THE DIGESTIVE

SYSTEM
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Functions of the Digestive System

 Ingestion or the taking in of food

 Digestion of the breaking down the food
 Absorption of the digested food for distribution to
body cells thus providing nutrients
 Excretion or the elimination from the body of
indigestible substances that cannot be absorbed
ORGANS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
 Histology of the Digestive System

The GI Tract or the alimentary canal is composed to four tunics:

 Mucosa – innermost lining of the canal consisting of mucous
membrane attached to a thin layer of visceral muscle
 submucosa – consist of loose connective tissue that binds the
mucosa to the muscularis
 muscularis – of the mouth, pharynx and esophagus consist of
skeletal muscle allowing voluntary act of swallowing while the
rest of the tract is consist of smooth muscle having involuntary
contractions for food breakdown physically mixing it with other
digestive secretions
 serosa or adventitia – outermost layer consisting of serous
membrane made up of connective tissue and epithelial tissue (
visceral peritoneum)
Peritoneum
 The peritoneum is a serous membrane that lines the
abdominal cavity and covers the organs.
 Mesenteries are double layers of peritoneum that extend
from the body wall to many of the abdominal organs.
 Retroperitoneal organs are located behind the parietal
peritoneum.
 General Organization of the Digestive System

1. Oral Cavity ( Buccal cavity), Pharynx, and

Esophagus
 Hard Palate/Soft Palate – roof of the oral cavity
 Uvula – swallowing process and prevents food from backing up
the nasal cavity
 Lips and cheeks - involved in mastication and speech
 Tongue - involved in speech, taste, mastication, and swallowing.
Has skeletal muscles for movement and speech. Upper portion is
covered with papillae and taste buds
 Teeth - there are 32 permanent teeth, including incisors, canines,
premolars, and molars. Each tooth consists of a crown, neck, and
root.
 made of dentin that enclose the pulp cavity
 responsible for Mastication or the tearing and breaking down of
food
MOUTH, BUCCAL CAVITY, OR ORAL
CAVITY
 Salivary glands - produce serous and mucous
secretions. The three pairs of large salivary glands are
the parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands.
 - saliva is 99.5% water providing medium in dissolving
food
 - remaining 0.5% consist of solutes
 Amylase in saliva starts starch digestion.
 HCO3 and PO4 keep saliva at slightly acidic pH at
6.35-6.85
 Mucin provides lubrication
 Lysozyme destroys bacteria thus protecting mucous
membrane from infection and teeth from possible
decay
PHARYNX
 The pharynx consists of the nasopharynx, oropharynx,
and laryngopharynx
 Begins the process of swallowing or deglutition
Deglutition
 voluntary phase of deglutition - a bolus of food is
moved by the tongue from the oral cavity to the
pharynx.
 pharyngeal phase of deglutition, - the soft palate
closes the nasopharynx, and the epiglottis closes the
opening into the larynx and then moved the bolus to
the esophagus.
 esophageal phase of deglutition, - a wave of
constriction (peristalsis) moves the food down the
esophagus to the stomach.
 Esophagus
 The esophagus connects the pharynx to the stomach. The
upper and lower esophageal sphincters regulate
movement.
 About 10” long and passes through the mediastinum then
to the diaphragm
 Secretes mucus and transport food to the stomach
 Food is moved via peristalsis that push food to the
stomach
ESOPHAGUS
2. Stomach
 The stomach has a cardiac opening from the esophagus
and a pyloric opening into the duodenum.
 The wall of the stomach consists of three muscle layers:
longitudinal, circular, and oblique.
Divided into 4 parts
 Cardia – surround gastroesophageal sphincter
 Fundus – rounded portion above and to the left of the
cardia
 body – below the fundus
 pylorus or antrum – narrow inferior region that
connects with the duodenum of the small intestine via
the pyloric sphincter
 Gastric glands produce mucus, hydrochloric acid, pepsin,
gastric, and intrinsic factor.
STOMACH
Secretion of the Stomach
 Mucus protects the stomach lining
 Hydrochloric acid kills microorganism and activates
pepsin.
 Pepsin starts protein digestion
 Intrinsic factor aids in vitamin B12 absorption
 Gastin helps regulate stomach secretions and movements.
 Regulation of Stomach
Secretions
 cephalic phase- the stomach secretions are initiated by
the sight, smell, taste, or thought of food.
 gastric phase - partially digested proteins or distention
of the stomach also promotes secretion.
 intestinal phase - acidic chime in the duodenum
stimulates neuronal reflexes and the secretion of
hormones that induce and then inhibit gastric secretions.
Secretin, gastric inhibitory polypeptide, and
cholecystokinin inhibit gastric secretion.
MOVEMENT IN THE STOMACH
 Mixing waves mix the stomach contents with the
stomach secretion to form chime.
 Peristaltic waves move the chyme into the duodenum
 3. Small Intestine
Major portion of absorption and digestion occurs in the
small intestine
 Approximately 21 ft long and with 1” diameter
 the small intestine is divided into the:
 duodenum – 10” long and the shortest part that originates
from the pyloric sphincter and joins the jejunum.
 jejunum – 8 ft long extending to the ileum
 ileum. – 12 ft and joins the large intestine at the ileocecal
valve
SMALL INTESTINE
 Circular folds, villi, and microvilli greatly increase the
surface area of the intestinal lining
 Lined with pits know as the intestinal glands or
crypts of Liberkuhn to supplement the bulk of the
digestive enzymes secreted by the liver and pancreas
SECRETION OF THE SMALL INTESTINE
 Mucus protect against digestive enzymes and stomach
acids.
 Chemical or tactile irritation, vagal stimulation, and
secretion stimulate intestinal secretion.
 Goblet cells and duodenal glands produced
mucus to protect the walls of the small intestine
from being digested by enzymes and neutralizes the
acid found in CHYME
Movement in the Small Intestine
 Segmental contractions occur over short distances
and mix the intestinal contains.
 Peristaltic contractions occur the length of the
intestine and chyme through the intestine.
Absorption in the Small Intestine
 Most absorption occurs in the duodenum and
jejunum. ( 80
4. Liver
 One of the largest organs of the digestive system
 Weighs approximately 4 lbs
 It receives blood from then hepatic artery and the
hepatic portal vein.
 Divided into 2 principal lobes : Right lobe and Left
lobe
 Branches of the hepatic artery and hepatic portal
vein empty into hepatic sinusoids, which empty
into a central vein in the center each lobe. Then
central veins empty into hepatic veins, which exit
the liver.
 The liver is divided into lobules with portal triads at
the corners. Portal triads contain branches of the
hepatic portals vein, hepatic artery; and hepatic
duct.
 Hepatic cords, formed by hepatocytes, from the
substance of each lobule. A bile caniculus, between the
cells of each cord, joins the hepatic duct system.
 Bile leaves the liver through the hepatic duct system.
The right and left hepatic ducts joins to from the
common hepatic duct. The gallbladder stores bile.
Then cystic duct joins the common hepatic duct to
form the common bile duct. Then common bile duct
joins the pancreatic duct and empties into the
duodenum.
ANATOMY OF LIVER AND GALL BLADDER
Right Upper Quadrant
Colon, Intestine and Rectum
Left Upper Quadrant
Right Lower Quadrant
 Functions of the Liver
 manufactures anti coagulant ( heparin) and other plasma
CHON that are involve in blood clotting mechanisms
 Kudffer cells of the liver phagocytose certain bacteria and
old, worn out WBC and RBC
 Liver contains enzymes that either breakdown poisons or
transform them into less harmful substances
 produces bile, which contains bile salts that emulsify fats.
 stores and processes nutrients, produces new molecules.
(reserve nutrients)
 Liver stores glycogen, copper, iron, as well as Vit ADEK
5. Pancreas
 the pancreas is an endocrine and exocrine gland. Its
endocrine function is to control blood nutrient levels. Its
exocrine function is to produce bicarbonate ions and
digestive enzymes.
 Has a head, body and tail
 Secretes insulin and glucagons to control blood sugar
levels
Function of the Pancreas
 The pancreas produces bicarbonate ions and digestive
enzymes.
 Acidic chyme stimulates the release of watery
bicarbonate solution that neutralizes acidic chyme. Fatty
acid and amino acid duodenum stimulate the release of
pancreatic enzymes.
PANCREAS
6. Large Intestine
 5 ft in length and 2.5” in diameter
Has 4 principal regions:
 ceccum – 2-3” long blind pouch hanging just below the ileocecal
valve. Attached to its closed end is the Vermiform or the
Appendix ( 3” in length)
 colon – ascending, transverse and descending, sigmoid
 rectum – 7-8” of the GIT. It is a straight tube that ends at the canal.
Anterior to the sacrum and coccyx
 anal canal – 1” long surrounded by an internal anal sphincter
(smooth Muscle) and an external anal sphincter (skeletal muscle).
Mechanical movements in the large intestine:
 peristalsis at the rate of 3-12 contractions per minute
 mass peristalsis occurring 3-4x a day
 haustral churning
LARGE INTESTINES
Functions of the Large Intestine
 The function the large intestine is feces production and
water absorption.
 In the colon, chyme is converted to feces.
 Mass movement occur three to four times a day.
 Defecation is the elimination of feces. Reflex activity to
moves feces through the internal anal sphincter. Voluntary
activity regulates movement through the external anal
sphincter.
Digestion, Absorption, and Transport
 Digestion is the chemical breakdown of organic
molecules into their component parts. After the
molecules are digested, some diffuse through the
intestinal wall; others must be transported across the
intestinal wall.
CARBOHYDRATES
 Polysaccharides are split into disaccharides by
salivary pancreatic amylases.
 Disaccharides are broken down to
monosaccharides by disaccharides on the surface
on the intestinal epithelium.
 Monosaccharides are absorbed by active
transport into the blood and carried by the hepatic
portal vein to the liver.
 Glucose is carried in the blood and enters most
cells by facilitated diffusion. Insulin increases the
rate of glucose transport into most cells.
LIPIDS
 Bile salts emulsify lipids.
 Pancreatic lipase breaks down lipids. The
breakdown products aggregate with bile salts to
form micelles.
 Micelles come into contact with the intestinal
epithelium, and their contents diffuse into the cells,
where they are packaged and released into the
lacteals.
 Lipids are stored in adipose tissue and in the
liver, which release the lipids into the blood when
energy sources are needed elsewhere in the body.
PROTEINS
 Proteins are split into small polypeptides by
enzymes secreted by the stomach and pancreas,
and on the surface of intestinal cells.
 Peptidases on the surface of intestinal epithelial
cells complete the digestive process.
 Amino acids are absorbed into intestinal
epithelial cell.
 Amino acids are actively transported into cells
under the influence of growth hormone and
insulin.
 Amino acids are used to build new proteins or
as a source of energy.
Water and Minerals
 Water can move either direction across the intestinal
wall, depending on osmotic condition. Approximately 99%
of the water entering the intestine is absorbed. Most
minerals are actively transported across the intestinal
wall.
 Effects of Aging in the Digestive system and
related diseases

 With advancing age, the layers of the  Mumps

GI tract thin, and the blood supply
decreases.  Cavities and tooth
decay
 There is also decrease mucus
secretion and decreased motility in the  Hiatal hernia
GI tract.  Ulcers
 There is also a gradual decline in the  Hepatitis
defenses of the digestive tract, leaving  Cirrhosis
it more sensitive to infection and the  Hemmorhoids
effects of the toxic agents.
 Appendicitis
 Enamel and gingiva are reduced with
age, exposing dentin, which may  diarrhea
become painful and effect eating habits.