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    Digestion and Absorption

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    Sheehan Mathur
    The digestive system breaks down food through mechanical and chemical digestion. Mechanical digestion begins in the mouth through chewing, while chemical digestion begins as enzymes in saliva break down carbohydrates. Food then moves to the stomach where proteins are broken down by acid and enzymes. In the small intestine, nutrients are further broken down by enzymes from the pancreas and liver and absorbed through the intestinal walls. Undigested waste then passes to the large intestine where water is absorbed before elimination.

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    Digestion and Absorption

    Uploaded by

    Sheehan Mathur
    57 views5 pages
    The digestive system breaks down food through mechanical and chemical digestion. Mechanical digestion begins in the mouth through chewing, while chemical digestion begins as enzymes in saliva break down carbohydrates. Food then moves to the stomach where proteins are broken down by acid and enzymes. In the small intestine, nutrients are further broken down by enzymes from the pancreas and liver and absorbed through the intestinal walls. Undigested waste then passes to the large intestine where water is absorbed before elimination.

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    The digestive system breaks down food through mechanical and chemical digestion. Mechanical digestion begins in the mouth through chewing, while chemical digestion begins as enzymes in saliva break down carbohydrates. Food then moves to the stomach where proteins are broken down by acid and enzymes. In the small intestine, nutrients are further broken down by enzymes from the pancreas and liver and absorbed through the intestinal walls. Undigested waste then passes to the large intestine where water is absorbed before elimination.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as docx, pdf, or txt
    57 views5 pages

    Digestion and Absorption

    Uploaded by

    Sheehan Mathur
    The digestive system breaks down food through mechanical and chemical digestion. Mechanical digestion begins in the mouth through chewing, while chemical digestion begins as enzymes in saliva break down carbohydrates. Food then moves to the stomach where proteins are broken down by acid and enzymes. In the small intestine, nutrients are further broken down by enzymes from the pancreas and liver and absorbed through the intestinal walls. Undigested waste then passes to the large intestine where water is absorbed before elimination.

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    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as docx, pdf, or txt
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    Digestion and Absorption

    Digestive system of a human being consists of alimentary canal and its associated glands.

    Alimentary Canal
    The alimentary canal has an anterior opening from the mouth and it opens out posteriorly
    from the anus. The mouth leads to the buccal cavity or the oral cavity. The oral cavity has
    teeth and a muscular tongue, each tooth is embedded in the jaw bone, this type of
    attachment is called Thecodont. Majority of mammals form two sets of teeth during their
    span of life, a set of milk or deciduous teeth and permanent teeth, such organisms are called
    diphyodont.
    A fully grown adult human has 32 total teeth, of four different types namely incisors,
    canines, molars and premolars. The hard chewing surface of the teeth help in mastication of
    food. The tongue is a muscular organ which is attached to the floor of the oral cavity by the
    frenulum. The upper surface of the tongue has small pores called papillae, some of which
    also bear taste buds. The oral cavity leads to the pharynx which is a common passage to
    both food and air. The esophagus and the trachea(wind pipe) open into pharynx. A
    cartilaginous flap called epiglottis prevents entry of food into glottis during swallowing.
    The esophagus opens into a J-shaped bag called stomach. A muscular sphincter regulates
    the opening of esophagus into stomach called the gastro-oesophageal sphincter. The
    stomach has four major parts, the opening part called cardiac portion, a fundic region, body
    and a pyloric region which opens into the small intestine.
    Small intestine is also distinguishable into three regions, a C shaped duodenum, a long-
    coiled portion called jejunum and a highly coiled portion called ileum. The opening of
    stomach into small intestine is regulated by pyloric sphincter.
    Ileum opens into large intestine, it consists of caecum, colon and rectum. Caecum is a small
    blind sac which hosts some friendly symbiotic microorganisms. A narrow finger-like tubular
    projection called vermiform appendix is a vestigial organ which arises from caecum. The
    caecum opens into colon which is divided into four parts- an ascending, transverse,
    descending and sigmoid colon. The descending part of the colon opens into the rectum
    which finally opens into the anus.
    The walls of the alimentary canal from mouth to anus possess four layers- serosa,
    muscularis, sub-mucosa and mucosa. Serosa is the outermost layer made up of
    mesothelium(epithelium of visceral organs). Muscularis is formed by smooth muscles,
    usually arranged in an outer-longitudinal and inner-circular layer. The small finger-like
    structures called villi are found on mucosa. The villi are supplied with large network of
    capillaries and lymph vessels called the lacteal. Mucosal epithelium has goblet cells which
    secrete mucus for lubrication. Mucosa also forms glands in the stomach and crypts in
    between the base of the villi, it is also called the crypts of Lieberkühn.
    Digestive Glands
    The digestive glands included with the digestive system are salivary glands, liver and
    pancreas.
    Saliva is mainly produced in three pairs of salivary glands, the parotids(cheek), sub-
    maxillary(lower jaw) and sub-lingual(below the tongue).
    Liver is the largest gland of the body weighing 1.2-1.5kg, it is situated in the abdominal
    cavity just below the diaphragm and two lobes. The hepatic lobules are the structural and
    functional unit of liver, the hepatic cells are covered in form of cords. Each lobule is
    connected by a thin tissue lobule sheath called the Glisson’s capsule. The bile secreted by
    hepatic cells passes through the hepatic ducts and is stored and concentrated in a muscular
    sac called the gall bladder. The duct of gall bladder along with the bile duct form the
    common bile duct. The bile duct and pancreatic duct open together into duodenum as the
    common hepato-pancreatic duct which is guarded by the sphincter of Oddi.
    The pancreas is an organ situated between the limbs of C shaped duodenum. The exocrine
    portion secretes pancreatic juice containing enzymes and the endocrine portion secretes
    hormones called insulin and glucagon.

    Digestion of Food
    The buccal cavity performs two major functions, mastication of food and facilitation of
    swallowing. The teeth and the tongue with the help of saliva masticate and mix the food
    thoroughly. The saliva contains electrolytes such as Na+, K+, Cl-, HNO3-, some enzymes,
    salivary amylase and lysozyme. The chemical process of digestion starts in the mouth itself,
    by the hydrolytic action of carbohydrate splitting enzyme, the salivary amylase. About 30%
    of the starch is hydrolyzed here and forms a disaccharide-maltose. Lysozyme acts as an anti-
    bacterial agent in the saliva. The mucus in saliva helps in lubrication of food and makes it
    into a bolus. The bolus then goes into the pharynx and to the esophagus by swallowing or
    deglutition. The bolus passes down the esophagus by successive muscular contractions
    called peristalsis.
    The gastro-esophageal sphincter controls entry of food into stomach. The mucosa in the
    stomach has gastric glands, the three types of cells in the gastric glands are:

     Mucus neck cells that secrete mucus.


     Peptic or chief cells secrete proenzyme pepsinogen
     Parietal or oxyntic cells which secrete HCl and intrinsic factor.
    The stomach stores food for 4-5 hours. The food mixes thoroughly with acidic gastric juice of
    stomach by churning muscular walls which forms the chyme. The proenzyme pepsinogen
    gets converted into pepsin when it comes in contact with HCl. Pepsin converts proteins into
    peptides and proteoses. The mucus and bicarbonates play an important role in lubrication.
    Rennin is a proteolytic enzyme found in gastric juice, it is only present in infants, it helps in
    digestion of milk.
    Various movements take place in the muscularis layer of the small intestine which helps in
    mixing of food with various secretions in the intestine and thereby help in digestion. The
    bile, pancreatic juice and intestinal juice are the secretions found in the small intestine.
    Pancreatic juice and bile are released through the hepato-pancreatic duct. The pancreatic
    juice contains inactive enzymes- trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, procarboxypeptidaes,
    amylases, lipases, and nucleases. Trypsinogen is activated by an enzyme, enterokinase,
    secreted by the intestinal mucosa into active trypsin, which in turn activates the other
    enzymes in the pancreatic juice. The bile released into the duodenum contains bile pigments
    (bilirubin and bili-verdin), bile salts, cholesterol and phospholipids but no enzymes. Bile
    helps in emulsification of fats, i.e., breaking down of the fats into very small micelles. Bile
    also activates lipases.
    The intestinal epithelium contains goblet cells, which secrete mucus, the secretions brush
    border cells of mucosa along with secretions of the goblet cells constitute the intestinal juice
    called succus entericus. This juice contains a lot of enzymes such as disaccharides(maltase),
    dipeptidases, lipases, nucleosidases, etc. The mucus along with bicarbonates from the
    pancreas protects the intestinal mucosa from acid and provides an alkaline medium for
    enzymatic activities.
     Proteins, proteoses, and peptones(partially hydrolyzed proteins) in the chyme
    reaching the intestine are acted upon by proteolytic enzymes:
    Proteins trypsin/chymotrypsin
    Peptones ---------------------------- Dipeptides
    Proteoses carboxypeptidase

     Carbohydrates in the chyme are hydrolyzed by pancreatic amylase into


    disaccharides.
    Polysaccharides(starch)-----------Amylase------------  Disaccharides

     Fats are broken down by lipases with the help of bile into bi- and monoglycerides.
    Fats-------Lipases----- Diglycerides---------------Monoglycerides

     Nucleases in the pancreatic juice acts on nucleic acids to form nucleotides and
    nucleosides.
    Nucleic acids--------Nucleases------ Nucleotides -----------Nucleosides
    The enzymes in the succus entericus act on the end products of above reactions to form
    respective simple absorbable form.

    No significant digestive activity occurs in the large intestine. The functions of large intestine
    are:
    (i) absorption of some water, minerals and certain drugs;
    (ii) secretion of mucus which helps in adhering the waste (undigested)
    particles together and lubricating it for an easy passage. The undigested, unabsorbed
    substances called faeces enters into the caecum of the large intestine through ileo-caecal
    valve, which prevents the back flow of the faecal matter. It is temporarily stored in the rectum
    till defaecation.

    Absorption of Digested Products


    Absorption is the process by which the end products of digestion pass through the intestinal
    mucosa into the blood or lymph. It is carried out by passive, active or facilitated transport
    mechanisms. Small amounts of monosaccharides like glucose, amino acids and some
    electrolytes like chloride ions are generally absorbed by simple diffusion. The passage of
    these substances into the blood depends upon the concentration gradients. Transport of water
    depends upon the osmotic gradient. Active transport occurs against the concentration gradient
    and hence requires energy.
    Various nutrients like amino acids, monosaccharides like glucose, electrolytes like Na+ are
    absorbed into the blood by this mechanism.
    Fatty acids and glycerol being insoluble, cannot be absorbed into the blood. They are first
    incorporated into small droplets called micelles which move into the intestinal mucosa. They
    are re-formed into very small protein coated fat globules called the chylomicrons which are
    transported into the lymph vessels (lacteals) in the villi. These lymph vessels ultimately
    release the absorbed substances into the blood stream.
    Absorption of substances takes place in different parts of the alimentary canal, like mouth,
    stomach, small intestine and large intestine. However, maximum absorption occurs in the
    small intestine.
    The absorbed substances finally reach the tissues which utilise them for their activities. This
    process is called assimilation.
    The digestive wastes, solidified into coherent faeces in the rectum initiate a neural reflex
    causing an urge or desire for its removal. The egestion of faeces to the outside through the
    anal opening (defaecation) is a voluntary process and is carried out by a mass peristaltic
    movement.
    Disorders of the Digestive System
    1. Jaundice: The liver is affected; skin and eyes turn yellow due to the deposit of bile
    pigments.
    2. Vomiting: It is the ejection of stomach contents through the mouth. This reflex action
    is controlled by the vomit centre in the medulla. A feeling of nausea precedes
    vomiting.
    3. Diarrhoea: The abnormal frequency of bowel movement and increased liquidity of the
    faecal discharge is known as diarrhoea. It reduces the absorption of food.
    4. Constipation: In constipation, the faeces are retained within the colon as the bowel
    movements occur irregularly.
    5. Indigestion: In this condition, the food is not properly digested leading to a feeling of
    fullness. The causes of indigestion are inadequate enzyme secretion, anxiety, food
    poisoning, over eating, and spicy food.
    6. PEM: Dietary deficiencies of protein and total food calories are widespread in many
    countries of Asia and South-east Asia, South America, West and central Africa.
    Protein-energy malnutrition(PEM) may affect a lot of people during famine, drought
    and political turmoil. PEM affects children and infants and it can lead to Marasmus
    and Kwashiorkor.
    Marasmus is produced by a simultaneous deficiency of proteins and calories. It is
    found in infants less than a year in age, if mother’s milk is replaced too early by other
    foods which are poor in both proteins and caloric value. In Marasmus, protein
    deficiency impairs growth and replacement of tissue proteins; extreme emaciation of
    the body and thinning of limbs results, the skin becomes dry, thin and wrinkled.
    Growth rate and body weight decline considerably.
    Kwashiorkor is produced by protein deficiency unaccompanied by calorie deficiency.
    It results from the replacement of mother’s milk by a high calorie low protein diet in a
    child more than one year in age. Like marasmus, kwashiorkor shows wasting of
    muscles, thinning of limbs, failure of growth and brain development.

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