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REPRODUCTION

Reproduction refers to the continuation of life for the survival of a species (i.e organism which share similar characteristics & can
interbreed to produce fertile offspring). There are two types of reproduction;
Asexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction

Asexual Reproduction
It is the reproduction in which new organisms are formed from a single parent without a gamete reproduction. This is reproduction
without fertilization i.e. no fusion of gametes. The offspring from asexual reproduction are genetically identical to each other & to the
parent organism and are referred to as CLONES.

Examples of Asexual Reproduction in Plants and Animals.

1. Budding – it is form of asexual reproduction in which a new organism is produced as an outgrowth. The outgrowth is later
released as a self-supporting, identical copy of the parent. Most roses are propagated by budding on suitable wood
stock. Another example is hydra, a simple of animal.
2. Fragmentation / Regeneration – It is the breaking of an organism into two or more parts, each of which grows to form a
new individual. This form of asexual reproduction is common among less differentiated animals. Less differentiated
animals retain strong powers of regeneration from undifferentiated cells. Some animals undergo accidental
fragmentation. E.g. starfish & flatworms.
3. Vegetative propagation – It is a form of asexual reproduction in which relatively large, usually differentiated part of a plant
body becomes & develops into an independent plant. Specialized structures often develop for this purpose, including
bulbs (modified shoot), corms (a shoot swollen vertically underground stem), rhizomes, stolons & tubers.
4. Cutting – the cutting of about 20cm is trimmed at the base just below a joint & inserted firmly in good moist soil or water.
Most plant e.g. roses are propagated through cutting
5. Grafting – a bid / shoot from the plant is inserted under the bark on the stem of another closely related variety. The bud
the grows using water & nutrients supplied by the other plant, mostly suitable for propagation of apple trees, pear trees,
rubber trees etc.

Commercial Application of Asexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

Refer to grafting & cutting-

Advantages of Asexual Reproduction

It is the simplest & shortest way of reproduction
The chances of offspring survival are greatly enhanced
There is no danger of gametes getting destroyed before fusion
Ideal for preservation of good characteristics within the population
Possible to produce a large number of offspring within a short time

Disadvantages of Asexual reproduction

Defects from parents are easily passed to offspring
Inhibits evolutionary change
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Sexual Reproduction in Plants.

Functions of parts
Stigma – receives pollen grains
Style – allows the pollen tube to pass through to the ovary
Ovary – produces female sex cells called ovules
Anther – produces the male sex cells called pollen grain
Filament – holds the anther
Petals – encloses parts of the flower ( protection)
Sepals – protects the ovary (and the general flower during the bud stage)
Flower stalk – holds the flower in position (attaches the flower to the plant)
Receptacle – where all the other parts of a flower are attached

Pollination
It is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to stigma

Types of Pollination
 Self Pollination – the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma in the same flower, or the transfer of pollen grains
from the anther to stigma of another flower on the same plant.
 Cross Pollination – The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of another flower of the same species.

Agents of Pollination
Insects
Wind

Characteristics of Flowers

Wind Pollinated Flower Insects Pollinated Flower

 Have dull petals  Bright coloured petals
 Small or no petals  Have large petals
 Have feathery stigma  Plain stigma
 Light pollen grains produced  Sticky pollen grains
 Lots of pollen grains produced  Few pollen grains
 Have no scent  Scented petals
 No nectar  Have nectar

Fertilization
Fertilization is the fusion of the male nucleus with female nucleus.
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Growth of the Pollen Tube

The fertilized egg (ovule) develops into an embryo. The embryo has plumule (which develops into shoot) and a radicle (which
develops into roots). The embryo is attached to the cotyledons in – one in monocots & two in dicots. The embryo is found enclose in
seeds.

Nb; after fertilization the petals dry up and fall off leaving the ovary to develop into the fruit & ovules into the seeds.

Non- Endospermic Seed (Dicot) e.g. bean seed

Functions of Parts
1. Testa {seed coat} – this is the tough outer cover in seeds. It protects the embryo from physical damage.
2. Cotyledon - this is where food is stored fro the embryo. Non Endospermic seeds (dicots) have two cotyledons.
Endospermic seeds have one cotyledon
3. Micropyle – it is an opening left by the pollen tube on the testa. It allows water & O2 needed for germination to enter the
seed to go
4. Embryo is made of the;

 Plumule – which develops into the shoot during germination

 Radicle – which grows in the root system.
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Environmental Conditions For Germination

The following conditions must be present in order for seeds to germinate
Water
Oxygen
Suitable Temperature

Water
Adequate water is needed for germination to start & continue. Excess water prevents germination by probably excluding oxygen.
The forces exerted by the accumulation of water into the seed may eventually rapture the testa. Water is also required to activate
the biochemical reactions associated with germination because these take place in solution.

Oxygen
It is required for aerobic respiration. The energy released is used to run chemical reactions within the cells of the embryo during its
period of growth.

Suitable Temperature
This will make enzymes to be activated thus chemical reactions will occur at the highest rate. Each species of seeds have an
optimum temperature for germination.

The Role of Enzymes in Seed germination

In the early stages of germination, the food reserves in the cotyledons mostly starch & proteins are acted upon by enzymes and
converted to soluble products which pass to, & are used by the actively growing regions. Glucose is formed from the stored starch &
being used in various ways; e.g. In the synthesis of cellulose & incorporated into cell walls and in the process of respiration to
generate energy needed in the growing regions.

Seed Dispersal
This is the transfer {scattering away} of seeds from the parent plant to new sites. After seed development either the entire fruit or the
seed(s) contained within are dispersed from the parent plant.

Advantages of Seed dispersal

I. It reduces chances of competition for nutrients & space
II. There is also more chance of finding a fresh area to colonize, thus increasing the overall species population in time. (it
promotes plants diversity in different localities)

Disadvantages
I. There is a possibility of not finding a suitable place for germination

Mechanisms of Seed Dispersal.

There are four main agents of dispersal, namely;

Animal
Wind
Water
Self

1. Animal Dispersed Seeds

Example
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They have hooks or spines with which they attach themselves to the skin, fur or wool of passing animals and
thus carried over some distance before dropping off or being scratched off. E.g. goose grass, buttercup etc.
Contained in succulent fruits which have edible fleshly parts. E.g. tomatoes, strawberry, mulberry, wild berries,
grapes etc. The fruit is eaten & digested but the seeds are resistant to digestive enzymes & pass unharmed
through the gut of the animal to be deposited with faeces often on fertile soils.

2. Wind Dispersed Seeds

Example

Parachute fruits & seed – seeds of willow herb & the fruit of dandelion have projecting feathery hairs
(parachute-like strutures) which increase their surface area. As a result, the seeds floats over long distances
before sinking to the ground. It is therefore likely to be carried a long way from the parent plant by slight air
current.
Winged fruits – Fruits of sycamore & ash trees have wing-like outgrowths from the ovary walls or leaf-like
structures on the flower stalk. These wings cause the fruit to spin as it falls from the tree & slow down its fall.
This delay increases the chances of the fruit being carried away in air currents.

Pepper pot effect – e.g. poppy has along flower on which hangs a dry hollow capsule (formed from the ovary)
with one / more openings. The wind shakes the flower stalk and seeds are scattered on all sides through the
openings in the capsule

3. Water Dispersed Seeds

Some plants e.g. Coconut have a fibrous ovary wall which enables the fruit to float on water so that the seed is
water dispersed.

4. Self Dispersed Seed

Example;
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Explosive fruits – the pods of flowers in the pea family dry up in the sun and shrivel. The tough fibres in the fruit wall
shrinks & set up a tension forcing the fruit to split in half down the lines of weakness, the two halves curl back
suddenly & flick out