Multiple fission

It is a mode of multiplication in which a unicellular parents divides and splits internally

to form a number of daughter cells.

Eg: protozoa, encysted amoeba,etc.

Mechanism

Sometimes (particularly during unfavourable conditions), a cyst or protective wall is

formed around the cell of a single-celled organism (like that of Plasmodium)

Inside the cyst first the nucleus divides repeatedly to form a number of daughter nuclei.
Cytoplasm now gathers around each nucleus to form daughter cells. The parent cell or
cyst bursts open and releases daughter individual.

Note:-

a) Leishmania is a unicellular protozoan which causes disease known as Kala

Azar.
b) In Leishmania ,binary fission takes place in a definite plane (longitudinally)
with respect to the flagellum.

2) Budding:-

• It is a method of asexual reproduction.

• In budding a small part of the parent body grows out as bird which then
detaches and becomes a new Organism.
• Budding occurs in hydra(simple multicellular) and yeast(unicellular fungus).
3) Spore formation:-

• Spores are microscopic asexual reproductive bodies which have a hard

protective coat.
• it is a method of asexual reproduction.
• In this method of asexual reproduction the parent Organism produces hundreds
of spores .
• When they spore case( sporangium) bursts spores spread in air and when they
land on food or soil under favourable conditions they germinate to produce new
plants.
• Spore formation occurs in fungi like Rhizopus, bacteria,ferns and mosses.
Note:-

A) Reproduction through sports is beneficial to organisms in the

following ways
• Spores are a means of dispersal.
• Spores are often thick walled and are protected from
unfavorable conditions.
• a large number of spores are formed at one time, hence rapid
multiplication occurs.

4) Regeneration:-

• It is a method of asexual reproduction in some animals like hydra and planaria.

• Regeneration is due to presence of a special stem cells and de-differentiation of
differentiated cells.
• It is a method of asexual reproduction in which new organisms are formed from
cut or broken pieces of the parent Organism.

Note:-
a) Regeneration can be used as a method of reproduction for only Organism
which have very simple body organisation.
Complex multicellular organisms cannot use regeneration as a method
of reproduction be cause they have very high degree of organisation in
their body. They cannot be reproduced from their cut body parts by the
process of regeneration
5) Fragmentation:-
• It is a method of asexual reproduction.
 • It occurs in some multicellular organisms which are very simple body
organisation.
Example algae( Spirogyra- filamentous green algae),fungi,
bryophytes,etc.
• It is the process of breaking up of the body of an Organism into two or
more parts where each parts grows into a new individual.

Note:-

a)

b)

6) Vegetative Reproduction:-

• Leaves,stem and roots are the vegetative parts of the plant.

• It is a method of formation of new plants from the vegetative parts of
the plant.
 • it is a method of asexual reproduction because of the following
reasons:-
a) It is uni parental
b) Meiosis division does not occur.
c) The characters of the parent are preserved in the new plan.
Natural method of vegetative propagation
A) Vegetative reproduction through leaves
• In bryophyllum,The leaves bears buds.
When the leaf comes in contact with the soil,the buds
sprout to form new plants.
B) Vegetative reproduction through stem
• Money plant can be grown by using a piece of its stem.
• Potato tuber can give rise to a number of potato plant.
each potato tuber has a number of buds called eye of
potato.Each bud can give rise to a new potato plant.
Tuber-
It is the thickened, underground stem or root which is
swollen with stored food.
C) Vegetative reproduction through roots
• The roots of a guava plant have birds which can develop
into new guava plants.
• Dahlia and sweet potato also bear buds which can give rise
to new plants.
Artificial methods of vegetative propagation
A) Cutting
• A small part of the plant is removed by making a
cut and then sowing it in the moist soil.
• Example -rose, sugar cane, banana cactus,etc.
B) Layering
• In layering a branch of the plant is pulled towards the
soil and a part of it is covered with moist soil while
leaving the tip of the branch exposed above the
ground.

After a few days new roots develop from the part of the
branch buried in the soil. The branch is then cut off from
the parent plant and a new plant is obtained.

• Example- Jasmine , strawberry,lemon,china rose,etc.

C ) Grafting:-
 • In this method the cut stem of two different plants
(one with root and other without root) are joined
together in such a way that the two stems join and
grow as a single plant.
• Stock is the part of the plant having the root.
• Scion is the part of the plant with out root.
• Example – apple,peach,apricot,etc.
• Advantages:-
a) Seedless fruit
b) Enables to combine desired characters.

Disadvantages of vegetative propagation

• Vegetative propagation cases overcrowding and hence severe competition.

• Vegetative Propagules cannot be stored for long.
• Diseases contracted by a parent spread to all the daughters.
• Absence of Variations.
• With time the vegetatively propagated plants lose vigour.
• Undesirable characters cannot be removed.
• Desirable characters cannot be introduced.
Advantages of vegetative propagation
• The new plants produced by artificial vegetative propagation will be exactly like
the parent plants.
• The fruit trees grown from seeds may take many years before they start to bear
fruit. But the fruit trees grown from cuttings or by grafting start to bear fruits
much earlier (only after a few growing seasons).
• The plants grown by vegetative propagation usually need less attention in their
early years than the plants grown from seeds.
• Many plants can be grown from just one parent plant by artificial propagation.
• We can also get seedless plants by artificial propagation.

Pollinators or pollinating agents-

• These are the agents which help in the transfer of pollen grains from one place to
another.
• Pollinators can be biotic or abiotic agents.
• Abiotic pollinating agents-
It includes water and wind.
• Features of water pollinated plants:-
a) Flowers are small, light,etc.
b) The stigma is long and sticky.
 c) Pollen grains are light and have a mucilaginous covering to protect them
from getting wet.
• Features of wind pollinated plants:-
a) Wind-pollinated plants are usually small and inconspicuous.
b) The pollen grains are light and smooth so that they can be easily transferred
by the wind.
c) The stamens and stigmas are exposed to air currents.
d) Wind-pollinated plants do not have a scent or produce nectar.
• Biotic Pollinating agents
• It includes insects,humans,bat,animals,etc.
• Role of insects in pollination
When insects land on a flower, pollen grains tend to stick to their bodies. The
insect then moves from one to another flower of the same species, pollen gets
transferred to the stigma of flowers and hence causing pollination.

Pollen pistil interaction:-

• Pollen-pistil interaction covers the sequential events from pollination until the
pollen tubes enter the ovules.
• During this interaction the pistil screens the pollen grains. Pollen of other
species are inhibited at the level of pollen germination or pollen tube growth in
the style.

Fertilisation in plants:-

• When the right type of pollen falls on the stigma ,the pollen grain absorbs water
and nutrients from the stigma and forms a pollen tube.
• Pollen tube grows through the style and reaches the ovary the tube nucleus
contained in the pollentube contains a tube nucleus and 2 male gametes.
• Inside the embryo SAC the tube nucleus bursts to release 2 male gamuts
• One male gamete fuses with the egg cell to form diploid zygote which later on
grows into an embryo
The fusion of male gamete with the egg cell resulting in the formation of zygote is
known as fertilisation.

• The other male gamete fuses with the two polar nuclei producing primary
endosperm cell which further divides to form a nutritive tissue called
endosperm.
• Double fertilisation is fusion of two male gametes brought by a pollen tube
with two different structures of the same embryo sac simultaneously one
forming embryo and the other forming endosperm.
Note:-

A) Pre fertilisation events in plant

a. Formation of gametes
b. Pollination
c. Pollen pistil interaction
B) Post fertilisation events in plant
a. Development of zygote into embryo through mitosis division.
b. development of ovule into seed.
c. Development of over into fruit.
d. Petals,sepals,stamen,style and stigma dry up and fall off.
Seed and it’s structure:-

• Seed is a ripened ovule.

• Parts of seed:-
a) Seed coat:-
• It is the outermost covering of a seed.
• it has 2 layers
• The outer layer is called testa and the inner layer is called tegmen.
• The seat coat protects the seed from unfavourable conditions.
b) The embryo
• It is a tiny plant that represents the embryonic stage of a plant’s life
cycle.
• It has following parts:-
1. Cotyledon
• It is the part of the seed which stores food for the developing embryo.
• Monocots have single cotyledon,dicots have two cotyledon.
2. Plumule
• Plumule is the part of the embryo which emerges from the seed and
develops into the shoot of the plant.
• It further develops organs such as the stem, flowers, etc.
3. Radicle
• It is the parts of the plant embryo, which is found inside the seed.
• It’s the first part of the seedling to emerge from the seed.
c) Endosperm
• It is a tissue that surrounds and nourishes the embryo in the seeds
of flowering plants.