Digestive System

and
Body Metabolism
 Organs of the Digestive System
 Two main groups
o Alimentary canal – continuous
coiled hollow tube
o Accessory digestive organs
 • Mouth
• Pharynx
Organs of • Esophagus
the • Stomach
Alimentary
• Small intestine
Canal
• Large intestine
• Anus
 Mouth (Oral Cavity) Anatomy
 Lips (labia) – protect the anterior
opening
 Cheeks – form the lateral walls
 Hard palate – forms the anterior roof
 Soft palate – forms the posterior roof
 Uvula – fleshy projection of the
soft palate
figure 14.2a
 Mouth (Oral Cavity) Anatomy
 Vestibule – space between lips
externally and teeth and gums
internally
 Oral cavity – area contained by
the teeth
 Tongue – attached at hyoid and
styloid processes of the skull, and
by the lingual frenulum
 Mouth (Oral Cavity) Anatomy

 Tonsils
o Palatine tonsils
o Lingual tonsil
 Processes of the Mouth
 Mastication (chewing) of food
 Mixing masticated food with saliva
 Initiation of swallowing by the tongue
 Allowing for the sense of taste
 Pharynx Anatomy
 Nasopharynx – not part of the
digestive system
 Oropharynx – posterior to
oral cavity
 Laryngopharynx – below the
oropharynx and connected to
the esophagus
 Esophagus

Runs from pharynx Conducts food Passageway for

to stomach through by peristalsis food only
the diaphragm (slow rhythmic (respiratory system
squeezing) branches off after
the pharynx)
 Layers
Layers of
of Alimentary
Alimentary Canal
Canal Organs
Organs

 Submucosa
o Just beneath the mucosa
o Soft connective tissue with blood vessels, nerve
endings, and lymphatics
 Layers of Alimentary Canal Organs
 Mucosa
o Innermost layer
o Moist membrane
• Surface epithelium
• Small amount of connective tissue (lamina propria)
• Small smooth muscle layer
 Layers
Layers of
of Alimentary
Alimentary Canal
Canal Organs
Organs
 Muscularis externa – smooth muscle
o Inner circular layer
o Outer longitudinal layer
 Serosa
o Outermost layer – visceral peritoneum
o Layer of serous fluid-producing cells
 Stomach Anatomy

 Located on the left side of the abdominal

cavity
 Food enters at the cardioesophageal
sphincter
 Stomach Anatomy
 Regions of the stomach
o Cardiac region – near the heart
o Fundus
o Body
o Phylorus – funnel-shaped terminal end
 Food empties into the small intestine at the pyloric
sphincter
 Stomach Anatomy
 Rugae – internal folds of the mucosa
 External regions
o Lesser curvature
o Greater curvature
 Stomach Anatomy
 Layers of peritoneum attached to the stomach
o Lesser omentum – attaches the liver to the
lesser curvature
o Greater omentum – attaches the greater
curvature to the posterior body wall
o Contains fat to insulate, cushion, and protect
abdominal organs
 Stomach Functions
 Acts as a storage tank for food
 Site of food breakdown
 Chemical breakdown of protein begins
 Delivers chyme (processed food) to the
small intestine
 Small Intestine
 The body’s major digestive organ
 Site of nutrient absorption into the blood
 Muscular tube extending form the pyloric sphincter
to the ileocecal valve
 Suspended from the posterior abdominal wall by the
mesentery
 Subdivisions of the Small Intestine
 Duodenum
o Attached to the stomach
o Curves around the head of the pancreas
 Jejunum
o Attaches anteriorly to the duodenum
 Ileum
o Extends from jejunum to large intestine
 Villi of the Small Intestine

 Fingerlike structures
formed by the mucosa
 Give the small intestine
more surface area
 Microvilli of the Small Intestine

 Small projections of the

plasma membrane
 Found on absorptive
cells
 Structures Involved in Absorption of
Nutrients
 Absorptive cells
 Blood capillaries
 Lacteals (specialized
lymphatic capillaries)
 Structure of the Stomach Mucosa
 Called circular folds or plicae circulares
 Deep folds of the mucosa and submucosa
 Do not disappear when filled with food
 The submucosa has Peyer’s patches
(collections of lymphatic tissue)
 Large Intestine

 Larger in diameter, but shorter than

the small intestine
 Frames the internal abdomen
 Structures of the Large Intestine
 Cecum – saclike first part of the large intestine
 Appendix
o Accumulation of lymphatic tissue that
sometimes becomes inflamed (appendicitis)
o Hangs from the cecum
 Structures of the Large Intestine
 Colon
o Ascending
o Transverse
o Descending
o S-shaped sigmoidal
 Rectum
 Anus – external body opening
 Salivary glands

Teeth
Accessory
Digestive Pancreas

Organs Liver

Gall bladder
 Salivary Glands
 Saliva - producing glands
o Parotid glands – located anterior to ears
o Submandibular glands
o Sublingual glands
 Saliva
 Mixture of mucus and serous fluids
 Helps to form a food bolus
 Contains salivary amylase to begin starch
digestion
 Dissolves chemicals so they can be tasted
 Teeth
 The role is to masticate (chew) food
 Humans have two sets of teeth
o Deciduous (baby or milk) teeth
o 20 teeth are fully formed by age two
 Teeth
 Permanent teeth
o Replace deciduous teeth beginning
between the ages of 6 to 12
o A full set is 32 teeth, but some people
do not have wisdom teeth
 Classification of Teeth
 Incisors
 Canines
 Premolars
 Molars
 Pancreas
 Produces a wide spectrum of digestive enzymes that break
down all categories of food
 Enzymes are secreted into the duodenum
 Alkaline fluid introduced with enzymes neutralizes acidic
chyme
 Endocrine products of pancreas
o Insulin
o Glucagons
 Liver
 Largest gland in the body
 Located on the right side of the body under the
diaphragm
 Consists of four lobes suspended from the diaphragm
and abdominal wall by the falciform ligament
 Connected to the gall bladder via the common hepatic
duct
 Bile
 Produced by cells in the liver
 Composition
o Bile salts
o Bile pigment (mostly bilirubin from the breakdown of
hemoglobin)
o Cholesterol
o Phospholipids
o Electrolytes
FUNCTION
S OF THE
DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
 Schematic
Schematic summary
summary of of
gastrointestinal
gastrointestinal tract
tract activities
activities

 Ingestion
 Propulsion
 Food breakdown: Mechanical breakdown
 Food breakdown: Digestion
 Absorption
 Defecation
 OVERVIEW
OVERVIEW OF
OF GASTROINTESTINAL
GASTROINTESTINAL
PROCESSES
PROCESSES AND
AND CONTROLS
CONTROLS
 Ingestion – An active, voluntary process.
 Propulsion
o Peristalsis
o Segmentation
 Food breakdown: Mechanical breakdown – prepares food
for further degradation by enzymes by physically fragmenting
the foods into smaller particles.
a. Peristalsis - involuntary and
involves alternating waves of
contraction and relaxation of the
muscles in the organ wall.

b. Segmentation - may help to

propel foodstuffs through the
small intestine, it normally moves
food only back and forth across
the internal wall of the organ
 Food breakdown: Digestion – sequence of steps in which
large food molecules are chemically broken down to their
building blocks by enzymes.

 Absorption - transport of the end products from the lumen of

the GI tract to the blood or lymph.

 Defecation - the elimination of indigestible residues from the

GI tract via the anus in the form of feces.
 The building blocks, or units, of carbohydrate foods
are monosaccharides, or simple sugars.
o Glucose is the “sugar” being referred to.
o Fructose is the most abundant sugar in fruits.
o Galactose is found in milk.
 The disaccharide, or double sugars
o sucrose (table sugar)
o lactose (milk sugar)
o maltose (malt sugar)
 The polysaccharide – many sugars
o starch
 Activities
Activities Occurring
Occurring in
in the
the Mouth,
Mouth,
Pharynx,
Pharynx, and
and Esophagus
Esophagus

 Food Ingestion and

Breakdown

 Food Propulsion
 Food Ingestion and Breakdown – Food is broken
down into smaller particles.
 Food Propulsion—Swallowing and Peristalsis
o Deglutition, or swallowing, is a complex
process that involves the coordinated activity of
several structures (tongue, soft palate,
pharynx, and esophagus).
 It has two major phases.
I. Voluntary buccal phase, occurs in the
mouth.
II. Involuntary pharyngealesophageal
phase, transports food through the
pharynx and esophagus.
Activities of the Stomach

 Food Breakdown

 Food Propulsion
 Food Breakdown
o Secretion of gastric juice is regulated by both neural
and hormonal factors.
 Food Propulsion
 Activities of the Small Intestine

 Food Breakdown and

Absorption

 Food Propulsion
 Food Breakdown and Absorption
o brush border enzymes, break down
double sugars into simple sugars and
complete protein digestion
 o Pancreatic juice contains enzymes that

1) Along with brush border enzymes, complete the

digestion of starch
2) carry out about half of protein digestion
3) are totally responsible for fat digestion, because the
pancreas is essentially the only source of lipases
4) digest nucleic acids
 Food Propulsion
o Peristalsis is the major means of
moving food
o Rhythmic segmental movements
• Mix chyme with digestive juices
• Aid in propelling food
Activities of the Large Intestine
 Food Breakdown and
Absorption

 Propulsion of the
Residue and
Defecation
 Food Breakdown and Absorption
o The material that arrives at the large intestine
has very few nutrients but still has 12 to 24
hours to spend there.
o The bacteria that live in the lumen of the large
intestine metabolize some of the remaining
nutrients releasing gases.
o Bacteria in the large intestine also make some
Vitamin K and B
o The only material that is absorbed in the large
intestine is vitamins, some ions, and most of the
remaining water.
o Feces contains undigested food residues, mucus,
bacteria, and just enough water to allow smooth
passage
 Propulsion of the Residue and Defecation
o Contractions in the colon are sluggish and
short lived.
o The slow segmented movements of the large
intestine are called Haustral Contractions.
These contraction last about 1 minute and
occur every 30 minutes.
o Mass movements are long, slow-moving,
powerful waves of the colon that occurs 3 or 4
times a day.
o The defecation reflex occurs when feces is
forced into the rectum and the wall is stretched.
o The only anal sphincter that we have control of
is the external one.
Diverticula
 Small bulging pouches
that can form in the
lining of your digestive
system. They are found
most often in the lower
part of the large
intestine (colon).
  Occurs when pockets called diverticula
form in the walls of your digestive tract.
The inner layer of your intestine pushes
Diverticulosis through weak spots in the outer lining.
This pressure makes them bulge out,
making little pouches. Most often it
happens in your colon, the lower part of
your large intestine.

Diverticulitis  Occurs when pouches in the wall of

your colon become infected or inflamed.
  It occurs when bowel movements

Constipation become less frequent and stools

become difficult to pass. It happens
most often due to changes in diet or
routine.

Diarrhea  You have diarrhea if you have loose

stools three or more times in one day.
NUTRITION
AND
METABOLIS
M
NUTRITION
Nutrition  
 A nutrient is a substance in
a food that is used by the
body to promote normal
growth, maintenance, and
repair. The nutrients divide
neatly into six categories.
 Major nutrients are:
o Carbohydrates
o lipids, and
o proteins make up the bulk of what we eat.
 Minor nutrients are:
o vitamins and minerals while equally crucial for
health, required in minute amounts.
o Water, which accounts for about 60 percent of the
volume of the food we eat.
 Carbohydrates
o sugars, starches and fibers found in fruits,
grains, vegetables and milk products.
o one of the basic food group that are important to
a healthy diet.
 Lipids
o molecules that contain hydrocarbons and make
up the building blocks of the structure and
function of living cells.
 Lipids
o Examples: fats, oils, waxes, certain vitamins
(such as A, D, E and K), hormones and most
of the cell membrane that is not made up of
protein.
 Proteins
o composed of amino acids, which are organic
compounds made of carbon, hydrogen,
nitrogen, oxygen or sulfur.
 Vitamins
o an organic molecule that is an essential
micronutrient which an organism needs in
small quantities for the proper functioning of its
metabolism
 Minerals
o a mineral is a chemical element required as an
essential nutrient by organisms to perform
functions necessary for life.
METABOLISM
 Metabolism
o (metabol "change") is the set of life-sustaining
chemical reactions in organisms.
The three main purposes of metabolism are:
o the conversion of food to energy to run cellular
processes;
o the conversion of food/fuel to building blocks for
proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and some
carbohydrates;
o the elimination of metabolic wastes
 Catabolism
o set of metabolic processes that break down
large molecules. These include breaking down
and oxidizing food molecules.
 Anabolism
o set of constructive metabolic processes where
the energy released by catabolism is used to
synthesize complex molecules.
 Carbohydrate Metabolism
o Glucose, also known as blood sugar, is the major
breakdown product of carbohydrate digestion.
o Glucose is broken apart piece by piece, and some
of the chemical energy released when its bonds
are broken is captured and used to bind phosphate
to ADP molecules to make ATP.
o Oxygen-using events are referred to collectively as
cellular respiration.
o Oxidation via the removal of hydrogen atoms is a
major role of glycolysis and the Krebs cycle.
o Glycolysis, which takes place in the cytosol, also
energizes each glucose molecule.
o The Krebs cycle occurs in the mitochondria and
produces virtually all the carbon dioxide that results
during cell respiration.
o Electron transport chain is where the action is for
ATP production.
 Fat Metabolism
o The liver handles most lipid, or fat, metabolism
that goes on in the body.
o The liver cells use some fats to make ATP for
their own use; use some to synthesize
lipoproteins, thromboplastin, and cholesterol;
and then release the rest to the blood in the form
of relatively small fat-breakdown products.
o When there is not enough glucose to fuel the
needs of the cells for energy, larger amounts of fats
are used to produce ATP. 
o Ketoacidosis is a common consequence of “no-
carbohydrate” diets, uncontrolled diabetes
mellitus, and starvation in which the body is forced
to rely almost totally on fats to fuel its energy needs.
o Although fats are an important energy
source, cholesterol is never used as a cellular fuel.
 Protein Metabolism
o Proteins make up the bulk of cellular structures,
and they are carefully conserved by body cells.
o Ingested proteins are broken down to amino acids.
Once the liver has finished processing the blood
draining the digestive tract and has taken its "fill" of
amino acids, the remaining amino acids circulate to
the body cells.
o Amino acids are used to make ATP only when
proteins are overabundant and/or when
carbohydrates and fats are not available.
o When it is necessary to oxidize amino acids for
energy, their amine groups are removed as
ammonia, and the rest of the molecule enters
the Krebs cycle pathway in the mitochondria.
The Central Role of the Liver in
Metabolism   
General Metabolic Functions.

 The liver is one of the largest

organs in the body. It has many
important metabolic functions.
 It converts the nutrients in our diets into
substances that the body can use, stores these
substances, and supplies cells with them when
needed.
 It also takes up toxic substances and converts
them into harmless substances or makes sure they
are released from the body.
 The Central
Role of the
Liver in
Metabolism   
 In fat metabolism the liver
cells break down fats and
produce energy.
 The liver cells convert
ammonia to a much less toxic
substance called urea, which
is released into the blood.
Urea is then transported to the
kidneys and passes out of the
body in urine.
 In the metabolism of
carbohydrates, the liver helps
to ensure that the level of
sugar in your blood (blood
glucose) stays constant.
 As well as sugar, the liver also
stores vitamins and minerals
(iron and copper), and
releases them into the blood
when needed.
 After a carbohydrate-rich meal, thousands of
glucose molecules are removed from the blood
and combined to form the large polysaccharide
molecules called glycogen, which are then stored
in the liver.
 The liver cells then release glucose bit by bit to the
blood to maintain homeostasis of blood glucose
levels.
 Liver cells break down the stored glycogen by a
process called Glycogenolysis, which means
“glycogen splitting.”
 If necessary, the liver can also make glucose
from non carbohydrate substances, such as
fats and proteins. This process is
Gluconeogenesis, which means “formation of
new sugar”.
 The liver also plays an
important role in the
metabolism of proteins:
liver cells change amino
acids in foods so that they
can be used to produce
energy, or make
carbohydrates or fats.
 PRESENTED BY:

Areta, Mary Grace

Gloriani, Jaymie Riz

Ochoterina, Juan Miguel

Tan, Jinky

Camua, Liam