PERPETUATION OF LIFE Notes

PERPETUATION OF LIFE
What is Perpetuation of Life?

- From the perpetuation, it is the continuation of life. In order to
continue or preserve the life of living things, reproduction needs
to happen.
Reproduction
- Is the process by which all living organisms produce one of their kinds
to ensure the survival of the species.
There are 2 types of reproduction; they are the asexual and sexual
reproduction.
1. Asexual reproduction
The offspring is produced from the cells of a single
parent. The offspring in this reproduction can be called a
clone since they share the same chromosomes with the single
parent.
a. Fission- Where in the parent is divided into two or more parts

then each part will grow to the original form.
● Binary fission- parent is divided into two.

● Multiple fission- parent is divided to more than 2 parts.
Example: amoeba
b. Fragmentation- Pieces of the parent break off and are

developed into new individuals.
Example: starfish
c. Budding- The offspring is produced when an outgrowth which

is called the bud is formed on some parts of the parent that will
eventually fall off once it has grown enough.
Example: hydra
2. Sexual Reproduction
In this type of reproduction, new organisms are produced
from two organisms using their gametes. In this process, the
male gamete or sperm cells fuse with the female gamete or the
egg cell to form a zygote which contains two sets of
chromosomes.
● External Fertilization- Both the sperm cell and egg cell is

released in an external environment where the egg cell is
fertilized by the sperm cell.
Ex: frog
● Internal Fertilization- The sperm fertilizes the egg cell inside
the body of the female parent.
● Oviparity- Oviparous animals lay eggs after fertilization and the

offspring will complete its development inside the shell and
outside the mother's body. The yolk will provide the nutrients
needed for development.
Ex: Chicken
● Viviparity- The embryo will develop inside the mother's body.

The mother's body will provide all the nutrients for the growing
fetus.
Ex: Dogs
● Ovoviviparous- this fertilization combines both oviparity and

viviparity. The embryos are developed inside the eggs but they
are not laid until they are ready to hatch
Ex: mantaray
REPRODUCTION OF PLANTS
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
1. Vegetative Propagation - New plants are produced from the

roots, stem, leaves and buds or the vegetative parts of a plant.
Vegetative Propagation can be natural or artificially induced.
A. Budding - A new plant is developed from an outgrowth known

as the bud.
For example, if you keep a potato for a long time, you can notice
a number of small outgrowths, which are commonly referred to
as ‘eyes’. Each of them can be planted which will grow up like a
clone
B. Fragmentation- A new plant is produced from a portion of the

parent plant. Each section or a part of the plants develop into a
mature, fully grown individual. A small part of the plant falls off
onto soil and then begins to grow up into a new plant.
Ex: Byrophyllum
ARTIFICIAL VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
A. Grafting- Two plant species are used: part of the stem of the
desirable plant is grafted onto a rooted plant called the stock.
The part that is grafted or attached is called the scion. Both
are cut at an oblique angle (any angle other than a right
angle), placed in close contact with each other, and are then
held together.
B. Cutting- In this method, a part of a plant is cut along with

the node and is buried in the soil.The cutting is watered
regularly. This is the cheapest method of vegetative
propagation in plants.
C. Layering-In this process, one of the stems is bent to the
ground so that the soil covers the surface of the plant. The
emergence of adventitious roots takes place from this point
of contact with the soil. It gradually keeps growing and
forms a layer.
D. Micro Propagation- Also called plant tissue culture is a

method of propagating a large number of plants from a
single plant in a short time under laboratory conditions. This
method allows propagation of rare, endangered species that
may be difficult to grow under natural conditions, are
economically important, or are in demand as disease-free
plants.
2. Spore Formation- A spore is an asexual reproductive body,

surrounded by a hard protective cover to withstand unfavourable
conditions such as high temperature and low humidity. Under
favourable conditions, the spores germinate and grow into new
plants. Plants like moss and ferns use this mode of reproduction.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
The majority of flowering plants reproduce sexually. The flower is the

reproductive part of a plant i.e., both male and female gametes are
produced by flowers. Sexual reproduction in plants takes place in
flowers. The complete flower typically consists of four parts: petals,
sepals, stamen (male reproductive part) and pistil or carpel (female
reproductive part).
•Sepal- green structures that are the outermost part of the flower. They
protect the flower before it opens.
•Petals- inside the sepals are the petals. These are usually colourful.
Petals on flowers are actually modified leaves.
•Stamen- is the male reproductive part of the flower which consists of

anther and filament.
a. Anther- sac-like structure that produces and stores pollen.

b. Filament- supports the anther.
Pistil is the female reproductive part of the flower. It consists of

three parts- stigma, style, and ovary.
a. Stigma- the topmost part of a flower.
b. Style- the long tube which connects the stigma to the ovary.
c. Ovary- contains a lot of ovules. It is the part of the plant where the
seed formation takes place.
NOTE: A flower may consist of either stamen or pistil or both.

When a flower has a stamen or a pistil it is called unisexual but
when it has both it is called bisexual. One example of a bisexual
flower is rose and one unisexual plant is cucumber.
POLLINATION AND FERTILIZATION

In order to form a zygote, male gametes in pollen grains have to fuse
with the egg in the ovule. This is achieved by a process called
pollination. Pollination is the process of transferring pollen grains from
the anther to the stigma. Pollination can happen in two ways: self-
pollination and cross pollination. A bisexual plant can pollinate through
self- pollination and cross pollination.
Self-Pollination- happens when a plant’s own pollen fertilizes its own

ovules.
Cross Pollination- A pollination where the pollen transfer takes place
between the anther and the stigma of different flowers of the same plant
or different plants of the same species.
Cross pollination happens with the help of pollinators. They include

insects, water, birds, and winds. A bee can carry pollen from one flower
to another while the wind can blow the pollen and pollen can also float
on the water's surface until it contacts another flower.
Fertilization is the next step after pollination. During fertilization, the

male gametes from the pollen join with the female gametes in the egg.
The egg, or eggs, are found inside the stigma. The scientific word for an
egg is an ovule.
Fertilization creates fruit that contain seeds. Some fruits are fleshy, like
oranges and watermelons. Others are dry, like acorns or walnuts. Fruits
are an attractive food for various animals. After eating fruit, animals
expel waste that contains seeds. This way, seeds can take root and grow
in places far from the plants that produced them.
GENETIC ENGINEERING
- Genetic Engineering is a process where the genetic material of an

organism is manipulated to change its characteristics. The products of
genetic engineering are called Genetically Modified Organism (GMO)
and Transgenic Organisms. Transgenic organisms are a type of GMO
that have been through genetic modification, and have foreign genetic
material in them.
WHAT HAPPENS IN GENETIC ENGINEERING?
•It also allows genes from one organism to be inserted into a cell of a
different organism of a different species.
•Human genes can be inserted on other microorganisms.
•Micro-organism genes can be inserted on other plants and animals.
•Organisms’ genes can be changed and cut.
PROCESS OF GENETIC ENGINEERING
Genetic engineering of a crop or an animal can take years to complete.

But in general, genetic engineers take four steps in altering the genetics
of an organism.
1. Identification- To produce a GMO, scientists first identify what trait

they want that organism to have.
2. Copying - They copy that gene using processes involving creating of

new parts made out of protein, or more usually, a plasmid or a virus
replicating genetic information.
3. Insertion - Genetic engineers use “vectors” like adenoviruses and

bacteria to insert the gene into the DNA of the organism.
4. Growth- In the laboratory, scientist grow the new GMO to ensure it

has adopted the desired traits. GMOs go through in depth review and
safety tests before they are ready to be released to the public.
TYPES OF GENETIC ENGINEERING
1. Selective breeding- Is choosing organisms with desirable

characteristics, and breeding them together to produce a
desirable one.
2. Cloning - Creating an organism that is an exact genetic copy of

another. The unwanted chromosomes that are removed from the
egg cell, donor nucleus is inserted into empty egg cell and
fertilized, chemical processes and electricity kick-starts the
process and the embryo develops rarely depending on the chance
of compatibility.
3. Hybridization- It is the process of crossing plants or animals

with different variations of the same trait to create an organism
with the most desirable trait. A hybrid animal is created by
breeding two different species.
4. Gene splicing- A genetic material is cut and inserted from one
organism to another. Most GMOs are made through gene
splicing.
PRODUCTS OF GENETIC ENGINEERING USED FOR

HUMANS
•Growth hormones from dwarfism

- Genetic engineers synthesised about 190 amino acids to make the
growth hormone, which can also be commercially sold as height
enhancing supplements.
•Vaccine production
- Vaccines are created by taking a piece of genetic material of the
infection (fungi, virus, bacteria) so they can be fought by our immune
system.
TRANSGENIC ORGANISMS
- BT (Bacillus thuringiensis) eggplant

Bacillus thuringiensis, a common soil bacterium that contains a
gene which produces a protein harmful to Fruit and Shoot Borer
(FSB). Scientists have incorporated a gene from BT to eggplants
to confer insect resistance. It is now available in the market and
it is the first GMO project of the Philippine genetic engineers. It
displayed high levels of resistance to pests and can make
farmers save money from pesticides and earn more from its
higher yield.
- BT corn
BT corn is a common GMO around the world. BT corn is
enhanced through biotechnology to protect against insect pests.
Its built-in insect protection comes from a naturally occurring
microorganism called Bacillus thuringiensis.
- GMO
Arctic apples produce less of the enzyme polyphenol oxidase,
which ordinarily causes apples to turn brown, either from
damage or when they are cut up. They underwent RNA
interference also called gene silencing. Scientists added an extra
RNA strand to effectively switch off the gene.

PERPETUATION OF LIFE Notes

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PERPETUATION OF LIFE

What is Perpetuation of Life?

a. Fission- Where in the parent is divided into two or more parts

● Binary fission- parent is divided into two.

b. Fragmentation- Pieces of the parent break off and are

c. Budding- The offspring is produced when an outgrowth which

● External Fertilization- Both the sperm cell and egg cell is

● Oviparity- Oviparous animals lay eggs after fertilization and the

● Viviparity- The embryo will develop inside the mother's body.

● Ovoviviparous- this fertilization combines both oviparity and

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

1. Vegetative Propagation - New plants are produced from the

A. Budding - A new plant is developed from an outgrowth known

B. Fragmentation- A new plant is produced from a portion of the

ARTIFICIAL VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

B. Cutting- In this method, a part of a plant is cut along with

D. Micro Propagation- Also called plant tissue culture is a

2. Spore Formation- A spore is an asexual reproductive body,

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS

The majority of flowering plants reproduce sexually. The flower is the

•Stamen- is the male reproductive part of the flower which consists of

a. Anther- sac-like structure that produces and stores pollen.

Pistil is the female reproductive part of the flower. It consists of

a. Stigma- the topmost part of a flower.

NOTE: A flower may consist of either stamen or pistil or both.

POLLINATION AND FERTILIZATION

Self-Pollination- happens when a plant’s own pollen fertilizes its own

Cross pollination happens with the help of pollinators. They include

Fertilization is the next step after pollination. During fertilization, the

- Genetic Engineering is a process where the genetic material of an

WHAT HAPPENS IN GENETIC ENGINEERING?

PROCESS OF GENETIC ENGINEERING

Genetic engineering of a crop or an animal can take years to complete.

1. Identification- To produce a GMO, scientists first identify what trait

2. Copying - They copy that gene using processes involving creating of

3. Insertion - Genetic engineers use “vectors” like adenoviruses and

4. Growth- In the laboratory, scientist grow the new GMO to ensure it

1. Selective breeding- Is choosing organisms with desirable

2. Cloning - Creating an organism that is an exact genetic copy of

3. Hybridization- It is the process of crossing plants or animals

PRODUCTS OF GENETIC ENGINEERING USED FOR

•Growth hormones from dwarfism

- BT (Bacillus thuringiensis) eggplant

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