The Digestive System Functions

! Ingestion—taking in food
! Digestion—breaking food into nutrient molecules
! Absorption—movement of nutrients into the bloodstream
! Defecation—elimination of indigestible waste

Organs of the Digestive System

! Two main groups of organs
o Alimentary canal (gastrointestinal or GI tract)—continuous, coiled, hollow tube
! These organs ingest, digest, absorb, defecate
o Accessory digestive organs
! Includes teeth, tongue, and other large digestive organs

Organs of the Alimentary Canal

! The alimentary canal is a continuous, coiled, hollow tube that runs through the ventral
cavity from stomach to anus:
o Mouth
o Pharynx
o Esophagus
o Stomach
o Small intestine
o Large intestine
o Anus

Mouth (Oral Cavity)

! Anatomy of the mouth
o The mouth (oral cavity)—mucous membrane–lined cavity
o Lips (labia)—protect the anterior opening
o Cheeks—form the lateral walls
o Hard palate—forms the anterior roof
o Soft palate—forms the posterior roof
o Uvula—fleshy projection of the soft palate

Mouth (Oral Cavity)

! Anatomy of the mouth (continued)
o Vestibule—space between lips externally and teeth and gums internally
o Oral cavity proper—area contained by the teeth
o Tongue—attached at hyoid bone and styloid processes of the skull, and by the
lingual frenulum to the floor of the mouth

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Mouth (Oral Cavity)
! Anatomy of the mouth (continued)
o Tonsils
! Palatine—located at posterior end of oral cavity
! Lingual—located at the base of the tongue

Mouth
! Functions of the mouth
o Mastication (chewing) of food
o Tongue mixes masticated food with saliva
o Tongue initiates swallowing
o Taste buds on the tongue allow for taste

Pharynx
! Food passes from the mouth posteriorly into the:
o Oropharynx—posterior to oral cavity
o Laryngopharynx—below the oropharynx and continuous with the esophagus

Pharynx
! The pharynx serves as a passageway for food, fluids, and air
! Food is propelled to the esophagus by two skeletal muscle layers in the pharynx
o Longitudinal inner layer
o Circular outer layer
! Alternating contractions of the muscle layers (peristalsis) propel the food

Esophagus (Gullet)
! Anatomy
o About 10 inches long
o Runs from pharynx to stomach through the diaphragm
! Physiology
o Conducts food by peristalsis (slow rhythmic squeezing) to the stomach
o Passageway for food only (respiratory system branches off after the pharynx)

Layers of Tissue in the Alimentary Canal Organs

! Summary of the four layers from innermost to outermost (detailed next):
1. Mucosa
2. Submucosa
3. Muscularis externa
4. Serosa

Layers of Tissue in the Alimentary Canal Organs

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1. Mucosa
o Innermost, moist membrane consisting of:
! Surface epithelium that is mostly simple columnar tissue (except for
esophagus)
! Small amount of connective tissue
(lamina propria)
! Small smooth muscle layer
o Lines the cavity (known as the lumen)

Layers of Tissue in the Alimentary Canal Organs

2. Submucosa
o Just beneath the mucosa
o Soft connective tissue with blood vessels, nerve endings, mucosa-associated
lymphoid tissue, and lymphatics

Layers of Tissue in the Alimentary Canal Organs

3. Muscularis externa—smooth muscle
o Inner circular layer
o Outer longitudinal layer
4. Serosa—outermost layer of the wall contains
fluid-producing cells
o Visceral peritoneum—innermost layer that is continuous with the outermost
layer
o Parietal peritoneum—outermost layer that lines the abdominopelvic cavity by
way of the mesentery

Alimentary Canal Nerve Plexuses

! Two important nerve plexuses serve the alimentary canal
! Both are part of the autonomic nervous system
o Submucosal nerve plexus
o Myenteric nerve plexus
! Function is to regulate mobility and secretory activity of the GI tract organs

Stomach
! The stomach is a C-shaped organ located on the left side of the abdominal cavity
! Food enters at the cardioesophageal sphincter from the esophagus
! Food empties into the small intestine at the pyloric sphincter (valve)

Stomach
! Regions of the stomach
o Cardial part (cardia)—near the heart
o Fundus—expanded portion lateral to the cardiac region

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 o Body—midportion
o Pylorus—funnel-shaped terminal end

Stomach
! Stomach can stretch and hold 4 L (1 gallon) of food when full
o Rugae—internal folds of the mucosa present when the stomach is empty
! External regions
o Lesser curvature—concave medial surface
o Greater curvature—convex lateral surface

Stomach
! Layers of peritoneum attached to the stomach
o Lesser omentum—attaches the liver to the lesser curvature
o Greater omentum—attaches the greater curvature to the posterior body wall
! Embedded fat insulates, cushions, and protects abdominal organs
! Lymph follicles contain macrophages
! Muscularis externa has a third layer
o Oblique layer helps to churn, mix, and pummel the food
!

Stomach
! Functions of the stomach
o Temporary storage tank for food
o Site of food breakdown
o Chemical breakdown of protein begins
o Delivers chyme (processed food) to the small intestine

Stomach
! Structure of the stomach mucosa:
o Simple columnar epithelium dotted by gastric pits that lead to gastric glands
o Mucous cells produce bicarbonate-rich alkaline mucus
o Gastric glands—situated in gastric pits and secrete gastric juice, including:
! Intrinsic factor, which is needed for vitamin B12 absorption in the small
intestine

Stomach
! Structure of the stomach mucosa (continued)
o Chief cells—produce protein-digesting enzymes (pepsinogens)
o Parietal cells—produce hydrochloric acid
! Mucous neck cells—produce thin acidic mucus (different from the
mucus produced by cells of the mucosa)
o Enteroendocrine cells—produce a hormone called gastrin

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Small Intestine
! The body’s major digestive organ
! Longest portion of the alimentary tube (2–4 m or 7–13 feet in a living person)
! Site of nutrient absorption into the blood
! Muscular tube extending from the pyloric sphincter to the ileocecal valve
! Suspended from the posterior abdominal wall by the mesentery

Small Intestine
! Subdivisions
o Duodenum
! Attached to the stomach
! Curves around the head of the pancreas
o Jejunum
! Attaches anteriorly to the duodenum
o Ileum
! Extends from jejunum to large intestine
! Meets the large intestine at the ileocecal valve

Small Intestine
! Chemical digestion begins in the small intestine
o Enzymes are produced by:
! Intestinal cells
! Pancreas
o Pancreatic ducts carry enzymes to the duodenum
o Bile, formed by the liver, enters the duodenum via the bile duct

Small Intestine
! Three structural modifications that increase surface area for food absorption
1. Microvilli—tiny projections of the plasma membrane (create a brush border
appearance)
2. Villi—fingerlike projections formed by the mucosa
! House a capillary bed and lacteal
3. Circular folds (plicae circulares)—deep folds of mucosa and submucosa

Large Intestine
! Larger in diameter, but shorter in length at 1.5 m, than the small intestine
! Extends from the ileocecal valve to the anus
! Subdivisions:
o Cecum
o Appendix
o Colon
o Rectum
o Anal canal

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Large Intestine Anatomy
! Cecum—saclike first part of the large intestine
! Appendix
o Accumulation of lymphoid tissue that sometimes becomes inflamed
(appendicitis)
o Hangs from the cecum

Large Intestine Anatomy

! Colon
o Ascending—travels up right side of abdomen
o Transverse—travels across the abdominal cavity
o Descending—travels down the left side
o Sigmoid—S-shaped region; enters the pelvis
! Sigmoid colon, rectum, and anal canal are located in the pelvis

Large Intestine Anatomy

! Anal canal ends at the anus
! Anus—opening of the large intestine
o External anal sphincter—formed by skeletal muscle and under voluntary
control
o Internal anal sphincter—formed by smooth muscle and involuntarily controlled
o These sphincters are normally closed except during defecation
! The large intestine delivers undigestible food residues to the body’s exterior

Large Intestine
! Goblet cells produce alkaline mucus to lubricate the passage of feces
! Muscularis externa layer is reduced to three bands of muscle called teniae coli
! These bands of muscle cause the wall to pucker into haustra (pocketlike sacs)

Accessory Digestive Organs

! Teeth
! Salivary glands
! Pancreas
! Liver
! Gallbladder

Teeth
! Teeth masticate (chew) food into smaller fragments
! Humans have two sets of teeth during a lifetime:
1. Deciduous (baby or “milk”) teeth
! A baby has 20 teeth by age 2
! First teeth to appear are the lower central incisors

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Teeth
2. Permanent teeth
o Replace deciduous teeth between the ages of 6 and 12
o A full set is 32 teeth, but some people do not have wisdom teeth (third molars)
o If they do emerge, the wisdom teeth appear between ages of 17 and 25

Classification of Teeth
! Incisors—cutting
! Canines (eyeteeth)—tearing or piercing
! Premolars (bicuspids)—grinding
! Molars—grinding

Regions of a Tooth
! Two major regions of a tooth
1. Crown
2. Root

Regions of a Tooth
1. Crown—exposed part of tooth above the gingiva (gum)
o Enamel—covers the crown
o Dentin—found deep to the enamel and forms the bulk of the tooth, surrounds
the pulp cavity
o Pulp cavity—contains connective tissue, blood vessels, and nerve fibers (pulp)
o Root canal—where the pulp cavity extends into the root

Regions of a Tooth
! Note: The neck is a connector between the crown and root.
o Region in contact with the gum
o Connects crown to root
2. Root
o Cement—covers outer surface and attaches the tooth to the periodontal
membrane (ligament)
o Periodontal membrane holds tooth in place in the bony jaw

Figure 14.10 Longitudinal section of a molar.

Salivary Glands
! Three pairs of salivary glands empty secretions into the mouth
1. Parotid glands
! Found anterior to the ears
2. Submandibular glands

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 3. Sublingual glands
! Both submandibular and sublingual glands empty saliva into the floor of
the mouth through small ducts

Salivary Glands
! Saliva
o Mixture of mucus and serous fluids
o Helps to moisten and bind food together into a mass called a bolus
o Contains salivary amylase to begin starch digestion
o Dissolves chemicals so they can be tasted

Pancreas
! Found posterior to the parietal peritoneum
o Mostly retroperitoneal
! Extends across the abdomen from spleen to duodenum

Pancreas
! Produces a wide spectrum of digestive enzymes that break down all categories of
food
! Secretes enzymes into the duodenum
! Alkaline fluid introduced with enzymes neutralizes acidic chyme coming from
stomach
! Hormones produced by the pancreas
o Insulin
o Glucagon

Liver
! Largest gland in the body
! Located on the right side of the body under the diaphragm
! Consists of four lobes suspended from the diaphragm and abdominal wall by the
falciform ligament
! Connected to the gallbladder via the common hepatic duct

Liver
! Bile is produced by cells in the liver
! Bile leaves the liver through the common hepatic duct and enters duodenum through
the bile duct
! Bile is a yellow-green, watery solution containing:
o Bile salts and bile pigments (mostly bilirubin from the breakdown of
hemoglobin)
o Cholesterol, phospholipids, and electrolytes

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Liver
! Function of bile
o Emulsify fats by physically breaking large fat globules into smaller ones

Gallbladder
! Sac found in shallow fossa of liver
! When no digestion is occurring, bile backs up the cystic duct for storage in the
gallbladder
! During digestion of fatty food, bile is introduced into the duodenum from the
gallbladder
! Gallstones are crystallized cholesterol, which can cause blockages

Functions of the Digestive System

! Major functions of the digestive system are summarized as:
o Digestion
o Absorption
! We will cover 6 more specific processes next

Functions of the Digestive System

1. Ingestion—placing of food into the mouth
2. Propulsion—movement of foods from one region of the digestive system to another
o Peristalsis—alternating waves of contraction and relaxation that squeezes
food along the GI tract
o Segmentation—movement of materials back and forth to foster mixing in the
small intestine

Functions of the Digestive System

3. Food breakdown: mechanical breakdown
o Examples:
! Mixing of food in the mouth by the tongue
! Churning of food in the stomach
! Segmentation in the small intestine
o Mechanical digestion prepares food for further degradation by enzymes

Functions of the Digestive System

4. Food breakdown: digestion
o Digestion occurs when enzymes chemically break down large molecules into
their building blocks
o Each major food group uses different enzymes
! Carbohydrates are broken to monosaccharides (simple sugars)
! Proteins are broken to amino acids
! Fats are broken to fatty acids and glycerol

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Functions of the Digestive System
5. Absorption
o End products of digestion are absorbed in the blood or lymph
o Food must enter mucosal cells and then into blood or lymph capillaries
6. Defecation
o Elimination of indigestible substances from the GI tract in the form of feces

Activities Occurring in the Mouth, Pharynx, and Esophagus

! Food ingestion and breakdown
o Food is placed into the mouth
! Physically broken down by chewing
! Mixed with saliva, which is released in response to mechanical
pressure and psychic stimuli
! Salivary amylase begins starch digestion
o Essentially, no food absorption occurs in the mouth

Activities Occurring in the Mouth, Pharynx, and Esophagus

! Food propulsion—swallowing and peristalsis
o Pharynx and esophagus have no digestive function
! Serve as passageways to the stomach
o Pharynx functions in swallowing (deglutition)
! Two phases of swallowing:
1. Buccal phase
2. Pharyngeal-esophgeal phase

Activities Occurring in the Mouth, Pharynx, and Esophagus

! Food propulsion—swallowing and peristalsis (continued)
1. Buccal phase
! Voluntary
! Occurs in the mouth
! Food is formed into a bolus
! The bolus is forced into the pharynx by the tongue

Activities Occurring in the Mouth, Pharynx, and Esophagus

! Food propulsion—swallowing and peristalsis (continued)
2. Pharyngeal-esophageal phase
! Involuntary transport of the bolus by peristalsis
! Nasal and respiratory passageways are blocked

Activities Occurring in the Mouth, Pharynx, and Esophagus

! Food propulsion—swallowing and peristalsis (continued)
2. Pharyngeal-esophogeal phase (continued)

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 ! Peristalsis moves the bolus toward the stomach
! The cardioesophageal sphincter is opened when food presses against
it

Activities in the Stomach

! Food breakdown
o Gastric juice is regulated by neural and hormonal factors
o Presence of food or rising pH causes the release of the hormone gastrin
o Gastrin causes stomach glands to produce:
! Protein-digesting enzymes
! Mucus
! Hydrochloric acid

Activities in the Stomach

! Food breakdown (continued)
o Hydrochloric acid makes the stomach contents very acidic
o Acidic pH
! Activates pepsinogen to pepsin for protein digestion
! Provides a hostile environment for microorganisms

Activities in the Stomach

! Food breakdown (continued)
o Protein digestion enzymes
! Pepsin—an active protein-digesting enzyme
! Rennin—works on digesting milk protein in infants, not adults
o Alcohol and aspirin are virtually the only items absorbed in the stomach

Activities in the Stomach

! Food propulsion
1. Peristalsis: Waves of peristalsis occur from the fundus to the pylorus, forcing
food past the pyloric sphincter
2. Grinding: The pylorus meters out chyme into the small intestine (3 ml at a
time)
3. Retropulsion: Peristaltic waves close the pyloric sphincter, forcing content
back into the stomach. The stomach empties in 4–6 hours

Activities of the Small Intestine

! Food breakdown and absorption
o Intestinal enzymes from the brush border function to:
! Break double sugars into simple sugars
! Complete some protein digestion
o Intestinal enzymes and pancreatic enzymes help to complete digestion of all

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 food groups

Activities of the Small Intestine

! Food breakdown and absorption (continued)
o Pancreatic enzymes play the major role in the digestion of fats, proteins, and
carbohydrates
o Alkaline content neutralizes acidic chyme and provides the proper
environment for the pancreatic enzymes to operate

Activities of the Small Intestine

! Food breakdown and absorption (continued)
o Release of pancreatic juice from the pancreas into the duodenum is stimulated
by:
! Vagus nerves
! Local hormones that travel via the blood to influence the release of
pancreatic juice (and bile):
o Secretin
o Cholecystokinin (CCK)

Activities of the Small Intestine

! Food breakdown and absorption (continued)
o Hormones (secretin and CCK) also target the liver and gallbladder to release
bile
! Bile
o Acts as a fat emulsifier
o Needed for fat absorption and absorption of fat-soluble vitamins
(K, D, E, and A)

Activities of the Small Intestine

! Food breakdown and absorption (continued)
o A summary table of hormones is presented next

Activities of the Small Intestine

! Food breakdown and absorption (continued)
o Water is absorbed along the length of the small intestine
o End products of digestion
! Most substances are absorbed by active transport through cell
membranes
! Lipids are absorbed by diffusion
o Substances are transported to the liver by the hepatic portal vein or lymph

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Activities of the Small Intestine
! Food breakdown and absorption
o Peristalsis is the major means of moving food
o Segmental movements
! Mix chyme with digestive juices
! Aid in propelling food

Activities of the Large Intestine

! Food breakdown and absorption
o No digestive enzymes are produced
o Resident bacteria digest remaining nutrients
! Produce some vitamin K and B
! Release gases
o Water and vitamins K and B are absorbed
o Remaining materials are eliminated via feces

Activities of the Large Intestine

! Food breakdown and absorption (continued)
o Feces contains:
! Undigested food residues
! Mucus
! Bacteria
! Water

Activities of the Large Intestine

! Propulsion of the residue and defecation
o Sluggish peristalsis begins when food residue arrives
o Haustral contractions are most seen in the large intestine
o Mass movements are slow, powerful movements that occur 3 to 4 times per
day

Activities of the Large Intestine

! Propulsion of the residue and defecation (continued)
o Presence of feces in the rectum causes a defecation reflex
! Internal anal sphincter is relaxed
! Defecation occurs with relaxation of the voluntary (external) anal
sphincter

Nutrition and Metabolism

! Most foods are used as metabolic fuel
o Foods are oxidized and transformed into adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
o ATP is chemical energy that drives cellular activities

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! Energy value of food is measured in kilocalories (kcal) or Calories (C)

Nutrition
! Nutrient—substance used by the body for growth, maintenance, and repair
! Major nutrients
o Carbohydrates
o Lipids
o Proteins
o Water
! Minor nutrients
o Vitamins
o Minerals

Nutrition
! A diet consisting of foods from the five food groups normally guarantees adequate
amounts of all the needed nutrients
! The five food groups are summarized next in Table 14.2

Dietary Sources of Major Nutrients

! Carbohydrates
o Dietary carbohydrates are sugars and starches
o Most are derived from plants such as fruits and vegetables
o Exceptions: lactose from milk and small amounts of glycogens from meats

Dietary Sources of Major Nutrients

! Lipids
o Saturated fats from animal products (meats)
o Unsaturated fats from nuts, seeds, and vegetable oils
o Cholesterol from egg yolk, meats, and milk products (dairy products)

Dietary Sources of Major Nutrients

! Proteins
o Complete proteins—contain all essential amino acids
! Most are from animal products (eggs, milk, meat, poultry, and fish)
! Essential amino acids: those that the body cannot make and must be
obtained through diet
o Legumes and beans also have proteins, but the proteins are incomplete

Dietary Sources of Major Nutrients

! Vitamins
o Most vitamins are used as coenzymes

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 o Found mainly in fruits and vegetables

Dietary Sources of Major Nutrients

! Minerals
o Mainly important for enzyme activity
o Foods richest in minerals: vegetables, legumes, milk, and some meats
o Iron is important for making hemoglobin
o Calcium is important for building bone, blood clotting, and secretory activities

Metabolism
! Metabolism is all of the chemical reactions necessary to maintain life
o Catabolism—substances are broken down to simpler substances; energy is
released
o Anabolism—larger molecules are built from smaller ones

Carbohydrate Metabolism
! Carbohydrates are the body’s preferred source to produce cellular energy (ATP)
! Glucose (blood sugar)
o Major breakdown product of carbohydrate digestion
o Fuel used to make ATP

Carbohydrate Metabolism
! Cellular respiration
o As glucose is oxidized, carbon dioxide, water, and ATP are formed

Carbohydrate Metabolism
! Events of three main metabolic pathways of cellular respiration
1. Glycolysis
! Occurs in the cytosol
! Energizes a glucose molecule so it can be split into two pyruvic acid
molecules and yield ATP

Carbohydrate Metabolism
! Events of three main metabolic pathways of cellular respiration (continued)
2. Krebs cycle
! Occurs in the mitochondrion
! Produces virtually all the carbon dioxide and water resulting from
cellular respiration
! Yields a small amount of ATP

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Carbohydrate Metabolism
! Events of three main metabolic pathways of cellular respiration (continued)
3. Electron transport chain
! Hydrogen atoms removed during glycolysis and the Krebs cycle are
delivered to protein carriers
! Hydrogen atoms are split into hydrogen ions and electrons in the
mitochondria
! Electrons give off energy in a series of steps to enable the production of
ATP

Carbohydrate Metabolism
! Hyperglycemia—excessively high levels of glucose in the blood
o Excess glucose is stored in body cells as glycogen or converted to fat
! Hypoglycemia—low levels of glucose in the blood
o Glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, and fat breakdown occur to restore normal
blood glucose levels

Fat Metabolism
! Fats
o Insulate the body
o Protect organs
o Build some cell structures (membranes and myelin sheaths)
o Provide reserve energy
! Excess dietary fat is stored in subcutaneous tissue and other fat depots
o

Fat Metabolism
! When carbohydrates are in limited supply, more fats are oxidized to produce ATP
o Excessive fat breakdown causes blood to become acidic (acidosis or
ketoacidosis)
! Breath has a fruity odor
! Common with:
o “No carbohydrate” diets
o Uncontrolled diabetes mellitus
o Starvation

Protein Metabolism
! Proteins form the bulk of cell structure and most functional molecules
! Proteins are carefully conserved by body cells
! Amino acids are actively taken up from blood by body cells

Protein Metabolism

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! Amino acids are oxidized to form ATP mainly when other fuel sources are not
available
! Ammonia, released as amino acids are catabolized, is detoxified by liver cells that
combine it with carbon dioxide to form urea

The Central Role of the Liver in Metabolism

! Liver is the body’s key metabolic organ
! Roles in digestion:
o Manufactures bile
o Detoxifies drugs and alcohol
o Degrades hormones
o Produces cholesterol, blood proteins (albumin and clotting proteins)
o Plays a central role in metabolism
! Liver can regenerate if part of it is damaged or removed

The Central Role of the Liver in Metabolism

! To maintain homeostasis of blood glucose levels, the liver performs:
o Glycogenesis—“glycogen formation”
! Glucose molecules are converted to glycogen and stored in the liver
o Glycogenolysis—“glycogen splitting”
! Glucose is released from the liver after conversion from glycogen
o Gluconeogenesis—“formation of new sugar”
! Glucose is produced from fats and proteins

The Central Role of the Liver in Metabolism

! Fats and fatty acids are picked up by the liver
o Some are oxidized to provide energy for liver cells
o The rest are either stored or broken down into simpler compounds and
released into the blood

The Central Role of the Liver in Metabolism

! Cholesterol metabolism and transport
o Cholesterol is not used to make ATP
o Functions of cholesterol:
! Structural basis of steroid hormones and vitamin D
! Building block of plasma membranes
o Most cholesterol (85%) is produced in the liver; only 15% is from the diet

The Central Role of the Liver in Metabolism

! Cholesterol metabolism and transport (continued)
o Cholesterol and fatty acids cannot freely circulate in the bloodstream
o They are transported by lipoproteins (lipid-protein complexes) known as LDLs

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 and HDLs

The Central Role of the Liver in Metabolism

! Cholesterol metabolism and transport (continued)
o Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) transport cholesterol to body cells
! Rated “bad lipoproteins” since they can lead to artherosclerosis
o High-density lipoproteins (HDLs) transport cholesterol from body cells to the
liver
! Rated “good lipoproteins” since cholesterol is destined for breakdown
and elimination

Body Energy Balance

! Energy intake = Total energy output
! (heat + work + energy storage)
o Energy intake is the energy liberated during food oxidation
! Energy produced during glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and the electron
transport chain
o Energy output
! Energy we lose as heat (60%)
! Energy stored as fat or glycogen

Body Energy Balance

! Interference with the body’s energy balance leads to:
o Obesity
o Malnutrition (leading to body wasting)

Regulation of Food Intake

! Body weight is usually relatively stable
o Energy intake and output remain about equal
! Mechanisms that may regulate food intake
o Levels of nutrients in the blood
o Hormones
o Body temperature
o Psychological factors

Metabolic Rate and Body Heat Production

! Nutrients yield different amounts of energy
! Energy value is measured in kilocalorie (kcal)
o Carbohydrates and proteins yield 4 kcal/gram
o Fats yield 9 kcal/gram

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Basal Metabolic Rate
! Basic metabolic rate (BMR)—amount of heat produced by the body per unit of time at
rest
! Average BMR is about 60 to 72 kcal/hour for an average 70-kg (154-lb) adult

Basal Metabolic Rate

! Factors that influence BMR
o Surface area—a small body usually has a higher BMR
o Gender—males tend to have higher BMRs
o Age—children and adolescents have higher BMRs
o The amount of thyroxine produced is the most important control factor
! More thyroxine means a higher metabolic rate

Total Metabolic Rate (TMR)

! TMR—total amount of kilocalories the body must consume to fuel ongoing activities
! TMR increases dramatically with an increase in muscle activity
! TMR must equal calories consumed to maintain homeostasis and maintain a
constant weight

Body Temperature Regulation

! When foods are oxidized, more than 60% of energy escapes as heat, warming the
body
! The body has a narrow range of homeostatic temperature
o Must remain between 35.6°C and 37.8°C (96°F and 100°F)

Body Temperature Regulation

! The body’s thermostat is in the hypothalamus
! Hypothalamus initiates mechanisms to maintain body temperature
o Heat-loss mechanisms involve radiation of heat from skin and evaporation of
sweat
o Heat-promoting mechanisms involve vasoconstriction of skin blood vessels
and shivering

Body Temperature Regulation

! Fever—controlled hyperthermia
o Results from infection, cancer, allergic reactions, CNS injuries
o If the body thermostat is set too high, body proteins may be denatured, and
permanent brain damage may occur

Developmental Aspects of the Digestive System and Metabolism

! The alimentary canal is a continuous, hollow tube present by the fifth week of

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 development
! Digestive glands bud from the mucosa of the alimentary tube
! The developing fetus receives all nutrients through the placenta
! In newborns, feeding must be frequent, peristalsis is inefficient, and vomiting is
common

Developmental Aspects of the Digestive System and Metabolism

! Common congenital defects that interfere with normal nutrition:
o Cleft palate
o Cleft lip
o Tracheoesophageal fistula
! Common inborn errors of metabolism:
o Phenylketonuria (PKU)
o Cystic fibrosis (CF)

Developmental Aspects of the Digestive System and Metabolism

! Newborn reflexes
o Rooting reflex helps the infant find the nipple
o Sucking reflex helps the infant hold on to the nipple and swallow
! Teething begins around age 6 months

Developmental Aspects of the Digestive System and Metabolism

! Problems of the digestive system:
o Gastroenteritis—inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract; can occur at any
time
o Appendicitis—inflammation of the appendix; common in adolescents
! Metabolism decreases with old age
! Middle-age digestive problems
o Ulcers
o Gallbladder problems

Developmental Aspects of the Digestive System and Metabolism

! Later middle-age problems
o Obesity
o Diabetes mellitus
! Activity of the digestive tract in old age
o Fewer digestive juices
o Peristalsis slows
o Diverticulosis and gastrointestinal cancers are more common

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