables the fruit to float on
water so that the seed is water dispersed.
• some are also light in weight to float on
water.
 • 4. Self Dispersed Seed
• Example; lupin
• Explosive fruits – they dry up in the sun
and twist.
• split in half down the lines of weakness
and the two halves curl back suddenly
& flick out the seed.